CHAPTER 1 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
INTRODUCTION
Electrostatics deals with the forces, fields and
potentials which arise due to static charges. It
was Thales of Miletus who first observed that
when amber is rubbed with wool or silk,
amber (and also wool) acquires the property of
attracting light uncharged particles like pieces
of paper, dry leaves, dust particles etc. On
rubbing amber with wool, both amber and
wool are said to be electrified or electrically
charged. In another example, when glass is
rubbed with silk, they also exhibit similar
properties. Through experiments, it is shown
that there are two types of charges named as
positive and negative by Benjamin Franklin.
Further it is found that like charges repel each
other and unlike charges attract each other.
Thus charge is an intrinsic property of a body
by virtue of which it attracts another body
having charge of opposite nature and repels a
body having charge of same nature.
GOLD - LEAF ELECTROSCOPE
Metal knob
Glass jar
Conducting rod
Gold leaves
A simple arrangement to detect the charge on a
body is the gold-leaf electroscope. It consists
of a vertical conducting rod with a metal knob
attached at the top end and enclosed in a glass
box as shown. At the bottom end, two thin
gold leaves are attached. When a charged body
touches the metal knob, the charge on the body
flows to the gold leaves and the leaves diverge
due to repulsion. The degree of divergence
shows the amount of charge on the body.
NOTE: Normally, any object is electrically neutral. This
means the net positive charge on the body is exactly
balance by the net negative charge. Here the positive
charge is associated with nucleus (protons) of the atoms
and negative charge is associated with the electrons. As
protons cannot be removed from the atoms, it is the
removal or addition of electrons makes a body charged.
In other words, a charged body has either excess of
electrons or deficiency of electrons. Thus a body with
deficiency of electrons is said to be positively charged
SPUC (Main)
BY PRASHANTH R
and a body with excess of electrons is said to be
negatively charged.
CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
The substances which readily conduct
electricity through them are called the
conductors. The conductors have large number
of free electrons which are moving randomly
inside the material. Conductors offer very low
resistance to the flow of charges (electrons).
Metals, living bodies, earth and electrolytes
are conductors. The substances which do not
conduct electricity through them are called the
non-conductors or insulators. These materials
do not contain free electrons and offer very
high resistance to the flow of charges
(electrons). Examples are glass, plastic, wood
and nylon.
When a conductor is charged, the charged is
quickly distributed over the surface of the
conductor either uniformly or non-uniformly
depending on whether the conducting body has
uniform curvature or non-uniform curvature.
When an insulator is given added with some
charge, the charge remains localised and does
not get distributed over the surface of the
body.
When a charged body is connected to the earth
through a conducting wire, the excess charge
on the body is transferred to the earth. This is
known as earthing or grounding. If a
positively charged body is earthed, the
electrons flow from the earth to the body
neutralising the body. If a negatively charged
body is earthed, the excess electrons flow from
the body to the earth neutralising the body.
NOTE: Earth can be taken to be at zero potential as the
addition or removal of any amount of charge from the
earth does not change its electrical state.
CHARGING A BODY
Charging a body means addition of electrons
to the body or removal of electros from the
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CHAPTER 1 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
body. This can be done by three different
methods namely friction, conduction and
induction.
1. CHARGING BY FRICTION
When two bodies (like glass rod and silk) are
rubbed with each other, at the points of contact
heat is generated. The electrons are
transformed from one body to another. The
body which loses electrons becomes positively
charged and the body which gains the
electrons becomes negatively charged. In this
method, both bodies are charged, one with
positive charge and the other with equal
negative charge.
2. CHARGING BY CONDUCTION (BY
CONTACT)
(i) (ii) (iii)
Consider a conducting sphere mounted on an
insulating stand as shown in figure (i). Now
bring a charged body (say positively charged)
in contact with the sphere as shown in figure
(ii). Some of the charge on the charged body
flows to the sphere. Then remove the charged
body far away from the sphere. Now the
charge on the sphere gets distributed over the
surface of the sphere uniformly as shown in
figure (iii). The nature of the charge on the
sphere is same as on the charged body.
3. CHARGING BY CONDUCTION
A B A B
(i) (ii)
A B A B
(iii) (iv)
SPUC (Main)
BY PRASHANTH R
Consider two conducting uncharged spheres A
and B mounted on insulating stands and in
contact with each other as shown in figure (i).
Now bring a charged rod (say positively
charged) near A but not in contact with A as
shown in figure (ii). The positive charge on the
rod attracts free electrons in the spheres to near
end of A. The excess positive charge remains
on the rear end of B as shown in figure (ii).
The accumulation of electrons on A and
positive charge on B increases till an
equilibrium state is reached. The electrons
accumulated on the left surface of A will repel
the other electrons. Under equilibrium state,
the force of attraction due to the positively
charged rod is balanced by the force of
repulsion between the electrons. This process
is called the induction of charges. The
charges on A and B remain accumulated as
long as the rod is held near A. Now separate
the spheres and the rod is taken far away from
the spheres. Then the charges on A and B
redistribute themselves uniformly as shown in
figure (iv).
NOTE: In the process of charging by induction, the
charged rod does not lose any charge whereas in the
process of charging by conduction (by contact), the
charged rod loses some charge.
BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC
CHARGE
1. Additivity of charges:
The net charge in a system is the algebraic
sum of charges on different parts of the
system.
If a system contains charges +q1, +q2, -q3, -q4,
------- +qn, then the total charge on the system
is given by
q = +q1 + q2 − q3 − q4 − − − − + qn
The additivity property of charge is from the
fact that charge is scalar.
2. Charge is conserved
The net charge in an isolated system
remains constant. Or the charge is neither
created nor destroyed but transferred from one
body to another body.
For example, neutron is electrically neutral.
When a neutron decays into proton and
electron, the net of the system is still zero, as
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CHAPTER 1 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS BY PRASHANTH R

the equal and opposite charges of proton and 1

system, for vacuum k = , where o =
electron add up to zero. 4 o
8.854 x 10-12 Fm-1 or C2N-1m-2 is called
3. Quantisation of charge
absolute permittivity of vacuum or air or free
The charge is quantised. The net charge on a
space. Then Coulomb’s law is written as
body is the integral multiple of charge of
1 q1q2
electron. If n electrons are added to or F= ------- (1)
removed from a body and e is the charge of an 4 o r 2
electron, then the net charge on the body is 1
given by q = ne , where positive sign Here the value of = 9  109 Nm 2C −1
4 o
indicates that n electrons are removed from the
Definition of SI unit of charge (coulomb)
body and negative sign indicates that n
electron are added to the body. If q1 = q 2 = 1C and r =1m, then eq. (1)
becomes
NOTE: The concept of quantisation of charge was first 1C  1C
suggested by Michel Faraday through the laws of F = 9  109 Nm 2C −2 = 9  109 N
electrolysis which was experimentally verified by
1m 2
Millikan through his oil-drop experiment. Thus 1 C of charge is that charge which, when
placed at a distance of 1 m from a similar
SOME OTHER PROPERTIES OF CHARGES charge in vacuum, experiences a repulsive
1. Charge is a scalar. force of magnitude 9 x 109 N.
2. Excess charge given to a conductor always reside on
the outer surface of the conductor.
NOTE: The dimensional formula for permittivity
3. Charge is unaffected by motion.
4. The flow of charges constitutes electric current. is [M-1L-3T4A2].
5. A charged body attracts light uncharged bodies like
pieces of paper, dry leaves, dust particles etc. COULOMB’S LAW IN VECTOR FORM
Consider two point charges q1 and q 2
DIFFERENCS BETWEEN MASS AND CHARGE
Mass Charge separated by a distance measured r in vacuum.
1. Mass is always Charge is either positive The electrical force between two point charges
positive. or negative. q1 and q 2 in vacuum is written in vector form
2. Mass is affected by Charge is not affected by
 
speed. speed. 1 q1q2 r
as F = rˆ -------- (4), where rˆ = 
4 o r 2
3. There can be mas There can be no charge
without charge without mass r
is the unit vector measured in the direction of
COULOMB’S LAW

r.
Statement: The electrostatic force of
attraction or repulsion between any two point IMPORTANT POINTS
charges is directly proportional to the product 1. Coulomb’s law obeys Newton’s third law motion. i.e,.
F12 = - F21
of magnitude of the charges and inversely
2. The electrical force between two charges is either
proportional to the square of the distance attractive or repulsive.
between the charges. 3. The electrical force between two point charges is a
Explanation: Consider two point charges q1 central force as it acts along the line the joining the
charges.
and q 2 in vacuum separated by a distance r. 4. The force between two charges is not affected by the
presence of third charge.
Then the magnitude of electric force F
5. On introducing a dielectric medium (an insulator like
q1q2
between the charges is given by F = k glass) between the charges, the magnitude of the force
r2 between the charges always decreases.
Where the value of proportionality constant k FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE
depends on the system of units and the nature CHARGES (PRINCIPLE OF
of the medium between the charges. In SI SUPERPOSITION)
The resultant force on a charge due to multiple
charges (system of charges) can be found

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CHAPTER 1 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS BY PRASHANTH R

using the principle of superposition. The The electric field produced by the charge Q at
resultant force on any charge due to a number a distance r is given by
 
of other charges is the vector sum of forces on 1 Q r
E= rˆ -------- (5), where rˆ =  is the
that charge due to the other charges, taken 4 o r 2 r
one at a time. The force between any two 
charges is not affected by the presence of the unit vector measured in the direction of r . The
other charges. This is known as the principle force experienced by the test charge q in terms
 
of superposition. of electric field is given by F = qE ------- (6)
F1 F13 Definition of electric field: The electric field
r12 q2 at a point due to a charge is defined as the
force experienced by unit positive charge
F12 q1 placed at that point.
r13 In general, if a test charge q experiences a
force F at a point due to a source charge Q, the
q3 electric field at that point is given by

Consider a system of two three charges q1 , q 2  F
 E = ------ (7)
and q3 . Let r12 be the distance between q1 and q

q2 and r13 is the distance between q1 and q3. The SI unit of electric field is NC-1 and its
dimensional formula is [MLT-3A-1]. Electric
Let the forces on q1 due to q 2 and q3 be F12 and
field is a vector.
F13 respectively, which are given by
 1 q1q2  1 q1q3 Direction of electric field:
F12 = ˆ
r and F13 = rˆ13 .
4 o r12 4 o r132
2 12
(i) In case of positive source charge, the
electric field is directed away (radially
Then the net force F1 on q1 is the vector sum
outwards) from it.
of F12 and F13. E
   1 q1q2 1 q1q3
F1 = F12 + F13 = rˆ12 + rˆ13
4 o r12
2
4 o r132 (ii) In case of negative source charge, the
In general, the net force on q1 due to n charges electric field is directed towards (radially
inwards) the charge.
is given by
     E
F1 = F12 + F13 + F14 + − − − − − + F1n
 1  q1q2 q1q3 q1qn 
F1 =  2 rˆ12 + 2 rˆ13 + − − − − + 2 rˆ1n  IMPORTANT POINTS
4 o  r12 r13 r1n  (i) Though electric field is expressed in terms of test

 F
charge q as E = , the electric field at a point dos not
ELECTRIC FIELD q
The space surrounding a charge where the depend on the magnitude of the test charge. This is
effect of that charge can be observed is called because, as magnitude of q increases the force F on it
the electric field. Here the effect means if also increases proportionally so that the ratio F/q remains
constant. Hence the electric field at a point depends on
another charge is placed near the first charge,
the magnitude of the source charge Q and the distance of
the second charge experiences a fore due to the the point from the source charge.
first charge. Suppose we consider a charge Q (ii) The electric field around a charge exists everywhere
at a point in free space. Let a test charge q be in three dimensional space.
brought to a point P at a distance r from Q. (iii) The electric field due to a charge has the same
magnitude at all the points equidistant from the charge
The charge Q exerts a force F on test charge q. with all the points lying on an imaginary sphere and the
In the mean while the test charge q also exerts charge being at the centre of the sphere. Thus the electric
the same force F on Q but in opposite field has spherical symmetry.
direction. The force on q is due to the electric
field produced by Q and vice versa.

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CHAPTER 1 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS BY PRASHANTH R

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A SYSTEM The pattern of electric field lines in case of
OF CHARGES isolated charges and system of charges are as
As electric field is a vector, it obeys the shown below.
principle of superposition. The resultant
electric field at a point due to a system of
charges is the vector sum of electric fields due
to individual charges. The electric field
produced by one charge is not affected by any
other charges.
E2 E1
r3 (i) (ii)
E3 P q3

r1 r2 (iii)

q1 q2

Consider a system of three charges q1 , q 2 and

  
q3 . Let P be a point at distances r1 , r2 and r3
(iv)
respectively. If the E1, E2 and E3 be the
electric fields due to q1 , q 2 and q3 respectively,
then the resultant electric field at P is given by
   
E = E1 + E2 + E3
(i) In case of an isolated positive charge, the
 1 q1 1 q2 1 q3
E= rˆ + rˆ + rˆ3 electric field lines are directed radially
4 o r12 1
4 o r22 2
4 o r32 outwards as shown in figure (i).
In general, the net field electric field at a point (ii) In case of an isolated negative charge, the
due to n charges is given by electric field lines are directed radially inwards
as shown in figure (ii).
 1  q1 q2 qn 
E=  2 rˆ1 + 2 rˆ2 − − − − + 2 rˆn  (iii) In case of system of two like (say
4 o  r1 r2 rn  positive) charges, the field lines tend to exert
NOTE: The concept of electric field was lateral stress on each other which leads to the
proposed by Michel Faraday to explain the force of repulsion between the charges as
interaction between the charges. Two charges shown in figure (iii).
exert force on each other through their electric (iv) In case of system of two unlike charges,
fields. The force on one charge is due to the the field lines tend to contract lengthwise
field produced by the other charge. which leads to the force of attraction between
the charges as shown in figure (iv).
ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
The concept of electric field lines was PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC FIELD
introduced by Michel Faraday to visualise an LINES
electric field around a charge. An electric field 1. Electric field line originate from positive
line is a curve drawn in an electric filed so charges and terminate at negative charges.
that the tangent drawn to it at any point 2. In a charge-free region, the electric field
represents the direction of electric field at that lines are continuous curves without any
point. brakes.
An electric field line is an imaginary line 3. Electric field lines never form closed loops.
drawn in an electric field along which a unit This property follows from the fact that the
positive charge moves or tends to move. charges can be isolated.

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CHAPTER 1 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
4. Electric field lines never intersect each
other.
Explanation: If two electric field lines
intersect each other, at the point of intersection
two tangents can be drawn. This means the
electric field at this point should have two
values, which is not possible.
SOME OTHER PROPERTIES OF FIELD
LINES
1. Electric field lines exert lateral stress on
each other which results in the force of
repulsion between like charges.
2. Electric field lines tend to contract
lengthwise which results in the force of
attraction between unlike charges.
3. In a uniform electric field, the field lines are
straight, parallel and equally spaced.
4. In a non-uniform electric field, the field
lines are curved.
5. In the region of stronger field, the field lines
are closed spaced or crowded.
6. The electric field lines are always normal to
the surface of a charged conductor.
7. The electric field lines never enter inside a
charged conductor (as the electric field inside
the conductor is zero).
8. In the region of weaker field, the field lines
are far apart.
A B (EA > EB)
ELECTRIC FLUX
The word flux refers to flow of something.
Electric flux refers to the flow of electric field
lines through the given surface.
Electric flux through a surface is defined as
the number of electric field lines passing
normally through the surface.
Electric flux is denoted by. It is a scalar.
SPUC (Main)
BY PRASHANTH R
Relation between electric field and electric
flux
S N
θ E
ΔS
Consider a closed surface S placed in a
uniform electric field E as shown. The surface
is assumed to be divided into a number of
surface elements each of area S. Let the
normal N drawn to one such surface element
make an angle  with the direction of the field
E. The component of electric field along the
normal is E cos. Then the electric flux 
through this surface element is given by
 = (E cos )S = ES cos -------- (8)

Or  = E  S
Electric flux is a scalar and its SI unit is
N-m2-C-1 and its dimensional formula is
[ML3T-3A-1].
The total electric flux through the closed
surface S is the algebraic sum of electric flux
through all the surface elements.
 
i.e,  =   =   S
E
Special cases:
(i) Electric flux through a surface is positive if
 < 90o or the surface encloses positive charge
or electric filed lines are directed away from
the surface (outward flux).
(ii) Electric flux through a surface is negative
if  > 90o or the surface encloses negative
charge or electric filed lines are directed
towards the surface (inward flux).
(iii) Electric flux through a surface is zero if 
= 90o or the surface encloses no charge or the
electric field is parallel to the surface.
(iv) Electric flux through a surface is
maximum if  = 0o or the electric field lines
are normal to the surface.
ELECTRIC DIPOLE
An electric dipole is a combination of two
equal opposite charges separated by a small
distance.
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CHAPTER 1 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS BY PRASHANTH R

An electric dipole consists of two equal Similarly, electric field at M due to the - q is
opposite charges +q and –q separated by a  q 1
given by E− = − pˆ ------ (2)
distance 2a. Equatorial line 4 o (r + a )2
directed along MO, where p̂ is the unit vector
 along the axis directed from –q to +q.
+q p -q
The total field at M is given by
a   
Ea = E+ + E−
Axis 2a
 1 q 1 q
Or Ea = pˆ − pˆ
The distance between the charges is called 4 o (r − a )2
4 o (r + a )2
length of the dipole denoted by 2a. The line
 q  1 1 
joining the charges is called the axis of the Ea =  −  pˆ
dipole. The perpendicular bisector of axis of 4 o  (r − a ) (r + a )2 
2

q  (r + a ) − (r − a ) 
the dipole (a line that passes through the centre  2 2
and bisects the axis) is called the equatorial Ea =   pˆ
line of the dipole. 4 o  (r − a )2 (r + a )2 
 q  r 2 + a 2 + 2ra − r 2 − a 2 + 2ra 
Electric dipole moment (p) Ea =   pˆ
Electric dipole moment of a dipole is defined 4 o  r 2 − a2
2
(  )
as the product of magnitude of either charge
and length of the dipole. It is denoted by p and
 1  q(2a )2r 
is a vector. The dipole moment of an electric Ea =   pˆ
dipole consisting of charges +q and –q (
4 o  r 2 − a 2 2  )
separated by a distance 2a is given by
 
p = q(2a ) ------ (9)
 1  2 pr 
Ea =   pˆ --------- (3)
Direction of dipole moment: Electric dipole (
4 o  r 2 − a 2 )
2

moment is always directed from negative In case of short dipole (where r >> a), we get
charge (-q) to positive charge (+q) of the  
1 2p
dipole. Ea = pˆ ---------- (4)
4 o r 3
ELECTRIC FIELD ON THE AXIS OF AN Clearly, at any point on the axis of a dipole,
ELECTRIC DIPOLE the electric field and dipole moment are in the
 same direction.
E+ M E- p
+q a -q
ELECTRIC FIELD ON THE
r EQUATORIAL LINE OF AN ELECTRIC
2a DIPOLE
r-a
r+a
E+ sinθ E+
Consider an electric dipole consisting of two
M  Ee
charges +q and –q separated by a distance 2a.
 
Let p = q(2a ) be the dipole moment of the r E-
dipole. Consider a point M on the axis of the E- sinθ
dipole at a distance r from its centre O as
shown. Then electric field at M due to the +q 
 1 q 
is given by E+ = pˆ -------- (1) a p
4 o (r − a )2 2a
directed along OM.

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CHAPTER 1 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS BY PRASHANTH R

Consider an electric dipole consisting of two coincide with each other is called the polar
charges +q and –q separated by a distance 2a. molecule.
 
Let p = q(2a ) be the dipole moment of the
dipole. Consider a point M on the equatorial Or the molecule which possesses permanent
line of the dipole at a distance r from its centre dipole moment is called polar molecule.
O as shown. Examples are H2O, HCl, N2O etc.
The electric field at M due to +q is given by
 Non-polar molecules: The molecule in which
1 q
E+ = -------- (1) the centres of positive and negative charges
4 o r + a 2
2
coincide with each other is called non-polar
Similarly, electric field at M due to –q is molecule.
 1 q
E− = -------- (2)
4 o r + a 2
2 Or the molecule which has zero dipole
moment is called non-polar molecule.
The directions of E+ and E- are as shown.
Examples are CO2, H2, O2 etc.
Now, E+ is resolved along the axis and the
normal to the axis as E+ cos and E+ sin
respectively. Similarly, E- is resolved along
the axis and the normal to the axis as E-
cos and E- sin respectively. The components
A polar molecule is a permanent dipole
along the normal cancel each other the
whereas non-polar molecule becomes a dipole
components along the axis add up. Hence, the
(induced dipole) when placed in an external
total electric field M is
 electric field. When placed in uniform electric
Ee = −(E+ cos  + E− cos  ) pˆ field, a polar or non-polar molecule aligns

Ee = −(E+ + E− ) cos  pˆ -------- (3) itself parallel to the field direction as show.

Here negative sign indicates that the field Ee is DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC
opposite to the dipole moment p. FIELD (TORQUE ON A DIPOLE IN
a
From the figure, cos = UNIFORM ELECTRIC FELD)
(r 2
+ a2 )
1/ 2
Consider a permanent dipole consisting of

Now, eq. (3) becomes charges +q and –q with dipole moment p

  1 q 1 q  a placed in uniform electric field E as shown.
Ee = −  + 2
pˆ
 4 o r + a
2 2
4 o r + a  r 2 + a 2
2
( )
1/ 2

F= qE
 1 2qa
Ee = − pˆ
( )
4 o r 2 + a 2 3 / 2

θ r⊥ E
As p = 2qa, we get p
 
1 p θ
Ee = − pˆ -------- (4)
(
4 o r 2 + a 2 )
3/ 2 F = qE

In case of a short dipole (where r >> a), we get Let  be the angle between p and E. The
 
1 p charges +q and –q experience a forceF = qE
Ee = − pˆ --------- (5)
4 o r 3 each but in opposite direction. As the two
Clearly, the electric field at any point on the forces are equal and opposite, the resultant
equatorial line of a dipole is always opposite to force on the dipole is zero. However, the two
the dipole moment. equal and opposite forces constitute a couple
Physical significance of dipoles (Polar and (torque) which tends to rotate the dipole till it
non-polar molecules) becomes parallel to the field. The torque is
Polar molecules: A molecule in which the measured as the product of magnitude of
centre of positive and negative charges do not

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CHAPTER 1 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS BY PRASHANTH R

either force and the perpendicular distance NOTE: In case of a charges spherical
between the forces. conductor of radius R, the charge is distributed
The magnitude of the torque is given by uniformly over its surface. The surface charge
 = Fd⊥ ---------- (1) Q
density of the sphere is given by  =
d⊥ 4R 2
From the figure, sin  =
2a VOLUME CHARGE DENSITY ()
Volume charge density is defined as the
or d ⊥ = 2a sin  . Now eq. (1) becomes
charge per unit volume.
 = qE  2a sin  Suppose Q be the charge distributed
 = pE sin  --------(2) ( p = q2a ) uniformly over a small volume element of area
Torque is a vector. In vector form V, then the volume charge density is given by
  
 = p  E -------- (3) Q
=
The torque is always perpendicular to the V
plane containing both p and E. The unit of volume charge density is Cm-3 and
The SI unit of torque is N-m and its its dimensional formula is [ATL-3].
dimensional formula is [ML2T-2].
GAUSS’S LAW
IMPORTANT POINTS Statement: The total electric flux through a
(i) In a uniform electric field, a dipole experiences 1
closed surface is times the net charge
no net force and only torque. In other words, the
o
dipole has no translational motion and has only
rotational motion. enclosed by the surface.
(ii) In a non-uniform electric field, a dipole
experiences both the net force and torque. In other Explanation: Suppose a closed surface
words, the dipole has both translational and encloses charges + q1 ,+q2 ,−q3 ,+q4 − − − −
rotational motions.
then the total electric flux through the surface
is given by
LINEAR CHARGE DENSITY ()
Linear charge density of a wire is defined as =
1
(+ q1 + q2 − q3 + q4 − − −)
the charge per unit length. o
Suppose Q be the charge distributed 1
uniformly over a small line element l of a Or  =
o
q
wire, then the linear charge density is given by
Proof: E
Q
= ΔS
l ΔS
The SI unit of linear charge density is Cm-1
and its dimensional formula is [ATL-1].

SURFACE CHARGE DENSITY ()

Surface charge density of a surface is defined
as the charge per unit area of that surface.
Suppose Q be the charge distributed Consider spherical conductor of radius r which encloses
uniformly over a small surface element of area a charge +q. The sphere is assumed to be divided into a
number of surface elements each of area S. The electric
S, then the surface charge density is given by flux through one surface element is given by
Q  
=  = E  S ------- (1)
S The electric field at any point on the sphere due to q is
The unit of surface charge density is Cm-2 and  1 q
its dimensional formula is [ATL-2]. given be E= rˆ ------ (2)
4 o r 2
Now eq. (1) becomes

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1 q 
 = rˆ  S
4 o r 2

1 q
 = rˆS cos ------ (3)
4 o r 2
A EB sinθ EB
where r̂ is the unit vector along the direction of radius

vector r . As the electric field acts along the radius, both
 θ E
r̂ and S are in the same direction.
θ
i.e,  = 0o and rˆ = 1
EA
1 q
Now, eq. (3) becomes  = S EA sinθ
4 o r 2
B
\The total flux through entire sphere is given by Fig (i)
q 1
 =   = S
4 o r 2
1 q
Or =
4 o r 2
 S ------ (4)
But  S = 4 r 2
is the total surface area of the A
sphere. Hence eq. (4) becomes
P
=
q
4 o r
1
2
4 r 2( ) or  =  (q )
1
l r E
o
Hence Gauss law.
IMPORTANT POINTS B
(SIGNIFICANCE OF GAUSS’S LAW)
(i) Gauss’s law is applicable for any closed Fig (ii)
surface irrespective of its shape and size. In
other words the total electric flux does not (i) To show that the electric field is normal
depend on the shape and size of the closed to the wire
surface. Consider two line elements A and B of the
(ii) The closed surface to which Gauss’s law is wire situated symmetrically about the point P
applied is called Gaussian surface. as shown in fig (i). The electric field at P due
(iii) Gauss’s law depend only on the charge to A and B EA and EB respectively. The
enclosed by the surface and does not depend vertical components of these fields cancel each
on the charges present outside the surface. other. The components normal to the wire
(radial components) add up. Due to any pair of
APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW such line elements the total field is normal to
Gauss’s law can be used to find electric field the wire. In general, the electric field at any
at a point due to a continuous charge point to the wire is always perpendicular to the
distribution. wire.

1. Filed due to an infinitely long straight
uniformly charges wire
Consider an infinitely long straight wire
having charged uniformly with linear charge
density . Let P be a point at a perpendicular
distance r from the wire.
(ii) Expression for the electric field
Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of
length l. Let q be the charge enclosed by the
Gaussian surface. Then the linear charge
q
density is given by  = or q = l .
l
As the electric fields is radial at all points, the
electric flux through the two ends (circular

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faces) of the cylinder is zero. The electric field by EA. The total electric flux through the
E is normal to the curved surface of the Gaussian surface is
cylinder. The electric flux through the curved  = EA + EA = 2EA -------- (2)
surface is given by Now, according to Gauss’s law, the electric
 = E  Area of the curved surface flux through the Gaussian surface is given by
 = E  2 r l -------- (1) q A
= = ------- (3)
o o
Applying Gauss’s law, we get  =
1
(q )
o From the equations (2) and (3), we get
A 
Or  =
1
(l ) -------- (2) 2 EA =
o
or E =
2 o
------ (4)
o
Comparing equations (1) and (2), we get  
In vector form E = nˆ ------ (5)
l 2 o
E  2 r l =
o If  is positive, the electric field E is directed
 away from the plane and if  is negative, the
Or E = --------- (3) electric field E is directed towards the plane.
2 o r
  3. Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical
In vector form, E = nˆ , where n̂ is the
2 o r shell
Consider a thin spherical shell of radius R having charge
unit vector along the normal to the wire. If  is +q which is uniformly distributed over its surface. Due to
positive, the filed E is directed away from the this charge, the electric field is directed radially outwards
as shown.
wire and If  is negative, the field E is directed
towards the wire.
+q
2. Filed due to a uniformly charged infinite
plane sheet y 
r ΔS E
O d

-x A x
E E
z
Consider an infinite plane sheet having
uniform surface charge density . Let x-axis
be normal to the plane of the sheet. Clearly,
the electric field is along x – axis and the field
has no components along y and z- axes.
Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of
uniform area of cross section A as shown. Let
Case (i): When the point lies outside the shell
Consider a point P outside the shell at a distance r from
the centre O of the shell. Construct spherical Gaussian
surface or radius r with O as the centre and with the point
P lying on its surface. This sphere is assumed to be
divided into number of surface elements each of area S.
The electric flux  through such a surface element is
given by
 
 = E  S = ES cos  -------- (2)

q be the charge enclosed by the Gaussian As the electric field is radial,  = 0o and cos0 = 1. Hence
eq. (2) becomes
q
surface. Then  = or q = A ------- (1)  = E S ------ (3)
A The total electric flux through the entire Gaussian surface
The electric flux through the curved surface of
is  =   =  E S
the cylinder is zero as the electric field is
parallel to it. The electric fields through the Or  = E  S ------- (4)
 S = 4 r
circular faces 1 and 2 are along positive and 2
But is the surface area of the
negative x-axis respectively. Hence the electric
Gaussian surface.
flux through these two faces are equal given

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CHAPTER 1 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS BY PRASHANTH R

Now, eq. (4) becomes  = E (4 r 2 ) ---- (5) Note: The variation of electric field with distance from
the centre of a uniformly charges spherical shell is as
q shown in the following graph.
According to Gauss’s law = ------ (6)
o
E
From equations (5) and (6), we get

(
E 4 r 2 = ) q
o
Emax
1
E
1q r2
Or E = ------- (7)
4 o r 2 r
 1 q
E=0
In vector form E = rˆ (r = R)
4 o r 2
Thus the electric field at the points outside a charged
spherical shell is as if the entire charge is concentrated
at the centre of the shell.

Case (ii): When the point lies just outside the shell
If the point P lies just outside the shell, then r  R.
Now, eq. (7) becomes
1q
E= ------ (8)
4 o R 2
The surface charge density of the shell is given by
q
= ------- (9)
4R 2
Hence eq. (8) becomes E =
1
( ) ------ (10)
o
Case (iii): When the point lies inside the shell

Consider the point P inside the charged spherical shell.

Construct a spherical Gaussian surface passing through P
with O as centre as shown. Clearly, the Gaussian surface
encloses no charge. Applying Gauss’s law, we get
q
E  S = ----- (11)
o
As q = 0, eq. (11) becomes E  S = 0
Or E = 0 (  S  0)
Thus, the electric field at all points inside a charged
spherical shell is zero.

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