0 Investigating - The - Relationship

Investigating the relationship between air pollution, population,
and landuse patterns in the city of Kolkata
A DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA
BY
Sula Sarkar
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Professor Robert B McMaster, Advisor
August 2006
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Acknowledgements
This dissertation would not have been possible without the help from numerous people
both in the University of Minnesota and in Calcutta, India. It was my task to write this
thesis, and I accept all responsibilities for any of the shortcomings within it. But most of
what the reader finds of value in this dissertation must be credited to those advisors,
colleagues, friends, and family members who have guided and supported me. It is with
great pleasure and respect that I acknowledge these people.
I would like to thank my advisor, Prof. Robert B McMaster for all his help and guidance
from the very first day when I came to the University of Minnesota. Prof. McMaster has
not only helped me with research design but has also helped me on the National
Historical Geographical Information System project, which funded my graduate studies.
I would also like to thank Prof. Gurumurthy Ramachandran from the department of
Environmental Sciences for helping me modify and polish some of my very crude work.
Prof. Ramachandran was always very excited about my research and had brilliant ideas
that motivated me a lot. I would like to thank Prof. Vinay Gidwani for all his great ideas,
and all the motivation, help and support throughout my graduate studies and also Prof.
Mark Lindberg, for helping me with all the troubleshooting and with database
organization. Outside my dissertation committee, I would like to thank Prof. Philip
Gersmehl for all his great ideas and help especially during the first few years of my
graduate studies.
I would like to thank the Department of Geography and all the faculty members in the
department for giving me the opportunity to do this research. The Minnesota Population
Center, and most importantly the National Historical Geographical Information System
project for funding my graduate studies and also for allowing me to use their facilities to
conduct my research. I would also like to thank Lise Schmidt for help with data quality
and metadata; Debarchana Ghosh for helping me with statistical analysis; Jason Jindrich
for help with dissertation editing, and Shantanu Sarkar for help with programming.
Besides this, I was fortunate to share numerous ideas, excitements, and frustrations with
friends and co-workers. Thanks to Heike Alberts, Lise Schmidt, Jason Jindrich, Xuejin
Ruan, Jie Chen, David VanRiper, Debarchana Ghosh, Karla Hillstrom, and Petra Noble.
In Calcutta, India, I would like to thank Dr. Tapas Ghatak from the Calcutta Metropolitan
Development Authority, for some of his brilliant insights on Calcutta and help with some
maps and databases; Dr. Dipanjana Moulik and Dr. Debashish Chakraborty from the
West Bengal Pollution Control Board; Dr. Twisha Lahiri and Dr. Manas R Roy from the
Chittaranjan National Cancer Research Institute; Prof. Sarmila Banerjee from the
Department of Economics, University of Calcutta; Prof. Sunondo Banerjee from the
Department of Geography, University of Burdwan; Dr. Sandhya Bhaduri and Smt.
Sandhya Sahoo from the National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organization; Shri
Sapan Samanta from the Beltala Motor Vehicles Department; and Advocate Ramesh
Tiwari from the Chandannagar Municipal Corporation. I would also like to thank the
employees at the Directorate of Census Operations office in Calcutta, Alipore
Meteorological office, Central Pollution Control Board, The Center for Study of Man and
Environment, the National Environment Engineering Research Institute, and the School
of Environmental Studies in Jadavpur University. Besides this, I would also like to thank
Sujata Das and Bhudeb Debnath for helping me during my fieldwork in Calcutta.
Last but not the least, I would like to thank my parents Birendra Nath Sanbui, Madhuri
Sanbui, Nitai Pada Sarkar, and Sarajini Sarkar who has always encouraged me, helped
me with data collection, and have retained and mailed numerous newspaper clippings and
magazine articles relevant to my research for the past couple of years. I am fortunate to
have such a supportive family. I would also like to thank Shamit Haidar, Asis Saha,
Jyotsna Saha, and Deb Kumar Saha for helping me with my fieldwork. Thanks to my
husband Shantanu Sarkar, for all the inspiration and moral support; and for living with
this dissertation for as long as I have. And finally, I thank my daughter Shruti Sarkar for
life and love.
ii
This thesis is dedicated to the loving memory of my grandparents
“ Dadu-moni & Dida ”
iii
Abstract
The two miles thick pollution blanket lying over the entire Indian subcontinent, often
referred to as the "Asian Brown Haze", is responsible for thousands of deaths per year
from respiratory diseases. Fossil fuel combustion in vehicles, industries, and power
stations are the major contributors to this dense blanket of pollution over South Asia.
This research investigates the spatial distribution and neighborhood inequalities of this
problem of widespread environmental pollution, particularly the association between air
pollution and population and again air pollution and land use patterns in the city of
Calcutta, India.
Increase in urban population in recent years has lead to more industrialization, which in
turn has led to environmental pollution in the urban area. Also, the lack of urban
planning in the location of industrial and commercial clusters within the city causes
environmental pollution. This research suggests an improved method to estimate ward-
wise vehicular pollution. This model is particularly effective for estimating vehicular
pollution in areas where there is limited amount of data on vehicle flow patterns. This
research also estimates ward-wise industrial pollution. By combining the demographic
characteristics of population in the different wards with a socio-economic index - a proxy
measure for the standard of living, with estimates of vehicular and industrial pollution, it
was possible to perform an environmental equity analysis. Also by calculating the
percentage landuse categories in each ward, it was possible to estimate whether industrial
clusters were more polluted than commercial areas.
In conclusion, this research finds that commercial areas in the city are more polluted from
vehicles whereas transport and storage areas in Calcutta are more polluted from
industries. Although the disadvantaged and vulnerable populations of Calcutta do not
bear the maximum burden of vehicular pollution, slum dwellers in Calcutta do experience
greater exposure from industrial sources. Exposure to higher levels of industrial
pollution by slum dwellers raises questions related to the causal nature of the relationship
between industrial pollution and slum population, and opens up an important debate
related to environmental equity concerns in the city of Calcutta.
iv
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................................................................................. I
ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................................................... IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................................................... V
LIST OF FIGURES...............................................................................................................................................X
LIST OF TABLES..............................................................................................................................................XII
1 INTRODUCTION: BACKGROUND AND SCOPE............................................................................ 1
1.1 T h e s t u d y a r e a - T h e C it y o f C a l c u t t a .....................................................................................................1
1.2 T h e P r o b l e m ................................................................................................................................................................2
1.3 T h e G e n e s is o f t h e c it y o f C a l c u t t a ............................................................................................................4
1.4 P h y s ic a l a n d c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s o f t h e c i t y .............................................................................................7
1.4.1 Geographical Location, Topography, and Soil type ............................................................................... 7
1.4.2 C lim ate ...................................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.4.3 D em ography ............................................................................................................................................................ 9
1.4.4 Landuse p a tte rn ................................................................................................................................................... 10
1.4.5 Industries, Trade, and Commerce ................................................................................................................. 11
1.4.6 Pollution p ro b le m s ............................................................................................................................................. 12
1.5 C o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k .................................................................................................................................... 12
1.6 S p e c if ic r e s e a r c h q u e s t io n s ............................................................................................................................15
1.7 S t r u c t u r e o f t h e d is s e r t a t io n ..................................................................................................................... 17
1.8 R e f e r e n c e s ................................................................................................................................................................ 18
2 LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................................................................... 22
2.1 I n t r o d u c t io n ............................................................................................................................................................22
2.2 C h r o n ic a n d A c u t e p o l l u t io n e v e n t s .......................................................................................................22
2.3 A ir p o l l u t io n in u r b a n m e t r o p o l it a n a r e a s ........................................................................................24
2.4 A ir p o l l u t io n f r o m s o u r c e e m i s s i o n s ......................................................................................... 25
2.4.1 Vehicular pollu tio n ............................................................................................................................................. 25
2.4.1.1 M odeling air pollution from vehicles......................................................................................................26
2.4.1.2 The Em ission F a c to r.................................................................................................................................. 27
2.4.1.3 Vehicular pollution studies in In d ia ........................................................................................................ 28
2.4.1.4 V ehicular pollution studies in C alcutta.................................................................................................. 28
2.4.2 Industrial pollu tio n ............................................................................................................................................ 31
2.4.2.1 M odeling air pollution from in d u stries.................................................................................................. 31
2.4.2.2 Industrial Types in In d ia........................................................................................................................... 32
2.4.2.3 Pollutants from industries and the “right-to-know”..............................................................................33
2.4.2.4 Industrial Pollution in C a lc u tta................................................................................................................33
2.5 A ir p o l l u t io n f r o m a ir q u a l it y m e a s u r e m e n t s ................................................................................. 35
2.5.1 Pollution Control Boards in In d ia ............................................................................................................... 35
2.5.1.1 Status and seasonal trends o f air quality in C alcutta............................................................................38
2.6 A ir p o l l u t io n a n d p o p u l a t io n ....................................................................................................................... 39
2.6.1 Health effects o fA ir pollution ....................................................................................................... 40
2.6.2 A ir pollution and health studies in Calcutta .............................................................................................40
2.6.3 Environmental justice concerns .....................................................................................................................41
2.6.4 Studies relating air pollution and population in Calcutta ...................................................................43
2.1 A i r p o l l u t i o n a n d l a n d u s e p a t t e r n s ........................................................................................................44
2.7.1 Landuse pattern studies in mega cities o f India ...................................................................................... 45
2.7.2 Landuse patterns in Calcutta ......................................................................................................................... 45
2 .8 T h e r e s e a r c h o b j e c t i v e s .................................................................................................................................. 47
2.9 R e f e r e n c e s ............................................................................................................................................................... 48
3 DATA SOURCES AND DATA QUALITY............................................................................................55
3.1 I n t r o d u c t io n ............................................................................................................................................................ 55
3.2 L e g a l R e s t r ic t io n s o n m a p p in g in I n d i a ...................................................................................................55
3.3 L e g a l R e s t r ic t io n s o n m a p p in g in C a l c u t t a ........................................................................................ 56
3.4 M a ps a n d D a t a S o u r c e s .................................................................................................................................... 57
3.4.1 Ward boundaries o f Calcutta from the Directorate o f Census Operations.............................. 57
3.4.2 Road, Railway, and water bodies from NATMO and CMDA....................................................58
3.4.3 UTM coordinates o f Calcutta from the Barddhaman University............................................... 61
3.4.4 Location o f air pollution monitoring stations from the WBPCB.............................................. 62
3.4.5 Landuse information from NATMO............................................................................................. 62
3.4.6 Census data from the Directorate o f Census Operations...........................................................64
3.4.7 Ambient air quality information (daily and monthly data) from WBPCB............................... 65
3.4.8 Data on registered vehicles and vehicle routes from Transport Department.......................... 65
3.4.9 Truck route information from the Police Department, Calcutta................................................65
3.4.10 Vehicle Counts at Several road intersections by the researcher.........................................66
3.5 D a t a Q u a l i t y ...........................................................................................................................................................67
3.5.1 Lineage............................................................................................................................................67
3.5.2 Accuracy......................................................................................................................................... 68
3.5.2.1 Positional accuracy.....................................................................................................................................68
3.5.2.2 A ttribute accuracy....................................................................................................................................... 68
3.5.3 Logical consistency........................................................................................................................ 69
3.5.4 Completeness................................................................................................................................. 70
3.5.5 Semantic accuracy and temporal information........................................................................... 70
3.6 D a t a S t a n d a r d s f o r t h is d is s e r t a t io n .....................................................................................................71
3.7 E n v ir o n m e n t a l s t u d ie s in d e v e l o p in g c o u n t r i e s .............................................................................. 72
3.7.1 Map availability............................................................................................................................ 72
3.7.2 Data availability........................................................................................................................... 72
3.7.3 Data sharing................................................................................................................................. 73
3.8 C h a p t e r S u m m a r y ................................................................................................................................................ 73
3.9 R e f e r e n c e s ................................................................................................................................................................74
4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY- I: ESTIMATING ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 75

4.1 I n t r o d u c t io n ............................................................................................................................................................75
4.2 E s t im a t in g p o l l u t io n f r o m p o l l u t a n t s o u r c e s : V e h ic l e a n d I n d u s t r y p o l l u t io n .... 75
4.2.1 Estimation o f Vehicular Pollution.............................................................................................. 76
4.2.1.1 M odes o f transportation.............................................................................................................................76
4.2.1.2 Other non-polluting modes o f transportation........................................................................................ 78
4.2.1.3 V ehicle G row th ............................................................................................................................... 80
4.2.1.4 Fuel consum ption........................................................................................................................................82
4.2.1.5 Emission Factor o f vehicles...................................................................................................................... 83
4.2.1.6 Estimating ward-wise vehicular pollution in d ex...................................................................................85
4.2.1.6.1 Setting up the GIS database...............................................................................................................85
4.2.1.6.2 Estimating Vehicular Pollution from B uses..................................................................................... 91
4.2.1.6.3 Estimating Vehicular Pollution from A uto-rickshaw s.............................................. 95
4.2.1.6.4 Estimating Vehicular Pollution from T ru ck s...................................................................................96
4.2.1.6.5 Estimating Vehicular Pollution from Cars, Taxi Cabs, and M otorcycles....................................97
4.2.2 Estimation o f Industrial Pollution............................................................................................. 100
4.2.2.1 Categories o f Industries...........................................................................................................................100
4.2.2.2 Industrial Growth and W ard wise spatial distribution o f industries................................................102
4.2.2.3 Fuel consum ption..................................................................................................................................... 105
4.2.2.4 National Industrial Classification (NIC) codes o f industrial units................................................... 106
4.2.2.5 Estimating ward wise industry pollution index................................................................................... 107
4.2.2.5.1 Industrial Pollution Index based on PCB industrial categorization........................................... 108
4.2.2.5.2 Industrial Pollution Index based on fuel consum ption................................................................. 109
vi
4.3 E s t im a t in g p o l l u t io n f r o m a ir q u a l it y m e a s u r e m e n t s : S p a t ia l In t e r p o l a t io n o f
POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD MONITORING DATA....................................................................................................... 113
4.3.1 Environmental Monitoring in Calcutta..................................................................................... 113
4.3.2 Spatial and temporal resolution o f ambient air quality data.................................................. 113
4.3.3 Limitations o f ambient air quality measurements.................................................................... 114
4.3.4 Setting up the GIS database fo r spatial interpolation.............................................................. 116
4.3.5 Spatial interpolation o f the available pollution data............................................................... 117
4.3.5.1 Spatial Interpolation using Inverse Distance W eighted (IDW) A lgorithm .................................... 117
4.3.5.2 Spatial Interpolation using Splines.......................................................................................................118
4.3.5.3 Spatial Interpolation using K rig in g ..................................................................................................... 118
4.3.6 Seasonal and monthly distribution o f air pollution................................................................. 119
4.3.7 Error estimation from spatial interpolation............................................................................. 119
4.3.8 Measuring ward-wise weekly air pollution............................................................................... 121
4 .4 C h a p t e r S u m m a r y .............................................................................................................................................. 123
4 .5 R e f e r e n c e s ............................................................................................................................................................. 124
5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY-II: POPULATION AND LANDUSE PATTERN................... 126

5.1 I n t r o d u c t io n ..........................................................................................................................................................126
5.2 P o p u l a t io n d y n a m ic s in C a l c u t t a .......................................................................................................... 126
5.2.1 Census data and census variables............................................................................................ 126
5.2.2 Growth o f population and density o f population...................................................................... 127
5.2.3 Sex ratio........................................................................................................................................ 129
5.2.4 Child population and child sex ratio......................................................................................... 129
5.2.5 Literacy and the gender gap in literacy rate............................................................................ 130
5.2.6 Slum population........................................................................................................................... 130
5.2.7 Backward caste population......................................................................................................... 131
5.2.8 Occupational structure o f population........................................................................................133
5.3 S u r r o g a t e s o c io - e c o n o m ic in d e x o f p o p u l a t i o n ............................................................................. 133
5.3.1 Variables used fo r calculating socio-economic index.............................................................. 134
5.3.2 Procedure fo r calculation o f ward-wise surrogate socio-economic index............................ 135
5 .4 C a l c u l a t in g w a r d - w is e l a n d u s e p a t t e r n in C a l c u t t a ............................................................... 137
5.4.1 Landuse categories...................................................................................................................... 137
5.4.2 Methodology fo r calculating landuse categories in each ward.............................................. 140
5.4.3 Error Estimation in landuse classification............................................................................... 142
5.5 C h a p t e r S u m m a r y ............................................................................................................................................ 143
5 .6 R e f e r e n c e s ............................................................................................................................................................. 143
6 MAPPING AIR POLLUTION, POPULATION, AND LANDUSE................................................144

6.1 I n t r o d u c t io n ..........................................................................................................................................................144
6 .2 M a p p in g A ir P o l l u t io n .................................................................................................................................... 144
6.2.1 Mapping pollution from pollutant sources: Vehicular Pollution............................................ 144
6.2.1.1 Mapping the Vehicular Pollution In d ex ............................................................................................... 144
6.2.1.2 Spatial representation o f vehicle pollution........................................................................................... 152
6.2.1.2.1 Northern Calcutta.................................................................................................................................153
6.2.1.2.2 The Central Business D istrict........................................................................................................154
6.2.1.2.3 Western C alcutta..................................................................................................................................154
6.2.1.2.4 Eastern C alcutta...................................................................................................................................154
6.2.1.2.5 Southern Calcutta.................................................................................................................................155
6.2.2 Mapping pollution from pollutant sources: Industrial Pollution............................................ 156
6.2.2.1 Spatial Distribution o f In d u stries...........................................................................................................156
6.2.2.2 Mapping the Industrial Pollution Index.............................................................................................. 157
6.2.3 Mapping pollution from air quality measurements: Spatial Interpolation............................ 160
6.2.3.1 Seasonal air pollution.............................................................................................................................. 160
6.2.3.1.1 Seasonal variation o f p o llu tio n .........................................................................................................163
6.2.3.1.2 Spatial variation o f p o llu tio n ............................................................................................................163
vii
6.2.3.2 W eekly air pollution................................................................................................................................. 163
6.2.3.2.1 Spatial variation.................................................................................................................................. 166
6.3 S p a t ia l a n d t e m p o r a l r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f t h e s u r r o g a t e s o c io - e c o n o m ic i n d e x 167
6.3.1 Census variables used fo r calculating socio-economic index................................................. 167
6.3.2 Socio-economic index over tim e.............................................................................................. 168
6.3.3 The spatial representation o f socio-economic index................................................................ 168
6.3.4 Mapping the socio-economic index...........................................................................................169
6.4 L a n d u s e p a t t e r n s in C a l c u t t a .................................................................................................................. 173
6.4.1 Residential areas.........................................................................................................................173
6.4.2 Mixed Commercial and Residential areas................................................................................174
6.4.3 Commercial areas........................................................................................................................ 175
6.4.4 Slum areas and Slum population............................................................................................... 176
6.4.5 Industrial areas............................................................................................................................ 178
6.4.6 Green space..................................................................................................................................179
6.5 C h a p t e r S u m m a r y .............................................................................................................................................. 181
6.6 R e f e r e n c e s ............................................................................................................................................................. 181
7 ASSOCIATING AIR POLLUTION, POPULATION, AND LANDUSE..................................... 183

7.1 I n t r o d u c t io n ..........................................................................................................................................................183
7.2 S t a t is t ic a l M e t h o d s ........................................................................................................................................ 183
7.3 V a r ia b l e s u s e d f o r s t a t is t ic a l m o d e l in g ..........................................................................................186
7.3.1 Vehicular pollution variables..................................................................................................... 187
7.3.2 Industrial pollution variables.....................................................................................................187
7.3.3 Population variables....................................................................................................................187
7.3.4 Landuse variables........................................................................................................................188
7 .4 A s s o c ia t in g a ir p o l l u t io n w it h p o p u l a t i o n .......................................................................................188
7.4.1 Vehicular pollution and population............................................................................................189
7.4.2 Industrial pollution and population........................................................................................... 193
7.4.3 Discussions on association between air pollution and population......................................... 196
7.5 A s s o c ia t in g a ir p o l l u t io n w it h w a r d - w is e l a n d u s e c a t e g o r i e s ........................................... 196
7.5.1 Vehicular pollution and ward-wise landuse..............................................................................197
7.5.2 Industrial pollution and ward-wise landuse.............................................................................200
7.5.3 Discussions on association between air pollution and landuse.............................................. 202
7 .6 C h a p t e r S u m m a r y ..............................................................................................................................................202
7 .7 R e f e r e n c e s ............................................................................................................................................................. 203
8 CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................................................204
8.1 I n t r o d u c t io n ......................................................................................................................................................... 2 0 4
8.2 O v e r v ie w o f r e s e a r c h ..................................................................................................................................... 2 0 4
8.3 H e a l t h e f f e c t s o f a ir p o l l u t io n in C a l c u t t a ...................................................................................205
8.4 A ir p o l l u t io n m a n a g e m e n t in C a l c u t t a .............................................................................................. 206
8.4.1 Increase in road area.................................................................................................................. 207
8.4.2 Non-polluting modes o f transportation..................................................................................... 207
8.4.3 Greener fu e ls............................................................................................................................... 210
8.4.4 One-way routes............................................................................................................................ 210
8.4.5 Balancing vehicle circulation between weekdays and weekends............................................ 210
8.4.6 Car-pooling and ride sharing..................................................................................................... 211
8.4.7 Reduction in pedestrian movement............................................................................................211
8.4.8 Industrial pollution control and “Cleaner Technologies o f Production ”............................. 212
8.4.9 Parks, open spaces, and wetlands............................................................................................. 213
8.4.10 Public participation in the planning process..................................................................... 214
8.5 F u t u r e W o r k ......................................................................................................................................................... 214
8.6 C o n t r ib u t io n s a n d s ig n if ic a n c e o f r e s e a r c h .................................................................................... 215
viii
8.7 R e f e r e n c e s ............................................................................................................................................................ 217
APPENDIX 3 A ...................................................................................................................................................218
APPENDIX 4 A ...................................................................................................................................................223
APPENDIX 4B....................................................................................................................................................227
APPENDIX 4 C ...................................................................................................................................................228
APPENDIX 5 A ...................................................................................................................................................235
APPENDIX 6 A ...................................................................................................................................................236
APPENDIX 6B....................................................................................................................................................243
APPENDIX 6 C ...................................................................................................................................................247
APPENDIX 6 D ...................................................................................................................................................252
APPENDIX 7A ...................................................................................................................................................258
ix
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Location of Calcutta Metropolitan Area...............................................................2
Figure 1.2 Four stages of growth of Calcutta (Munshi, 1990).............................................. 5
Figure 1.3 The city of Calcutta............................................................................................... 7
Figure 1.4 Conceptual Framework of the research.............................................................. 13
Figure 2.1 Schematic representation of this research..........................................................48
Figure 3.1 Scanned copy of the Source map from Census (southeastern part of Calcutta)
......................................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 3.2 Scanned copy of the Source map from NATMO (southeastern part of Calcutta)
......................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 3.3 CAD image of Southeastern Calcutta from CMDA..........................................60
Figure 3.4 Base map of Calcutta produced by the researcher (southeastern part of
Calcutta)..........................................................................................................................61
Figure 3.5 Location of Air Pollution Monitoring Stations from the WBPCB...................64
Figure 4.1 Picture of an auto-rickshaw.................................................................................77
Figure 4.2 Assignment of unique segment numbers to roads............................................. 85
Figure 4.3 Road intersections where vehicle counts were taken..................................... 91
Figure 4.4 Procedure for calculating Vehicle Pollution Index (ward 1).............................93
Figure 4.5 Graphical representation of traffic flow for a 24 hours period....................... . 94
Figure 4.6 Ward-wise distribution of industrial units........................................................104
Figure 4.7 Ward-wise distribution of “RED” category industries.................................... 104
Figure 4.8 Location of pollution control board air quality monitoring stations............. 116
Figure 5.1 Population of Calcutta in the different census years....................................... 129
Figure 5.2 Screenshots from ArcGRID session showing landuse categories (a) 1982 (b)
2001.............................................................................................................................. 141
Figure 6.1 Vehicle pollution from buses.............................................................................146
Figure 6.2 Vehicle pollution from auto-rickshaws............................................................ 147
Figure 6.3 Vehicle pollution from trucks............................................................................148
Figure 6.4 Vehicle pollution from cars............................................................................... 149
Figure 6.5 Vehicle pollution from taxi-cabs...................................................................... 150
Figure 6.6 Vehicle pollution from motorcycles................................................................. 151
Figure 6.7 Vehicle pollution from all polluting vehicles...................................................152
Figure 6.8 Ward-wise population density and industrial distribution ....................... 157
Figure 6.9 Ward-wise industrial pollution (based on pollution control board
categorization of industries).........................................................................................158
Figure 6.10 Ward-wise industrial pollution (based on fuel consumption)...................... 158
Figure 6.11 Seasonal air pollution: Summer 2000............................................................ 161
Figure 6.12 Seasonal air pollution: Monsoon 2000.......................................................... 162
Figure 6.13 Seasonal air pollution: Winter 2000 - 2001................................................. 162
Figure 6.14 Weekly air pollution: December 6th to 10th 2000....................................... 165
Figure 6.15 Weekly air pollution: December 27th to 30th 2000..................................... 165
Figure 6.16 Socio-economic index 2001 .......................................................................... 169
Figure 6.17 Socio-economic index (excluding slum index) 2001 ................................... 170
Figure 6.18 Socio-economic index 1991............................................................................170
x
Figure 6.19 Socio-economic index 1981............................................................................ 171
Figure 6.20 Change in Socio-economic index from 1991 to 2001................................. 172
Figure 6.21 Landuse category: Residential areas............................................................. 174
Figure 6.22 Landuse category: Mixed commercial andresidentialareas..........................175
Figure 6.23 Landuse category: Commercial areas............................................................ 176
Figure 6.24 Landuse category: Slum areas........................................................................177
Figure 6.25 Ward-wise slum population in 2001.............................................................. 178
Figure 6.26 Landuse category: Industrial areas................................................................ 179
Figure 6.27 Landuse category: Park and open space andAgriculturalareas....................180
Figure 7.1 Scatter plots showing associations between (a) bus pollution index and non
workers (b) truck pollution index and illiterate population.................................... 192
Figure 7.2 Box and Whisker plot showing percentage slum population in wards with
industrial pollution and percentage slum population in wards with no industrial
pollution........................................................................................................................194
Figure 8.1 Suggested Loop area in the Central Business District of Calcutta.................209
xi
List of Tables
Table 1-1 Population growth ra te ..........................................................................................10
Table 2-1 The National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) standard...............37
Table 2-2 Ambient air quality in Calcutta for the first day of every month (May 2005 to
April 2006)......................................................................................................................38
Table 4-1 Types of Vehicles plying the roads of Calcutta...................................................80
Table 4-2 Vehicle strength in Calcutta................................................................................. 81
Table 4-3 Average Age Distribution of Vehicles in Calcutta............................................. 82
Table 4-4 Probability Distribution of emission factors for different vehicle types (India)
..........................................................................................................................................84
Table 4-5 Vehicle counts at different road intersections per hour................................... 90
Table 4-6 Class intervals taken into consideration for calculation of car, taxicab, and
motorcycle pollution index........................................................................................... 99
Table 4-7 National Industrial Classification (NIC) codes.................................................106
Table 4-8 Types of Industries in Calcutta...........................................................................107
Table 4-9 Some industrial units in Calcutta (ward 14)...................................................... I l l
Table 4-10 Error Index from spatial interpolation of PM 10 values (seasonal air
pollution). Original values measured by the state pollution control board 120
Table 4-11 Error Index from spatial interpolation of PM10 values (weekly air pollution).
Original values measured by the state pollution control board......................... 122
Table 4-12 A portion of ward-wise weekly (December 16th to 20th 2000) air pollution
indices for PM 10.......................................................................................................... 123
Table 5-1 Total Population.................................................................................................. 128
Table 5-2 Detailed landuse categories in Ward-108.......................................................... 140
Table 6-1 Ward-wise Vehicular Pollution Index from Buses in Kilograms/day/Km2 ... 146
Table 6-2 Ward-wise Vehicular Pollution Index from auto-rickshaws in
Kilograms/day/Km2 ..................................................................................................... 147
Table 6-3 Ward-wise Vehicular Pollution Index from trucks in Kilograms/day/Km2... 148
Table 6-4 Ward-wise Vehicular Pollution Index from cars in Kilograms/day/Km2 149
Table 6-5 Ward-wise Vehicular Pollution Index from taxicabs in Kilograms/day/Km2 150
Table 6-6 Ward-wise Vehicular Pollution Index from motorcycles in Kilograms/day/Km2
........................................................................................................................................151
Table 6-7 Ward-wise Industrial Pollution Index in grams/day/Km2.................... 159
Table 7-1 Correlation between population and all vehicles...............................................189
Table 7-2 Correlation between population and the different types of vehicles ............. 190
Table 7-3 Correlation between population and industrial pollution................................. 193
Table 7-4 Descriptive Statistics for slum population in wards with industrial pollution and
slum population in wards with no industrial pollution............................................ 194
Table 7-5 Correlation between the various landuse variables.......................................... 198
Table 7-6 Multiple linear regression model with backward elimination procedure;
Dependent variable: allVehicles; Independent variables: ward-wise landuse
categories......................................................................................................................199
Table 7-7 Independent predictors of different types of vehicular pollution.................... 200
Table 7-8 Correlating industrial pollution to the ward-wise landuse categories 201
xii
1 INTRODUCTION: BACKGROUND AND SCOPE
1.1 The study area - The City of Calcutta
Calcutta (recently renamed Kolkata) is presently the capital city of the state of West
Bengal. It is the largest metropolitan city in the eastern part of India. Calcutta is located
on the eastern bank of the Hugh River, a distributary of the mighty River Ganges, about
154 km upstream from its mouth at the head of the Bay of Bengal. From north to south
along the River Hugli, the city expands to a total length of 20 km. The region
surrounding Calcutta is Greater Calcutta, more commonly known as the Hugli industrial
belt and is referred to as the Calcutta Metropolitan Area (CMA) for administrative
purposes. The river port in the Hugli Industrial belt is the most important urban and
industrial center o f Eastern India. The CMA boasts of being the nation's largest
metropolis in terms of total area it covers and is located on either side along the banks of
the Hugli River covering an area of approximately 120 km by 24 km. Figure 1.1 shows
the location of CMA with respect to India.
The city of Calcutta, referred to as the Calcutta Municipal Corporation (CMC) for
administrative purposes lies within the Greater Calcutta Area. Calcutta has grown to a
mega city today from a small trading post of the British East India Company established
in 1690. Calcutta served as the capital of British India until 1912, when the capital of
India was moved to Delhi. Today, the total area of the city is 185.39 sq. km; it has 15
boroughs and under these boroughs are 141 census wards (census wards are equivalent to
census tracts in the United States). Often referred to as the cultural capital of India
(Munshi, 1990; Dasgupta, 2001), Calcutta is the seat for arts, writing, music, dance, and
theatre. Calcutta is the “fascinating and the splended city of joy with people of all
religions, communities, and castes, rich and poor, haves and have-nots” (Keshan, 1999).
Bay
Arabian
Sea Bengal
100 0 100 200 Miles

Indian Ocean
Figure 1.1 Location of Calcutta Metropolitan Area
1.2 The Problem

The United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) expresses growing concern over the
“Asian Brown Haze” or the “Asian Brown Cloud”. The reference is a two miles (three
kilometer) thick pollution blanket lying over the entire Indian subcontinent - from Sri
Lanka to Afghanistan that intensifies during the winter months (Lelieveld et al., 2001;
Ramanathan et al., 2001; UNEP, 2001; Bray, 2002; Ramanathan et al., 2002). This haze
is responsible for hundreds of thousands of deaths a year from respiratory diseases
(UNEP, 2001; Bray, 2002). Also, by slashing sunlight that reaches the ground surface by
10 to 15 percent, this haze has “altered the region’s climate, cooling the ground while
heating the atmosphere” (Bray, 2002). This has led to erratic weather, including floods
in Bangladesh, Nepal, and Northeastern India, drought in Pakistan and Northwest India
(Ramanathan et al., 2001; Bray, 2002; Ramanathan et al., 2002). UNEP predicts that this
2
blanket of pollution will intensify as the population of the region grows (Ramanathan et
al., 2001; UNEP, 2001; Ramanathan et ah, 2002). The burning of fossil fuels in vehicles,
industries and power stations will lead to increased pollution. Air pollution measures
from seven metropolitan cities in India indicate very high pollution levels that sometimes
reach hazardous levels (Lelieveld et al., 2001).
Environmental pollution in urban areas, population explosion in mega cities and the
urban layout of cities have all been important topics for research. Scholars have shown
that a greater increase of urban population in recent years has led to more
industrialization, which in turn has led to environmental degradation in urban areas
(Cronshaw et al., 1997). On the other hand, other scholars argue that in recent years due
to global technological progress, the production techniques available to countries all over
the world are becoming more and more capital intensive and at the same time less
polluting (Dinda et al., 2000). The relationship is ambiguous - how exactly does
population growth influence industrialization and environmental pollution and also how
does environmental pollution effect population dynamics. The other issue that affects
environmental quality is the landuse pattern or the urban framework of a city. Some
scholars argue that unplanned urbanization and industrialization are some of the major
causes for environmental degradation (Sengupta et al., 1999). All the preceding three
determinants; environmental pollution, population, and landuse pattern are worthy of
individual attention. But this research is interested in examining how they are interlinked
with one another. The relationship between both pollution and population and pollution
and landuse pattern will be studied in this research.
The area of interest or the study area (shown in Figure 1.3) for this research is the
culturally-rich city of Calcutta (CMC) that has been exposed to high pollution levels both
from industries and vehicles, a continuous population increase, and unorganized landuse
pattern. Most people in Calcutta are concerned about pollution from industries rather
than emissions from vehicles. Usually the well to do people avoids living near industrial
clusters. Migration to the suburban areas is one of the major trends prevalant in the city
in the recent decades. One of the major questions that this research will answer is
3
whether it is the industrial units that are causing the bulk of pollution in the residential
areas or whether people in Calcutta need to be more concerned about vehicular pollution.
1.3 The Genesis of the city of Calcutta

The disorganized landuse pattern in Calcutta can mostly be attributed to the unplanned
development of Calcutta city since 1690. During 1690, the village of Sutaniti (presently
a part of north Calcutta) was made the headquarters of the British East India Company.
In this village, the British built their first fort in 1699 - the Fort William. In the following
years, the English acquired two more villages Kalikata (from where the present city gets
its name - Calcutta, recently renamed as Kolkata) and Gobindapur and had subsequently
gone on adding new villages to the growing port-city complex. The main city developed
around the fort and the British quarters, while the rest of the city expanded in an
unplanned manner along the fringes. Figure 1.2 shows the different stages of growth for
the city of Calcutta from 1690 to 1921.
The first acts of city planning came into existence in 1726, with the establishment of the
Calcutta Corporation, which only collected ground rent and town duties (Munshi, 1990).
The construction of roads was started later in 1817 and efforts were made by the city
planners to establish links with Calcutta’s hinterland. Trading success through the Hugli
River encouraged the British East India Company to have ambitious plans for the
development of Calcutta. However, later in the 19th Century, Calcutta and its
surrounding areas became an important center in the struggle for India’s Independence,
which was one reason why the British relocated their capital from Calcutta to Delhi in
1911 (Dasgupta, 2001). The present city of Calcutta reflects all such historical events of
growth and development.
//*
f^ j Quorti«rs indi«n« /In d ia n
Figure 1.2 Four stages of growth of Calcutta (Munshi, 1990)
Figure 1.3 shows the present city of Calcutta. The Hugli River bounds the city on the
western side; the eastern side is bordered by the newly developed Saltlake city and the
wetlands that cover most of the southeastern parts of the city limits. To the north and the
south of Calcutta is the Greater Calcutta region. Figure 1.3 shows labels that refer to
some significant areas in the city. ‘A’ shows the central business district (CBD) or the
downtown area. Most traffic in the city either converges to or diverts from the CBD. ‘B’
represents wetlands and salty marsh. “B l” shows the Saltlake city area that was a salty
marsh even less than 30 years ago. Saltlake has expanded vastly in the last twenty years
and has most commonly been referred to as a planned urban city by the city planners.
The Saltlake area presently accommodates new office complexes, particularly the newly
developing software hub, upscale houses, hotels, restaurants, and large shopping malls.
“B2” defines the agricultural areas and the wetlands. There have been a many new
apartments, roads, and markets in this area; the expansion is mostly at the expanse of the
wetlands and the salty marsh (Ghosh et al., 1987). The highway connecting north and
south Calcutta, the Eastern Metropolitan By-Pass (EMBP), also cuts across the heart of
these wetlands. The EMBP is a 4-lane highway that connects the northern and the
southern parts of the city. It has very few traffic lights, no traffic congestion, and the
speed limit is higher that any other roadway in Calcutta. The EMBP connects Ultadanga
in the north to Garia in the south, a distance of approximately 15 kilometers. ‘C’ is the
port area, on the banks of the River Hugli. The port is located 200 km upstream from the
sea. The port is one of the most important centers of commercial activity and brings in
and carries out important commodities to and from the main city. ‘D ’ is the famous
“maidan ” or the open space in the heart of the city.
Figure 1.3 also shows some points referred to as “important areas” in the city of Calcutta.
All these places will be mentioned quite frequently in the next few chapters. The most
important among these are the Howrah and the Sealdah railway stations; the railways
serve around 15.83% of total suburban commuters to and from the city of Calcutta to the
suburban areas each day (Agarwal, 1996; Rao, 1999). Also important to note in Figure
1.3 is the underground metro railway route that runs from Tollygunge in the south to
Dum Dum in the north, a distance of 16.5 kilometers. The metro railway serves about
200,000 passengers everyday. Other important places to note in the map are the
Shyambazar area, a five-point road intersection in the northern part of Calcutta, often
referred to as the gateway to Calcutta; Esplanade, an important hub in the CBD area of
Calcutta; the Moulali and Park Circus areas deal with the bulk of traffic load from the
Sealdah Railway station and have a high concentration of low income population;
Taratalla, the gateway to the port area; Behala, Gariahat, Hazra, and Jadavpur, some the
main hubs at south Calcutta.
THE KOLKATA (CALCUTTA)
METROPOLITAN AREA (KMA) River Hugli
Important Areas
Howrah
Railway Stn. Metro Railway Route
Eastern M etropolitan By-Pass
Ward Boundaiy
Bark Circus
;e 1'hanri
B2
Taratala
Bchala
Figure 1.3 The city of Calcutta
1.4 Physical and cultural aspects of the city

1.4.1 Geographical Location, Topography, and Soil type
Calcutta is located at 88° 23’ 34” east and 22° 23’ 47” north. Being a deltaic area, the
average elevation in the city is about 6.4 meters above mean sea level. The highest
elevation is 9.5 meters in the western part of the city; the lowest elevation is 5.5 meters.
Eastward from the river, the land slopes away to marshes and swamplands. Reclamation
of the Saltlake area on the northeastern fringe of the city and further repossession of
wetlands in the southern and eastern parts of the city indicate the spatial expansion the
metropolitan area is undergoing in recent decades. The soil type in Calcutta is mostly
thick alluvium deposited by the River Hugli. A small part o f the city, to the eastern side,
is covered with deltaic alluvium (alfisols) while the rest of the city is covered with
younger alluvium (entisols) (Nag, 2001).
1.4.2 Climate
Calcutta is located at a point where River Hugli merges into the Bay of Bengal; the whole
region is part of the great Gangetic delta. The sea therefore influences the weather pattern
of the city. In general, Calcutta has a subtropical climate with a dominance of southwest
monsoons (rain-bearing winds). Calcutta has three distinct seasons, summer, monsoon,
and winter. The most striking feature, which is an integral part of the weather pattern in
the south Asian subcontinent, is the reversal of wind system between the summer and the
winter season. From a climatic point of view, three distinct seasons can be recognized in
Calcutta - the cool dry season from November through February, the pre-monsoon hot
summer season from March through May, and the rainy season or monsoon that lasts
from June through October. The month of March may also be considered as the spring
season, and the period from mid-October through mid-November may be called the
autumn season.
The maximum temperature during summer sometimes reaches about 110° F (43° C)
(Mamoria, 1994). The rains during summer are caused by convective storms or
nor’westers (locally known as Kalbaishakhi). The rainy season, also known as the
monsoon, is characterized by southerly or southwesterly winds, very high humidity,
heavy rainfall, and long consecutive days of rainfall, which are separated by short spells
of dry days. Rainfall in this season is caused by tropical depressions in the Bay of Bengal.
Winters are pleasant with lower humidity and temperatures ranging from 73° F (23° C) to
44° F (7°C) (Mamoria, 1994). Winters are also characterized by calm conditions and
often an inversion of temperature during the early hours of the day. Wind direction
during winter is northerly, reversed from what it is during the monsoons. The average
annual rainfall in Calcutta is about 64 inches (1,625 millimeters), most of it concentrated
in the months of July and August. Calcutta located very close to the sea has very high
humidity; most days during the monsoons are characterized by 100% humidity.
Humidity seldom drops below 60% even during the dry winter months.
1.4.3 Demography
Although the city has an infrastructure to cater to about a million people, the population
of Calcutta according to the 2001 census is 4,580,544; making Calcutta the 24th most
populous city in the world (UN, 1997). This huge population is housed in a 185 square
kilometer area. In some small pockets the density of population is greater than 175,000
persons per sq. km (Sen, 2001; Sen, 2001), a figure far above the WHO’s ideal number of
2500 persons per sq. km. Recent census figures for Calcutta indicate that the decadal
growth rate of population has decreased in the present decade, 1991 to 2001, which is
4.11% compared to 6.61% in 1981-1991 (Sen, 2001). Table 1-1 shows the decadal
growth of population in Calcutta since 1901.
A significant part of the population comprise of slum dwellers. There are 1,490,206 slum
dwellers (32.5% of total population) according to the 2001 census, residing in the city of
Calcutta and occupying only 4.5% of the city’s area (Sen, 2001; Sen, 2001). As defined
by the census of India, a slum is a “compact area with at least 300 people or 60
households living in poorly built, congested tenements in an unhygienic environment.
Usually slums lack adequate infrastructure, proper sanitary, and drinking water facilities”
(Roy, 1994).
Calcutta has experienced high population growth for more than a century. Events such as
the “Partition of Bengal” in 1947 and the warfare with Bangladesh in the early 1970 have
induced massive influxes of population from the neighboring country side. Large refugee
colonies have also sprung up in the northern and southern suburbs. In addition, there are
also a large number of migrants from the neighboring states such Bihar, Jharkhand,
Orissa, and eastern Uttar Pradesh, who come to Calcutta in search o f employment. More
than eighty percent of the population is Hindu (Sen, 2001). Muslims and Christians
constitute the largest minorities, but there are some Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists. The
dominant language spoken by the residents of Calcutta is Bengali; Hindi, English, Urdu,
9
Oriya, Tamil, Punjabi, and other languages are also spoken. Calcutta is said to be a
cosmopolitan city - other immigrant groups residing in the city include a variety of
Bangladeshis, Chinese, Europeans, North Americans, and Australians (Sen, 2001).
Calcutta was racially segregated under British rule, with the Europeans living in the city
center and natives living in the northern and southern parts of the city. The pattern of
segregation has continued in the modem city, although the distribution is now based on
religious, linguistic, educational, and economic criteria. Slums and very low-income
residential areas, however, exist side-by-side with more affluent population groups. The
literacy rate in the city is 75%, much higher than the country-average literacy rate of 52%
(Banthia, 2001). The sex ratio in Calcutta, however, is 829 females for every 1000 males
(Sen, 2001), much lower than the national average of 927 females per 1000 males
(Banthia, 2001). Demographers attribute this low sex ratio due to excessive influx of
males from neighboring areas in search of better employment opportunities.
Table 1-1 Population growth rate

Year Total population Growth Rate (in percentage)
1901 933,754
1911 1,016,445 8.86
1921 1,053,334 3.63
1931 1,221,210 15.94
1941 2,167,485 77.49
1951 2,698,494 24.50
1961 2,927,289 8.48
1971 3,148,746 7.57
1981 3,305,006 4.96
1991 4,399,819 6.61
2001 4,580,544 4.11
1.4.4 Landuse pattern

Residential areas cover approximately 57% (Nag, 2001) of the total area of Calcutta.
Around 7% of the land area is covered by industries whereas parks and open spaces cover
10% of the area in Calcutta. Calcutta has expanded vastly in the last twenty years; this
expansion is specifically in the eastern and southern parts of the city at the expense of the
wetlands and the salty marsh. The real estate market has encroached on the marshes and
10
wetlands in Calcutta and has converted quite a number of these wetlands to high-rise
buildings, office complexes, shopping malls, entertainment centers, markets, and
residential quarters for a high-income group people. Studies indicate that there was a
43.4% decrease in wetland and a 58.9% increase in urban/built-up area in Calcutta from
1973 to 1993 (Rao et ah, 1999). The government presently is making rules for protecting
and preserving these wetlands to maintain the ecological balance of the area. Another
urban landuse category that needs mention is the total road area in Calcutta that is of
significant concern. Roads in Calcutta comprise only 5.8% of the total area, compared to
20% to 30% road area in any city in a developed country. This small amount of road area
in the city is one of the major causes for the traffic congestion in the city during rush
hours.
1.4.5 Industries, Trade, and Commerce
The Calcutta Metropolitan area is the world's largest processor of jute; also important are
food processing, hosiery, footwear production, textile manufacturing, and production of
iron and steel goods. The products of Calcutta's hinterland include coal, iron, manganese,
mica, petroleum, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, perfumery, paper and printing, rubber,
plastic, leather, tea, and jute. There are more than 8000 industrial units, with 447 small
and large polluting industries within the city limits (KMDA, 2003). Many of the
industrial units are mostly located on the sides of the Hugli River due to the trouble-free
transportation of both raw materials and finished products up and down the river.
Besides, the river provides an easy discharge for refuse and waste material that causes
intensive water pollution.
The Calcutta stock exchange plays an integral part in the financial market of the country.
Foreign banks also have a significant business base in Calcutta. Large-scale jute mills,
heavy engineering, and coal mining industries have their headquarters within the city of
Calcutta. The Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Bengal National
Chamber of Commerce and Industry, and the Indian Chamber of Commerce are in
Calcutta (Palit, 1999). About two-fifths of the workers in Calcutta are employed in trade
11
and commerce (Sen, 2001). Other important occupations within the city include public-
sector service in government departments, financial institutions, medical, and educational
institutions; private-sector services in the stock exchange, information technology,
private hospitals and colleges, legal services, accountancy and credit firms, and various
utility services.
1.4.6 Pollution problems
High population pressure in the city has led to increased vehicular congestion and rapid
growth in small and medium scale industries (WBPCB, 2002). It is evident that
unregulated emissions from industries and vehicles have caused the ambient air quality in
Calcutta and its surrounding areas to deteriorate to levels hazardous to human health,
particularly of those disadvantaged groups who reside in roadside slums and in the
immediate vicinity of some highly polluting industries. Also, pollution levels are
somewhat linked to the seasonal weather pattern. The pollution intensity is extremely
high during the dry winter season and lower during the summer and monsoon months
(WBPCB, 2002). The West Bengal Pollution Control Board (WBPCB) monitors and
controls the environmental pollution level in the city areas and also implements
environmental laws and rules related to air, water, and noise pollution. According to the
data published by the pollution control board in the city, the average amount of
suspended particulates in Calcutta on 1st January 2006 was 361 pg/m3, as against the
World Health Organization (WHO) annual mean safety guideline of 90 pg/m3 (WHO,
1999).
1.5 Conceptual framework
This research will investigate the nature of the relationship between environmental
pollution and population on one hand and environmental pollution and the landuse
pattern of the city on the other. Figure 1.4 represents the three different parts of this
research and how they are related to one another. In the figure, population and landuse
pattern influences pollution on one hand, while alternatively pollution also influences
12
population and landuse pattern. There is also a two-way relationship between the three
variables. This research will investigate such relationships. From Figure 1.4, A, B, and
C describe some of these relationships.
AIR POLLUTION
Vehicular Pollution
Industrial Pollution
POPULATION LANDUSE
Ward-wise demographic Urban landuse
characteristics categories
Figure 1.4 Conceptual Framework of the research
Part “A” of the figure describes how population affects pollution on one hand and also
how environmental pollution affects population on the other. Population leads to more
industrial growth and development; this leads to an increase in environmental pollution
(Mage et al., 1996; Cronshaw et al., 1997; Shukla et al., 1997; Cannibal et al., 2000;
Bhattacharya, 2002). There is always an increasing need to feed the ever-growing
population in a city. According to the World Health Organization, the city of Calcutta
has an infrastructure to cater to one million people but is presently the home of 4.5
million people; thereby the need arises for more efficient means of production. Also, the
population growth has been linked to automobile dependency that leads to an increase in
vehicle pollution (Bachman et al., 2000; Bachman, 2002). Researchers argue urban air
pollution problems will increase as the population increases. However, this increase in
environmental pollution affects the immediate health of the people residing in these
cities. Chronic respiratory ailments are quite common for the residents of Calcutta
(GAIA, 1995; Nyerges et al., 1997; Lee et al., 2000; Lahiri et al., 2002). Also
environmental equity issues are of concern to researchers; the question arises as to what
13
segments of the population are exposed to this high intensity of pollution (McMaster,
1990; Zimmerman, 1993; McMaster et ah, 1997; Graham et al., 1999; Margai, 2001;
Morawska et al., 2002). Most importantantly, the relationship between high pollution
intensity and disadvantaged populations, mostly the slum dwellers and homeless people
must be investigated. Calcutta is a city that houses about 1,5million people residing in
slums. A significant part of this research will deal with issues related to environmental
equity.
Part “B” from the figure describes how the environmental pollution affects the landuse
pattern of the city and also how the landuse pattern of the city is affected by
environmental pollution. There is greater pollution along the transportation corridors
(Croxford et al., 1995); also the industrial clusters in the city are heavily polluted. There
are two highly polluting power plants in the city, one in the extreme western part of the
city near the port area, while another is located just near the northern limit of the city.
Both these parts of the city are seriously polluted due to emissions from these power
plants. Researchers state that unplanned urbanization and industrialization are one of the
major causes for causing a deterioration o f the environment and the quality of life in the
developing countries (Bhattacharya, 2002). Environmental pollution also affects landuse.
Increased pollution leads to a change in the landuse pattern over a prolonged time period
in the form of migration of the urban dwellers to suburban regions, which causes urban
sprawl, deforestation by the consumption of wetlands, salty marshes, agricultural lands,
and forests for setting up industries and other urban infrastructures. The newly developed
Saltlake city and the Baishnabghata-Patuli Township in the eastern part of Calcutta
represents one such significant change in the landuse pattern of Calcutta after 1962
(Kundu et al., 1996; Rao et al., 1999). Also, the government has begun the construction
of yet another planned expansion; the “New Town” located at Rajarhat (15 kilometers
east of Calcutta city) which is said to be one of the largest planned info-tech complexes in
India (Sikdar et al., 2002). The western side o f the city is planning the development of
another well planned modem city, the “West Calcutta International Township”. Yet
14
another huge new township is in the proposal state in Dankuni, to the northern part of the
city (Reporter, 2005).
Part “C” from the figure describes the relationship between the landuse pattern of the city
and the increase in population. Increase in population leads to depletion of forests,
wetlands, and cultivable lands (Ghosh et al., 1987; Rao et al., 1999). Open space gets
increasingly used for residential, industrial, and commercial purposes to support the
growing population. Also a change in landuse pattern will effect the movement of
people. For example, some people will prefer to stay at a location that will be convenient
from their workplace and other amenities. In the southeastern parts of Calcutta, there
have been recent developments involving residential complexes and condominiums that
are conveniently located and provide a close proximity to major bus routes, shopping
malls, schools for children, and recreation centers. Most of these buildings have been
constructed at the expense of marshes, wetlands, and agricultural areas. This change in
the landuse pattern in Calcutta has attracted high-income population from the
neighboring areas settling within the city limits.
This research investigates the nature of relationship between environmental pollution and
population (segment A from Figure 1.4) and environmental pollution and the landuse
pattern (segment B from Figure 1.4) of the city and how they are all interlinked with one
another. This research will also describe the relationship between landuse pattern in
Calcutta and the growth in population (segment C from Figure 1.4), but will not explore
the details of how changes in the landuse pattern of the city would lead to a change in
population or how population growth will modify the landuse pattern of the city.
1.6 Specific research questions

Researchers studying urban air pollution in India have mainly studied the relationship
between air pollution and population pressure, or air pollution and the landuse pattern,
but the existing studies do not take into consideration all three variables. My primary
research objective will be to investigate the relationships between air pollution and
15
population pressure and also air pollution and landuse in Calcutta. My specific research
questions to address this objective include:
• What are some of the problems and issues that arise while conducting environmental
studies in a developing country compared to working with environmental problems
in developed countries?
• What is the spatial (ward1-wise) distribution of air pollution in the city?
o How can the available pollution data from the pollution control board in the city
be interpolated to the finest spatial scale (ward-wise distribution)?
o How can a ward-wise vehicle pollution index be calculated?
o How can a ward-wise industry pollution index be calculated?
• Based on the schematic representation (Figure 1.4), what is the nature of the
relationship between air pollution and population in Calcutta?
o How can the social and economic indices of population be calculated?
o What is the nature o f relationships between air pollution and population?
o Which are the wards that have high pollution intensity, and what is the standard
of living of the people in these wards?
o Are certain socio-economic groups2 more disadvantaged than others? Does this
highlight any environmental equity concerns?
• Based on the schematic representation (Figure 1.4), what is the nature of the
relationship between air pollution and landuse pattern in Calcutta?
o What is the apportionment of pollution in different wards based on industrial,
residential, and commercial landuse patterns?
• What are the specific policies and documentation regarding air pollution
management in Calcutta?
1 Ward is the lowest enumeration unit identified by the Census of India.

2 Disadvantaged socio-economic groups refer to the population living in slums, unemployed population,
and scheduled caste (SC) and scheduled tribe (ST) population. The origins of the SC and the ST population
are often disputed; however this population group has long been a subject to social, political, and economic
discrimination.
16
1.7 Structure of the dissertation
Following this introductory chapter, chapter two provides a review of the existing
literature on the problem of environmental pollution in Calcutta. Also, the South Asian
region of the world, specifically the urban metropolises in India, suffers from problems of
population explosion. Health effects from prolonged exposure to high pollution levels,
and measures introduced by the government to combat such an increase in pollution, will
also be discussed. Coupled with problems from environmental pollution and population
is the problem of unplanned urbanization, depletion of forests, disappearance of wetlands,
and growth in cities leading to an imbalance in the ecosystem. Chapter two will discuss
all such literature that this research is built up on.
Chapter three describes the different types of data and maps that have been used for this
research, the quality of the existing data, and some of the problems and issues that arise
while conducting environmental studies in a developing country. Most of the
information used for this dissertation has been collected in Calcutta from the Census of
India, Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority, National Atlas and Thematic
Mapping Organization, West Bengal Pollution Control Board, the University of Calcutta,
and numerous other government and private agencies. Chapter three will describe the
procedures for aggregation all such dissimilar data into a similar platform so that it could
be conveniently used by most Geographical Information Systems (GIS) software.
Chapters four and five present the conceptual framework and the methodology for this
dissertation. Chapter four describes the ways to estimate environmental pollution in
Calcutta. Two different methods have been used to determine ward-wise distribution of
air pollution. The first part of this chapter describes pollution estimation from different
sources, namely the vehicular and the industrial sources of pollution. The second part of
the chapter describes the method for estimation of environmental pollution from data
measured by the city pollution control board at specific locations.
17
Chapter five describes the rationale and the procedure for calculating a census ward-wise
social and the economic index for the city of Calcutta. The second part of the chapter
explains the procedure for calculating the ward-wise landuse pattern.
Chapter six provides the results from all the analysis described above. First, the chapter
provides a description on the spatial pattern of both vehicular and industrial pollution.
Next, the chapter explains the results from the ward-wise social and economic index of
population and the urban landuse pattern of the city. Each of these results is
accompanied by visual representations that explain the spatial configuration of
environmental pollution, the population pattern, and the landuse pattern in the city.
Chapter seven investigates the nature of relationship between environmental pollution

and population and pollution and landuse pattern of Calcutta. A statistical model has
been used to investigate all such relationships.
Chapter eight summarizes the findings of the analysis and relates these findings to the
conceptual framework. The chapter also describes specific policies and documentation
regarding air pollution management in Calcutta. Finally, the chapter summarizes the
contributions that this research makes to the academic discussions on environmental
pollution on one hand and population explosion and urban landuse on the other, and
suggests avenues of research in each of these areas of inquiry.
1.8 References
Agarwal, M. K. 1996. Urban Transportation in India. First Edition ed. New Delhi: Allied
Publishers Limited.
Bachman, W., Sarasua, W., Hallmark, S., and Guensler, R. 2000. Modeling Regional
Mobile Source Emissions in a Geohraphic Information System Framework.
Transportation Research Part C 8:205- 229.
Bachman, W. H. 2002. A GIS-Based Modal Model of Automobile Exhaust Emissions:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Banthia, J. K. 2001. Primary Census Abstract - General Population. New Delhi:
Government of India.
Bhattacharya, B. K. 2002. Environment - Population - Development. Ecology,
Environmet and Conservation 8 (1):97 - 100.
18
Bray, M. 2002. Asian Brown Cloud Poses Global Threat 2002 . Available from
www.cnn.com.
Cannibal, G., and Lemon, M. 2000. The Strategic Gap in Air-Quality Management.
Journal o f Environmental Management 60:289 - 300.
Cronshaw, M. B., and Requate, T. 1997. Population Size and Environmental Quality.
Journal o f Population Economics 10 (3):299-316.
Croxford, B., Penn, A., and Hillier, B. 1995. Spatial Distribution of Spatial Traffic:
Civilizing Urban Traffic. Paper read at Fifth Symposium on Highway and Urban
Pollution.
Dasgupta, S. Bengal Web Your link to West Bengal 2001 . Available from
http://www .bengal web .com/index .htm.
Dinda, S., Coondoo, D., and Pal, M. 2000. Air Quality and Emperical Growth: An
Emperical Study. Ecological Economics 34 (3):409 - 423.
GAIA. Air Pollution - A Detailed Report GAIA: Environmental Information System,
1995 . Available from
http://www.ess.co.at/GAIA/CASES/IND/CAL/CALpollution.html.
Ghosh, D., and Sen, S. 1987. Ecological History of Calcutta's Wetland Conversion.
Environmental Conservation 14 (3):219-226.
Graham, J. D., Beaulieu, N. D., Sussman, D., Sadowitz, M., et al. 1999. Who Lives Near
Coke Plants and Oil Refineries? An Exploration o f the Environmental Inequality
Hypothesis. Risk Analysis 19 (2): 171- 186.
Keshan, A. 2005. People o f Calcutta 1999 . Available from
http://www. catchcal.com/kaleidoscope/people, asp.
Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority (KMDA). 2003. Final Report of
Identifying and Mapping Industries of KMA. Kolkata: Environmental Cell and
Socio-economic Cell.
Kundu, A. K., and Nag, P. 1996. Atlas o f the City o f Calcutta and its Environs. Second
edition ed. Calcutta: National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organization.
Lahiri, T., Ray, M. R., and Lahiri, P. 2002. Health Effects o f Urban Air Pollution: A
Study on Kolkata. Calcutta: West Bengal Pollution Control Board.
Lee, T. J., Kim, H., Hong, Y. C., Kwon, H. J., et al. 2000. Air Pollution and Daily
Mortality in Seven Major Cities of Korea, 1991- 1997. Environmental Research
Section A 84:247 - 254.
Lelieveld, J., Crutzen, P. J., and Ramanathan, V. 2001. The Indian Ocean Experiment:
Widespread Air Pollution from South and Southeast Asia. Science 291:1031-
1036.
Mage, D., Ozolins, G., Peterson, P., Webster, A., et al. 1996. Urban Air Pollution in
Megacities of the World. Atmospheric Environment 30 (5):681- 686.
Mamoria, C. B. 1994. Economic and Commercial Geography o f India. Agra, India: Shiva
Lai Agarwala & Company.
Margai, F. L. 2001. Health Risks and Environmental Inequity: A Geographical Analysis
of Accidental Releases of Hazardous Materials. The Professional Geographer 53
(3):422 - 434.
19
McMaster, R. B. 1990. Modeling Community Vulnerability to Hazardous Materials,
Using Geographical Information Systems. Edited by Penquet, D. J. and Marble,
D. F., Introductory Readings in GIS. London, New York: Taylor & Francis.
McMaster, R. B., Leitner, H., and Sheppard, E. 1997. GIS-based Environmental Equity
and Risk Assessment: Methodological Problems and Prospects. Cartography and
Geographic Information Systems 24 (3): 172 - 189.
Morawska, L., Vishvakarman, D., Mengersen, K., and Thomas, S. 2002. Spatial
Variation of Airborne Pollutant Concentrations in Brisbane, Australia and its
Potential Impact on Population Exposure Assessment. Atmospheric Environment
36:3545- 3555.
Munshi, S. K. 1990. The Genesis of the Metropolis. In Calcutta 1981 The city, its crisis,
and the debate on urban planning and development, edited by Racine, J. New
Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.
Nag, P. 2001. District Planning Map Series, Kolkata. Kolkata: National Atlas and
Thematic Mapping Organization, Government of India.
Nyerges, T., Robkin, M., and Moore, T. J. 1997. Geographic Information Systems for
Risk Evaluation: Perspectives on Application to Environmental Health.
Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 24 (3): 123 - 144.
Palit, C. 1999. Growth o f Commerce and Industry in Bengal. First Edition ed. Calcutta:
Bengal National Chamber of Commerce and Industry.
Ramanathan, V., Crutzen, P. J., Lelieveld, J., Mitra, A. P., et al. 2001. The Indian Ocean
Experiment. Journal o f Geophysical Research 106 (28):371 - 399.
Ramanathan, V., Crutzen, P. J., and Mitra, A. P. 2002. The Indian Ocean Experiment and
the Asian Brown Cloud. Current Science 83 (8):947- 955.
Rao, B. R. M., Dwivedi, R. S., Kushwaha, S. P. S., Bhattacharya, S. N., et al. 1999.
Monitoring the Spatial Extent of Coastal Wetlands Using ERS-1 SAR Data.
International Journal o f Remote Sensing 20 (13):2509- 2517.
Rao, M. A. 1999. Indian Railways. Third Edition ed. New Delhi: National Book Trust,
India.
Reporter, Staff. 2005. New Town wait ends. The Telegraph, 03.12.2005.
Roy, B. 1994. Calcutta Slums Public Policy in Retrospect. Calcutta: Minarva Associated
(Publications) Pvt. Ltd.
Sen, V. 2001. Census of India 2001 Series-20 West Bengal; Population Totals. Calcutta:
Census of India.
Sen, V. 2001. Census o f India, General Population Tables, West Bengal. Calcutta:
Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal.
Sengupta, S., Patil, R. S., and Venkatachalam, P. 1999. Assessment of Population
Exposure and Risk Zones Due to Air Pollution Using the Geographical
Information System. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems 20 (3): 191-
199.
Shukla, J. B., and Dubey, B. 1997. Modeling the Depletion and Conservation of Forestry
Resources: Effects of Population and Pollution. Journal o f Mathematical Biology
36 (1):71- 94.
20
Sikdar, P. K., Mondal, S., Saha, S., Sarkar, S. S., et al. 2002. Environmental Impact
Assessment of a Proposed Info-tech Complex in East Calcutta Wetlands. The
Environmentalist 22 (3):241-260.
UN. 1997. United Nations Demographic Year Book.
UNEP. 2001. UNEP Assessment Report - Project Asian Brown Cloud: UNEP.
WBPCB. Air Quality Monitoring o f Kolkata West Bengal Pollution Control Board, 2002
. Available from http://www.wbpcb.gov.in/.
WHO. Air Quality Guidelines World Health Organization, 1999 . Available from
http://www.who.int/peh/air/Airqualitygd.htm.
Zimmerman, R. 1993. Social Equity and Environmental Risk. Risk Analysis 13 (6):649-
666 .
21
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter elaborates on many of the issues that have been introduced in the first
chapter. Chapter 2 will discuss studies on pollution sources and measurements, research
on population distribution, and studies on various urban landuse patterns and its
relationship to pollution. The first part of the chapter describes some acute and chronic
pollution events. Next, the chapter describes air pollution modeling and estimation of air
pollution from source pollutants. Source pollutants include emissions from vehicular and
industrial sources. The use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) technology for
estimation of air pollution has also been described in detail. The next part of the chapter
describes some of the studies that relate air pollution to population. The health impacts
of high pollution and environmental justice concerns have been discussed in this part of
the chapter. The remainder of the chapter describes some of the studies linking landuse
patterns in the urban metropolitan areas to air pollution. Finally, the chapter will
highlight some o f the gaps in academic literature in these studies and will explain how
this research should make a contribution to the academic discussions on air pollution;
specifically air pollution issues in the urban metropolitan settings of India.
2.2 Chronic and Acute pollution events
Typically, investigations on environmental pollution focus on two major aspects, acute

and chronic pollution. Acute pollution events are quick short-term events with
immediate consequences in public health. Acute pollution events require immediate
evacuation and are mostly associated with fatality (Margai, 2001). Events in acute
pollution are unplanned, unexpected, and trigger a lot of emergency response activities.
Chronic pollution event on the other hand is a perpetual event that results in the gradual
deterioration of the environment in an area. Chronic pollution events are usually routine
emissions from factories or regular fume releases from vehicles. Over an extended time
period, fatalities and health risks from both acute and chronic pollution events are fairly
22
balanced (Margai, 2001). Acute pollution events attract immense media publicity, non
governmental organization attention, and academic research. In contrast, chronic
pollution events receive less attention in terms of policy implementation regarding
pollution reduction measures.
An example of acute pollution event is the Bhopal Gas tragedy in India, where over 40
tonnes of highly poisonous methyl isocyanate gas leaked out of a Union Carbide plant
(pesticide factory) in December 1984. The poisonous gas leak killed more than two
thousand people with personal injuries exceeding more than three hundred thousand
(Sriraj et al., 1999; Dingham et al., 2002; Gupta, 2002). The survivors are victims of
chemical poisoning and health problems. Besides humans, the impact on animal and
plant life in the city was catastrophic. The Bhopal gas tragedy was an unplanned and
unexpected event that occurred in a matter of hours. Another example of acute pollution
is the London fog disaster in December 1952 (Schwartz et al., 1990) that killed around
four thousand people in a week. Emissions from industries, vehicles, and the burning of
household fuels caused a think blanket of urban smog over London, which became
deadly to the vulnerable population.
The “Asian Brown Haze” or the “Asian Brown Cloud” is primarily a result of chronic
environmental pollution. “Pollution plumes recur seasonally downwind of the Indian
subcontinent and Asian continent due to industrial and vehicular emissions, biomass
burning, and wind blown dust” (UNEP, 2001). The cloud (Bray, 2002) is a thick layer of
pollution blanket that is intense during the winter months from December to March and is
located off the southwest coast of India, over the Indian Ocean. According to the report
of the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), the direct effects of the haze
include an immediate reduction in solar heating of the lower atmosphere, a significant
decrease in precipitation, decline in agricultural production, and adverse health effects
(Lelieveld et al., 2001; Ramanathan et al., 2001; UNEP, 2001; Bray, 2002; Ramanathan
et al., 2002). Air pollution from industries, vehicles, and burning of fossil fuels are the
single most important factor resulting in the intensification of the brown haze. This high
pollution cloud calls for an urgent need in research related to chronic environmental
23
pollution. Air pollution measures from seven metropolitan cities in India indicate very
high pollution levels, sometimes beyond permissible limits (UNEP, 2001); therefore
necessitating the urgency for research on urban air pollution. The purpose of this
research is to study chronic environmental pollution in the city of Calcutta, India, which
has more than eight thousand industrial units, more than 750,000 registered vehicles, and
4.5 million people living in 187 square kilometer area.
2.3 Air pollution in urban metropolitan areas
Air pollution is one of the most serious problems in large metropolitan areas throughout
the globe. There are many sources of air pollution. Vehicular exhausts, large industrial
plants, medium and small scale industries, refuse burning, households burning biomass
for cooking and heating (Akbar et al., 2002; Ray et al., 2003) (specifically in India,
China, and sub-Saharan Africa), re-suspended road dust, construction particles migrating
from other regions, and naturally occurring dust (Akbar et al., 2002). Air pollution
studies have been conducted throughout the globe, some of the studies include the study
of airborne pollutants in Brisbane, Australia (Morawska et al., 2002); air pollution
exposure in California (Gunier et al., 203), Boston (Abt et al., 2000), Baltimore (Ryan,
1995), and in the Minneapolis/St Paul metropolitan area (McMaster et al., 1997;
Sheppard et al., 1999; Leitner et al., 2000; Ramachandran et al., 2000; Adgate et al.,
2003; Ramachandran et al., 2003; Sexton et al., 2004); relationship between air pollution
and mortality in London (Schwartz et ah, 1990), in Ohio (Schwartz et al., 1992), United
States (Lipfert et ah, 2006), in Netherlands (Hoek et ah, 2002), in Hong Kong (Goyal et
ah, 2006), and in the metropolitan cities in Korea (Lee et ah, 2000). In India, air
pollution models have also been developed for New Delhi (Goyal et al., 2006), Bombay
(Sengupta et ah, 1999), and Chenni (Chariot et ah, 2001).
Studies on urban air pollution cover a wide spectrum. Most researchers measure air
pollution either from pollutant sources or from air quality measurements. Pollutant
sources include emissions from vehicles (Gunier et ah, 203; Center, 1994; Bachman et
ah, 2000; Basu et ah, 2001; Bachman, 2002; Ning et ah, 2005; Carslaw, 2006; Lipfert et
24
al., 2006; Shah et al., 2006; Wahlin et al., 2006), or industries (Chakraborty et al., 1998;
Fenco et al., 1999; Graham et al., 1999; Kandlikar and Ramachandran, 2000; Banerjee,
2004), or from the domestic sources (WBPCB, 1994 - 2001; Abt et al., 2000; Ray et al.,
2003; Banerjee, 2004); air quality measurements are taken either by the city pollution
control authorities (CPCB, 2000; EPA, 2002; WBPCB, 2004) or by the researcher
(Center, 1994; Fenco et al., 1999; Lahiri et al., 2000; Ramachandran et al., 2000; Adgate
et al., 2003; Ramachandran et al., 2003). Some o f the air pollution studies model
industry or vehicular pollution (McMaster, 1990; Ryan, 1995; Shukla et al., 1997; Fenco
et al., 1999; Bachman et al., 2000; Chariot et al., 2001; Bachman, 2002; Brainard et al.,
2002; Ning et al., 2005; Goyal et al., 2006); some others define the spatial distribution of
population in high and low pollution zones (Ryan, 1995; CPCB, 2000; WBPCB, 2002;
Banerjee, 2004; WBPCB, 2004); others assess the amount of risk due to exposure
(Gunier et al., 203; GuhaMazumdar et al., 1992; Schwartz et al., 1992; Sengupta et al.,
1999; Lahiri et al., 2000; Lahiri et al., 2000; Basu et al., 2001; Lahiri et al., 2002;
Morawska et al., 2002; Ramachandran et al., 2003; Sexton et al., 2004); there is yet
another group of studies that relate air pollution to the vulnerable population group
affected (Schwartz et al., 1990; Zimmerman, 1993; McMaster et al., 1997; Waller et al.,
1997; Carlin et al., 1999; Graham et al., 1999; Sengupta et al., 1999; Pulido, 2000;
Chakraborty et al., 2001; Hoek et al., 2002). Air pollution studies are also related to
public policies, the sighting of a new industry, automobile fuel policy, and also changes
in landuse pattern (Romero et al., 1999; Government of India, 2002).
2.4 Air pollution from source emissions
2.4.1 Vehicular pollution
The largest contributor of environmental pollution in urban areas has often been
attributed to the transportation sector (Bachman et al., 2000). This directs more precise
studies on vehicular pollution and formulation of newer control strategies.
25
2.4.1.1 Modeling air pollution from vehicles
According to Bachman (Bachman, 2002), modeling emissions from mobile sources

require one of the four types of models. A travel demand forecasting model using
characteristics of the transportation system and socioeconomic data to develop traffic
volume and average speeds; a mobile emission model using travel demand estimates,
fleet type, year of manufacture, and environmental conditions for predicting mobile
source pollutant production; A photochemical model using atmospheric conditions and
stationary source estimates for emission inventory; and a micro scale model for
predicting pollutant levels near specific facilities. All these models entail high-resolution
maps with a dense road network, a digital elevation model, meteorological data, and data
on vehicular flow patterns. Also, emissions from a motor vehicle vary under different
driving conditions (Ning et al., 2005). Geographical Information Systems (GIS) have
been used widely for transportation modeling because GIS models can manage complex
spatial data and address the temporality of the observations (Croxford et al., 1995;
Bachman et al., 2000; Bachman, 2002). The models include more than thousands of line
sources, a couple hundred stationary sources, an hourly time series of metrological
observations for more than an year, and thousands of receptor points (Croxford et al.,
1995). Bachman (Bachman et al., 2000) uses a Mobile Emission Assessment System for
Urban and Regional Evaluation (MEASURE) model to determine vehicular pollution at
Atlanta, Georgia. Croxford et al (Croxford et al., 1995) collected very fine resolution
curbside pollution measurements for 20 sites at an interval of 6 minutes within a small
area in central London. The idea was to study how the concentrations of pollutants
varied through time so that urban space could be designed appropriately and the traffic
flows could be managed conveniently to reduce pedestrian exposure. Croxford et al also
designed a model to measure pollution at the scale of street segment, in a reliable
accurate and cost effective way. Croxford (Croxford et al., 1995) uses the street network
of London and states that there is a strong relationship between vehicular and pedestrian
movement and street grid configuration. Also that “usable street width” (Penn et al.,
1996) is important for the analysis of vehicular pollution. Lipfert (2006) uses traffic
26
density data published by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to model
vehicular emissions (Lipfert et al., 2006). However, when modeling the emissions from
mobile sources, as Croxford (Croxford et al., 1995) puts it, there is no “cheap method for
accurately measuring pollutant concentrations at large number of sites simultaneously”.
Besides modeling emissions from automobiles, researchers have also modeled pollutants
generated due to vehicle movement in the roads, specifically particulate matter generated
from road surface wear, tyre wear and tear, brake wear, and also corrosion of vehicle
components (Wahlin et al., 2006). Road salt and grit deposited in the colder regions of
the earth during winter maintenance are also a related to pollution generated due to the
vehicle flows (Wahlin et al., 2006). Most of these studies that model vehicle pollution or
use GIS were implemented in the developing world where traffic density data are
available from traffic volume surveys that estimate the flow of vehicles per day. In India
or in Calcutta there is no such authority that publishes data on traffic density, hence
modeling vehicular pollution from vehicle density or from line sources and stationary
sources is a challenging task.
2.4.1.2 The Emission Factor
Most of the models on vehicular pollution take into consideration the emission factor of
the vehicles. Emission factor is defined as the “quantity of a pollutant released into the
atmosphere to the level of activity associated with each vehicle type.” An emission
factor, F, can be defined as F = E/A, where E is the amount of pollutant released (in
grams) and A is the level of activity by the vehicle (typically measured in kilometers).
The emission factor takes into consideration the nature of technology of the vehicles,
power of the vehicle, vehicle operating conditions like engine temperature, speed,
ambient temperature, depreciation of the vehicle from age and usage, fuel quality, and
maintenance (Kandlikar and Ramachandran, 2000; Government of India, 2002; Banerjee,
2004). Therefore emission factor differs from vehicle to vehicle. Different authors have
researched on the emission factors of the different vehicle types. There have been
numerous researches on the emission factor of vehicles in developed regions of the world
27
(EPA, 1985); simultaneously researchers have also studied the emission factors in
underdeveloped and developing countries (Bose, 1996; Kandlikar and Ramachandran,
2000; Government of India, 2002; Banerjee, 2004). There have also been a number of
studies on the emission factor of vehicles in specific metropolitan cities. Studies have
also related vehicle weight and fuel use (Carslaw, 2006). Researchers argue that a
reduction in vehicle weight could in fact result in large reductions in fuel use and hence a
decrease in emissions from the vehicles.
2.4.1.3 Vehicular pollution studies in India
In the urban metropolitan cities of India, the transport sector is the major contributor of
pollutants like nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), and
particulate matter (PM) into the atmosphere (Lahiri et al., 2002). It has been estimated
that vehicles contribute 64% of the pollution in Delhi (Government of India, 2002) and
about 50% of urban air pollution in Calcutta (Banerjee, 2004). The vehicle growth in
India has been very rapid; there were 21 million registered vehicles in 1991, which
increased to about 41 million registered vehicles in 1998 (Government of India, 2002).
The number of motorcycles and auto-rickshaws, representing the largest share of all
vehicles in India is increasing at the rate of 20% annually (Kandlikar and Ramachandran,
2000; Government of India, 2002). Increase in vehicles has led to an increase in the use
of gasoline and diesel fuel. Although greater than 80% of the vehicular fleet in India use
gasoline as fuel, the total amount of diesel consumed in India is five times more than the
usage of gasoline (Kandlikar and Ramachandran, 2000). Diesel is the primary fuel used
for buses, trucks, and some other commercial vehicles.
2.4.1.4 Vehicular pollution studies in Calcutta
The pollution control board in Calcutta monitors air quality at major traffic islands. They
measure particulate matter (PM), NOx and SO2 . According to their findings (WBPCB,
1994 - 2001), pollution is worse during the winter months of December and January and
is the lowest during the months of July to October. Also, their data on air pollution at the
28
major traffic islands provide a general picture on the intensity of pollution at the busiest
road intersections. The pollution control board also studied the visible smoke emitted
from moving vehicles. Their study concluded that 72% goods vehicles using diesel as
fuel, 62% of auto-rickshaws using gasoline, 52% of motorcycles using gasoline, 49% of
taxicabs using both diesel and gasoline, 45% minibus using diesel, 43% buses using
diesel as fuel, and 41% private cars using both diesel and gasoline, emit black smoke
(Center, 1994; WBPCB, 1994 - 2001). Presently, in Calcutta it has become mandatory
for all vehicles that run on the city roads to perform a “Pollution Under Control” (PUC)
check from an authorized PUC center (CPCB, 2000). Other than the pollution control
board, the Government o f India initiated an Auto Fuel Policy recommending suitable
auto fuels and their specifications, keeping in mind the availability and logistics of fuel
supplies, and the research of multi-fuel use in different categories o f vehicles (Panwar,
2001; Government of India, 2002). The study on auto fuel policy details air quality
standards and the status of air pollution in the different metropolitan cities of India. The
policy expects a reduction in vehicular pollution by the year 2010, with strict emission
norms and use of superior quality fuel.
The nodal research center (Center, 1994) in their study on vehicular pollution of Calcutta
details the most effected areas in terms of vehicular pollution in the city. They classify
the high-traffic areas in the city as “critical”, “severely congested”, and “congested”
areas. The “critical” areas in the city permit more than 30,000 vehicles in a twelve hour
time period from 8.00 A.M. to 8.00 P.M. The center also has some very helpful
suggestions for controlling pollution from increased traffic. Further, the nodal research
center lists some of the health hazards from vehicular pollution. Besides studying air
pollution from vehicles, the center also studied sound pollution due to the frequent
beeping of horns specifically during rush hours and traffic congestion. The high-density
traffic in Calcutta produces around 100 dB (decibel) of sound. It has been estimated that
around 50% of the population of Calcutta spend more than 40 hours a week in the midst
of 95dB sound (Center, 1994). According to World Health Organization, the safe limit of
sound intensity for a human ear is 45 dB.
29
The department of environment and the pollution control board in the city in conjunction
with the Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute (CNCI) performed detailed surveys and
studied the health effects from vehicular pollution on the residents in Calcutta (Lahiri et
al., 2002). The institute studies different categories of people including those directly
exposed to vehicular emissions, those directly exposed to combustion fumes, and those
exposed to both vehicular and combustion fumes. They also studied a control group of
population that reside outside Calcutta and do not commute to the metropolis for their
daily needs. Their results indicate “the lungs of Kolkata population are highly burdened
with respirable particulate matter with suggestive indication of inflammatory and allergic
lung response and microscopic hemorrhage of lung” (Lahiri et al., 2002).
Vehicular pollution studies in Calcutta and even most vehicular studies in India are
mostly restricted to the increase in the number o f vehicles (Center, 1994; Kandlikar and
Ramachandran, 2000; Panwar, 2001; Government of India, 2002; Sharma et al., 2002;
Baneijee, 2004) and health effects from vehicular pollution (Basu et al., 2001; Lahiri et
al., 2002). Other studies cover, the emission factor of vehicles (Bose, 1996; Kandlikar
and Ramachandran, 2000; Government of India, 2002; Banerjee, 2004), measurement of
air quality in major road intersections or sensitive areas (Center, 1994; WBPCB, 1994 -
2001), the quality of fuel used and how this fuel contributes to environmental pollution
(Kandlikar and Ramachandran, 2000; Government of India, 2002), and the number of old
cars plying and how they contribute to vehicular pollution (Banerjee, 2004). There are
only a limited number of studies in India that model vehicular pollution in metropolitan
areas (Chariot et al., 2001). In urban areas of India, there has been no distinction in terms
of air pollution measurement, based on the types of vehicles, like a bus that mostly uses
diesel as a fuel versus a two-wheeler that uses gasoline as fuel. Also, there has not been
any study, to the best of my knowledge, which illustrates the spatial distribution of
vehicular pollution in the city of Calcutta.
This research analyzes vehicular pollution by estimating separate vehicular pollution

indices for all the different types of vehicles plying on the roads of Calcutta. The
30
analysis uses GIS technology to map the dense road network of Calcutta and also to trace
vehicles movement and pattern through this street network.
2.4.2 Industrial pollution
Industrial production processes account for a considerable share of the overall

environmental pollution. Industrial pollution can be in the form of air and water
pollution, or solid and hazardous wastes. Air pollution can be smoke and smog or in the
form of chemicals that interact with other chemicals in the air. Pollutants from industries
discharged into rivers, lakes, ponds, and ocean affects the marine life and causes intense
water pollution. Hazardous and toxic wastes from industries affect groundwater and soil
and are a threat to the entire ecosystem. This dissertation focuses on air pollution from
the industries.
2.4.2.1 Modeling air pollution from industries
There are two basic approaches to model industrial pollution. The first approach, a
theoretical approach includes analytical and numerical solutions to several appropriate
equations that represent the physics of the pollutant and its concentration. The second
approach is an experimental model that could be conducted with a series of
experimentations in the field and a study of several meteorological factors (Kumar et al.,
2001). GIS technology has also been used intensively to model dispersion of industrial
pollutants (Chakraborty et al., 1994; Chakraborty et al., 1997; McMaster et al., 1997;
Sheppard et al., 1999; Chakraborty et al., 2001; Margai, 2001). Buffer analysis is a
“spatial analytic technique for assessing proximity within a certain distance of a point,
line or area feature” (McMaster et al., 1997). Also, with adequate information on air
temperature, humidity, cloud cover, wind speed, and wind direction air pollution plumes
can also be drawn to model the spatial extent of industrial pollution (Chakraborty et al.,
1994; Chakraborty et al., 1997; McMaster et al., 1997; Sheppard et al., 1999;
Chakraborty et al., 2001).
31
2 .4 .2.2 Industrial Types in India
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in India has listed more than 1500 large-
scale polluting industrial units in 17 industrial categories (CPCB, 2000). Large-scale
industrial units account for more than 60% of the total industrial output of the country.
Small-scale industrial units account for the remaining 40% of the total industrial output in
India. Mumbai is the most industrialized city in India, contributing more than 10% of the
total industrial production followed by Delhi (Kandlikar and Ramachandran, 2000).
Besides larger metropolitan areas, high emission from industries is also prevalent in
many smaller towns with local manufacturing units. Some of the smaller towns with
high industrial pollution include Moradabad in Uttar Pradesh, Kochi in Kerala, Gurgaon
in Haryana, Asansol and Durgapur in West Bengal and numerous other industrial
clusters.
The CPCB undertook a national program in India by making a detailed inventory o f the
high polluting industries throughout the country. The document categorized industrial
units and industrial sectors. CPCB’s record not only provided comprehensive
information on the high polluting industries, but also listed the technology that is used
presently by the particular groups of industries for pollution reduction. CPCB then listed
the requirements the industrial unit need to fulfill for further reduction in industrial
pollution. The high polluting industrial categories as classified by the CPCB include
(CPCB, 2000):
• Chemical Industries that included fertilizer plants (phosphatic fertilizers, nitrogenous
fertilizers, and complex fertilizers), drug manufacturing industries, pesticide industry,
dyes and dye intermediate, and caustic soda industries.
• Agro-based industries, which include textile industries (woolen and cotton based
industry), tanneries (vegetable tanning and chrome tanning), distillery, and pulp and
paper industry
• Mining industries consist of aluminum industry, steel industry, and cement plants.
32
• Power plants include coal and lignite based thermal power plants, and gas and naptha
based thermal power plants.
2.4.2.3 Pollutants from industries and the “right-to-know”
Industries emit a wide variety of process-specific pollutants including gaseous organic

and inorganic compounds, complex vapors that undergo phase transformation after
emission into the atmosphere, and particulate matter with process specific composition
that include heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Besides, there
are a large number of small-scale industrial units that make pollution control more
difficult because “small-scale operations are more financially strapped and less
technologically capable than large scale one, and their numbers make the already lax
monitoring and enforcement of pollution control laws even more difficult” (CPCB,
2000). Regular pollutants released from industrial combustion including NOx, SO2 , CO,
and PM could be quantified based on fuel usage and average emission factor. However,
to determine the intensity of toxic substances released into the atmosphere requires
industry-specific data for each toxic compound (Kandlikar and Ramachandran, 2000).
Detailed inventory for each industry and power plant is not a very common practice in
India.
After the Bhopal gas tragedy in India, all countries have become aware about hazardous
waste sites, petrofund, and superfund information. The demand for “right-to-know” laws
has increased worldwide. Unfortunately, the place of origin of this right-to-know act,
India, still does not have open-to-all public databases providing detailed information
about toxic releases, petrofund, superfund, and hazardous waste sites. Inadequate data
monitoring technology and data privacy issues in India are the main hindrance for
presence o f such elaborate databases.
2.4.2.4 Industrial Pollution in Calcutta
According to a study by the University o f Calcutta, industrial pollution contributes 48%

of the total environmental pollution in the city. The industry locations in Calcutta are
33
positioned based on the availability of raw materials, proximity to cheap labor, easy
access to market, adequate transportation facilities, and other advantageous technical and
economic factors (Banerjee, 2004). Environmental conditions did not play an adequate
role in the past (WBPCB, 1994 - 2001). Calcutta, situated on the eastern banks of the
Hugh River possessed most of the infrastructure required for industrial development,
initiating high industrial growth along the banks of the river. Calcutta has a total of 8,832
polluting industrial units within the city limits in 2001 of which, 1,651 industrial units are
highly polluting industries (CMDA, 2002).
Based on the total environmental pollution by an industry, the city pollution control board
since the year 1998 categorizes all polluting industries within the city into three major
categories (WBPCB, 1994 - 2001; CPCB, 2000). “Red” category meaning highly
polluting industries; “orange” category meaning moderately polluting industries; and
“green” category meaning less polluting industries. The “red” category is divided into
“special red” meaning extremely polluting and “ordinary red” meaning less polluting
than the “special red” category industries and more polluting than the “orange” category
of industries. Of the 8,832 industrial units within the city, 1,651 are “red” category
industries, 1,086 are “orange”, and 6,095 are “green” category industries. There is yet
another category, the “exempted” category of industries that does not contribute to any
environmental pollution and are not included in the total count of industries. Complete
listings of each industrial unit and to what category they belong is provided by the
pollution control board in the city and is modified from time to time. According to the
pollution control board in the city, the pollution problems from the large-scale and the
medium-scale industries have been controlled by strict enforcement of emission norms;
the problems with the smaller industries are yet to be adequately addressed (WBPCB,
1994-2001; CPCB, 2000).
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) maintains a

comprehensive database on the amount of emissions from pollutant sources. Inventories
in India, particularly in Calcutta only maintain a database showing the location of the
industry in a particular ward and the end products produced by the industry. Recently,
34
the Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA) has conducted a survey of all
polluting industries in Calcutta and lists the amount of fuel consumed by larger
industries. Data on industrial emissions for most of the industries (excluding power
plants) are restricted information and is not available to any agency or researcher other
than the city pollution control board. Aggregate data based on industrial categories can
be obtained from the city pollution control board, but to identify a particular source
pollutant from the aggregate data will not produce accurate results. Therefore, while
industrial pollution studies in the United States study the dispersion of pollutants with the
help of circular buffer and plumes - by far the most common method for representing
dispersion of industrial pollutants; industrial pollution studies in India can only calculate
emissions from power plants or total number of industrial units and industrial clusters, or
the effects on groundwater due to industrial effluent discharges.
Based on the limited availability of data, this research makes an effort to estimate
industrial pollution in the different wards of Calcutta by taking the industrial categories
as defined by the city pollution control board and also the ward-wise coal consumption
by all the industries as defined by the CMDA.
2.5 Air pollution from air quality measurements
2.5.1 Pollution Control Boards in India
In India, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) mostly conducts studies on the
status of environment pollution in India (CPCB, 2000). The CPCB monitors releases
from industrial activities and emissions from vehicles. The West Bengal Pollution
Control Board (WBPCB) is the pollution control authority in the state of West Bengal
and also in the city of Calcutta (WBPCB, 2002). By monitoring the environment, and
subsequently enforcing regulatory standards, the pollution control board in Calcutta has
been able to reduce the concentration of respiratory particulate matter in the city’s air
since 1997 (WBPCB, 1994 - 2001; WBPCB, 2002).
35
WBPCB measures the quality of air in the city of Calcutta, formulates norms, and
implements pollution control strategies. WBPCB has 25 air pollution monitoring stations
in Calcutta. The four common pollutants hazardous to human health that are monitored
by the WBPCB include, sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ), nitrogen oxides (NOx), suspended
particulate matter (SPM), and respiratory particulate matter (RPM) also referred to as
PM 10 . In the recent years, the WBPCB is also measuring lead (Pb) and Benzene.
Airborne particulate matter is a mixture of many subclasses of pollutants. Particulate
matter could also be classified as primary and secondary. Primary particulates are
emitted directly by emission sources, whereas secondary particulates are formed through
atmospheric reaction of gases (Akbar et al., 2003). The sizes of particulate matter could
vary from approximately 0.005 microns to 100 microns in diameter (Akbar et ah, 2003).
Particulate matter less than 10 microns in diameter are referred to as PM 10 . Although all
ambient particulate matter irrespective of size is referred to as SPM, the WBPCB use the
term SPM for all particulates that are larger than 10 microns in diameter.
Excessive concentration of any o f the pollutants in the ambient air (generally refers to the
level of concentration at 14 feet high from the ground level) is hazardous to human health
(Banerjee, 2004). To assess the intensity of pollution the existing state of pollution needs
to be compared to a prescribed norm. India follows the norm specified by the
government of India, known as the National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM)
standard. The NAAQM is not as strict as the standard specified by the World Health
Organization (WHO) or the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The NAAQM air
quality standard is adjusted according to the local parameters of a developing country
(CPCB, 2000; WBPCB, 2002) like India and the standards are separate for industrial,
residential, and sensitive areas. Some of the sensitive areas include hospital zones, old
age homes, and childcare centers. Table 2-1 list the NAAQM standard specified by the
government of India. Table 2-2 lists the ambient air quality in Calcutta for the first day
of every month from May 2005 to April 2006. Also highlighted in Table 2-2 are the
values that are higher than the NAAQM specified standard. Table 2-2 is based on daily
air quality data published by the WBPCB on its web site.
36
Table 2-1 The National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) standard
Pollutant Time weighted Concentration in ambient air
average
Industrial Residential, Sensitive
area rural and areas
other areas
Sulphur Annual average* 80 pg/m3 60 pg/m3 15 pg/m3
Dioxide (SO2 )
24 hours average** 120 pg/m3 80 pg/m3 30 pg/m3
Oxides of Annual average* 80 pg/m3 60 pg/m3 15 pg/m3
Nitrogen NOx
Suspended Annual average* 360 pg/m3 140 pg/m3 70 pg/m3
Particulate
Matter (SPM)
Respiratory Annual average* 120 pg/m3 60 pg/m3 50 pg/m3
Particulate
Matter (PM 10 )
Lead (Pb) Annual average* 1 pg/m3 0.75 pg/m3 0.5 pg/m3
24 hours average** 1.5 pg/m3 1 pg/m3 0.75 pg/m3
Carbon 8 hours average* 5mg/m3 2mg/m3 lmg/m3
Monoxide (CO)
1 hour concentration 10mg/m3 4mg/m3 2mg/m3
Ammonia Annual average* 0.1 mg/m3
(NH3) 0.4mg/m3
24 hours average**
*Annual Average is a simple average of minimum 104 measurements in a year taken
twice a week 24 hourly at uniform level
**The 24 hourly/ 8 hourly values should be met 98% of the time in a year. However,
2% of the time, it may exceed but not on two consecutive days.
Source: (WBPCB, 2002)
37
Table 2-2 Ambient air quality in Calcutta for the first day o f every month (May 2005 to
April 2006)_______________________ __________________________ _____________
Date SPM (pg/m3) RPM (pg/m3) S 0 2 (pg/m3) NOx (pg/m
May 1st 2005 180 67 5 38
June 1st 2005 188 61 4 33
July 1st 2005 172 75 5 47
August 1st 2005 127 46 4 31
September 1st 2005 143 54 5 42
October 1st 2005 133 46 4 44
November 1st 2005 178 68 9 62
December 1st 2005 288* 172* 15 98*
January 1st 2006 361* 226* 19 108*
February 1st 2006 294* 171* 17 91*
March 1st 2006 288* 157* 9 60
April 1st 2006 213* 103* 6 58
* Air pollution level is higher than the NAAQM standard specified for residential
areas
Source: (WBPCB, 2002)
2.5.1.1 Status and seasonal trends of air quality in Calcutta
There are two main sources of air pollution, the industries and the vehicles. In Calcutta,
vehicles contribute 50% of the total pollution in the city and industries contribute 48% of
the total pollution; pollution from domestic sources construction and building activities
contribute the remainder of the 2% of pollution (Banerjee, 2004). After the release of
pollutants from its source, there are numerous factors that come into play. First, the
pollutants gets diffused into the atmosphere, some of these pollutants alters its chemical
composition and properties due to chemical reactions, also the concentration of pollutant
could be reduced by plants, humans, animals, and inanimate objects. Finally, one of the
biggest influences on the pollutants is the meteorological condition (Cogliani, 2001).
Wind speed and wind direction plays a major role on the seasonal distribution of air
pollution in Calcutta (Cogliani, 2001; Banerjee, 2004). It needs mention that the
38
WBPCB measure the ambient air quality at a particular location. The ambient air quality
is a result of numerous alterations that the source pollutants encounter after release into
the atmosphere. Therefore, ambient air quality measures at a particular location are
expected to be different from the pollution emitted by the source pollutants in the same
location.
From Table 2-2 it is evident that environmental pollution is higher during the cool winter
months and lower during the hot and humid summers. Lower temperatures, calm
conditions, and temperature inversion confine dispersion of air pollutants during winter.
On the contrary, high velocity winds during summer and the monsoons result in the
dispersion of pollutants and consequently a lower intensity of pollution (WBPCB, 1994 -
2001; CPCB, 2000; Banerjee, 2004). There have been numerous studies by the WBPCB
and other agencies that study this seasonal variation of air pollution in the city.
2.6 Air pollution and population
There have been several studies throughout the globe that describes how population
affects pollution (Mage et ah, 1996; Cronshaw et al., 1997; Shukla et ah, 1997; Cannibal
et al., 2000; Bhattacharya, 2002). More population leads to more industrial growth and
development; this leads to an increase in environmental pollution. Cronshaw and
Requate (1997) analyze the effect of increased pollution due to more production
(Cronshaw et ah, 1997). They argue that increased production is related to labor and
population. Bhattacharya (2002) also argues that the environment is deteriorating due to
overuse and / or abuse of available natural resources by an increase in population
(Bhattacharya, 2002). Bachman et ah (2000) also link population growth and automobile
dependency to air pollution problems in the metropolitan areas of the United States
(Bachman et ah, 2000). Mage et ah (1996), in their paper on urban air pollution,
conclude that expected population rise in developing countries would worsen
environmental pollution problems unless there is adequate control (Mage et ah, 1996).
Finally, according to researchers, the “Asian Brown Cloud” will intensify as the
population in the South Asian part of the continent grows. High air pollution also has an
39
effect on population. Many researchers study the deterioration of health of the population
exposed to intense air pollution. Also certain environmental justice issues have emerged,
that analyze whether or not less advantaged people are more affected by environmental
pollution.
2.6.1 Health effects of Air pollution
An ever-increasing body of literature links air pollution to short-term and long-term

effects on human health (Schwartz et al., 1990; GuhaMazumdar et al., 1992; Schwartz et
al., 1992; GAIA, 1995; Mage et al., 1996; Nyerges et al., 1997; Waller et al., 1997;
Sengupta et al., 1999; Lahiri et al., 2000; Lee et al., 2000; Margai, 2001; Hoek et al.,
2002; Lahiri et al., 2002; Adgate et al., 2003; Sexton et al., 2004). Infants and elderly
populations are at highest risk as they are very susceptible to pulmonary and heart
diseases from inhaled pollutants. Mage et al. (1996) in their study state that 20 of the 24
megacities in the world indicate very high ambient air pollution levels where serious
health effects on the growing population are reported (Mage et al., 1996). A joint study
by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) have estimated that nearly 700,000 deaths worldwide were related to air pollution
and that this number can escalade to 8 million deaths by the year 2020 (UNEP, 2001).
The World Health Organization estimates that the occurrences of respiratory diseases in
India, specifically the metropolitan cities, were estimated to be quite high (WHO, 1999).
2.6.2 Air pollution and health studies in Calcutta
Studies conducted by the University of Calcutta and the Chaittaranjan National Cancer
Institute (CNCI) from November 1996 to July 2001 surveyed 1,310 permanent residents
(706 males, 604 females) in the city of Calcutta. The Calcutta metropolitan area was
divided into five zones: northern, southern, western, eastern, and central zones and at
least 250 individuals were sampled from each zone. (Lahiri et al., 2000; Basu et al.,
2001; Roy et al., 2001; Lahiri et al., 2002). CNCI studied exposures to vehicular
pollution, industrial pollution, as well as pollution from household sources. Their study
40
covered the whole spectrum of population from housewives to office goers, students to
retired persons, slum dwellers to high-income group persons, and street vendors to
firefighters. They also surveyed 200 non-residents of Calcutta as a control group
population. The study distributed a detailed questionnaire inquiring about the
respondent’s occupation, age, indoor and outdoor exposure, smoking and drinking habits,
and state of health especially respiratory symptoms. Coupled with this, they collected
blood and sputum samples and also performed a pulmonary function test. Results
indicate that residents of Calcutta showed higher prevalence of respiratory symptom
complexes (RSC). Also RSC was significantly higher for those working on the streets
like roadside vendors, door-to-door salesman, traffic policemen, bus and taxi drivers, and
slum dwellers compared to office workers, housewives, or students. Sputum cell counts
among the urban group were significantly higher than the non-residents of Calcutta.
They also tested the magnitude of iron deposition in macrophages and concluded that
persons directly exposed to vehicular pollution and combustion fumes were the most
vulnerable population group (Roy et al., 2001; Lahiri et al., 2002). Exposure to these
pollutants causes development of acute cardiovascular diseases and Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease (COPD). Also lung cancer and leukemia are some of the severe
damages that air pollution could lead to. The most common health effects that many
people of Calcutta unknowingly acquire are an increased incidence of allergy, cold,
asthma, and other respiratory infections (Lahiri et al., 2002).
Although, studying health impacts of air pollution is not a part of this dissertation, this
dissertation has quite frequently referred to some of the vulnerable age groups while
associating air pollution to population. Air pollution exposure to child population, slum
dwellers, and industrial workers has been described in detail when investigating concerns
on environmental equity in section 7.4.
2.6.3 Environmental justice concerns
While studying the impact of pollution on population, certain environmental justice

issues have emerged that analyze whether or not less advantaged population groups are
41
more affected by environmental pollution. Zimmerman (1993) studied the location of
hazardous sites with respect to race (Zimmerman, 1993). Studies in the Minneapolis and
St. Paul metropolitan area (1997) clearly indicate environmental inequity based on
income and class (McMaster et al., 1997). Pulido (2000) studies racial inequality
(Pulido, 2000). Graham et al. (1999) studied the relationship between pollution and
population by analyzing the locations of coke plants and oil refineries and correlating
these polluting sources to race and income of people in the United States (Graham et al.,
1999). Outside the United States, Morawska et al. (2002) have studied the variability of
air pollutants in Brisbane, Australia and its potential impact on population exposure
assessment (Morawska et al., 2002). Also, Brainard et al. (2002) with the help of GIS
modeled the relationship between air pollution and socio-economic indicators of the
population in the city of Birmingham, England (Brainard et al., 2002).
Many of these studies look at the high-risk zones or high pollution intensity zones and
study the population cohort affected from high pollution. Quite a substantial number of
the studies mentioned in this dissertation use Geographical Information Systems (GIS) as
a tool. GIS can be very efficiently used to calculate, analyze, and graphically represent
the spatial extent of air pollution. With the help of GIS, some studies model the
dispersion of pollutants with the help of circular buffer and plumes (Chakraborty et al.,
1994; Chakraborty et al., 1997; McMaster et al., 1997; Sheppard et al., 1999;
Chakraborty et al., 2001; Margai, 2001). Buffers and plumes identify areas, a specific
distance away from the source of pollution that is likely to be affected by the release of
pollutants. The results from all such GIS analysis procedure provide an accurate
information system that can be used by different segments of society. Maps delineating
the higher risk zones may be used by individuals to assess the pollution level in their
neighborhood, by insurance companies to help them make decisions on their insurance
policy rates, by land developers to make decisions on the feasibility of project sites, and
by government planners for better disaster preparedness (UCGIS, 1998). Also, this could
potentially improve awareness and participation by communities and NGO’s.
42
In addition to GIS, some researchers also employ statistical techniques to correlate
demographic and socio-economic information with environmental pollution (Sui et al.,
1995; Nyerges et al., 1997; Waller et al., 1997; Carlin et al., 1999; Fenco et al., 1999;
Margai, 2001; Brainard et al., 2002; Morawska et al., 2002), many others develop a
cartographic model to estimate the higher pollution zones and associate it with the
corresponding population (McMaster, 1990). Also, public participatory GIS studies have
evolved where the people from a particular community voice their concerns regarding the
setup of a new industry in their neighborhood, or the preservation of public parks and
open spaces (Craig et al., 1998; Elwood et al., 1998; Harris et al., 1998; Obermeyer,
1998; Kellog, 1999; Leitner et al., 2000; Ghose et al., 2001).
2.6.4 Studies relating air pollution and population in Calcutta
The CNCI has conducted several studies on the effect of pollution on population. Their
findings state that there are increased respiratory ailments due to environmental pollution
(GuhaMazumdar et al., 1992; Lahiri et al., 2000; Lahiri et al., 2000; Roy et al., 2001).
The CNCI in conjunction with the University of Calcutta is presently working on
pollution related health problems in school children. Besides CNCI, the WBPCB also
studies the concentration of pollution in industrial, residential, and sensitive areas
(WBPCB, 1994 - 2001; WBPCB, 2004). The school of Environmental Studies at
Jadavpur University, Calcutta, studies groundwater arsenic pollution attributable to
industrial effluent discharge (Chakraborty et al., 1998). Also, there are numerous
organizations within and outside Calcutta who study the increase or decrease of air
pollution in the metropolitan area (CPCB, 2000; Government of India, 2002). The
problem with the preceding studies and others is the highly localized nature of their
investigations. All of these studies, although very helpful, only examine the effects of
pollution on a particular segment of the surveyed population. There have been no
studies, to the best of my knowledge, on the spatial extent of air pollution in the city or
air pollution measures from source pollutants. Also, researchers in Calcutta have not
43
looked at the disadvantaged and vulnerable groups of population, for example the slum
dwellers, the industrial workers, the backward population3, and the child population.
This dissertation has not only estimated the intensity of pollution from source pollutants,
but has also investigated certain environmental equity issues some of which include
whether or not slum dwellers are exposed to high industrial pollution or issues such as if
the child population in Calcutta are exposed to a high vehicular pollution. The question
for debate in this dissertation is related to how environmental justice or injustice concerns
correspond to the urban setting of Calcutta as compared to environmental justice or
injustice issues elsewhere in the United States.
2.7 Air pollution and landuse patterns
Air pollution also affects the landuse pattern of a city. Increased pollution leads to a
change in the landuse pattern in a prolonged time period in the form of migration of the
urban dwellers to suburban regions, which causes urban sprawl, deforestation by the
consumption of forested lands for setting up industries and other urban infrastructures
(Rao et al., 1999). Morawska et al. (2002) state that an understanding on pollution
pattern in a city is essential for planning and decision-making (Morawska et al., 2002).
Researchers studying vehicular pollution have concluded that there is greater pollution
along transportation corridors; also industrial clusters are heavily polluted (Romero et al.,
1999; Romanowicz et al., 2001; Bachman, 2002; Brainard et al., 2002). Brainard et al.
(2002) have analyzed the level of pollution based on the landuse pattern in the city in
Birmingham, England (Brainard et al., 2002). Sengupta et al. (1996) have stated that
unplanned urbanization and industrialization are one of the major causes for causing a
deterioration of the environment and the quality of life in the developing countries
(Sengupta et al., 1999). Some researchers have also used landuse regression modeling to
predict pollution concentrations at a given site based on surrounding landuse and traffic
conditions. The landuse regression models use measured pollution concentrations y at
3 Backward population is referred to as the scheduled caste (SC) and scheduled tribe (ST) population
44
location s as the response variable and landuse types x within areas around location 5 as
predictors of the measured concentrations. Landuse regression models have been used to
study exposure to pollution in London, San Diego, California, and in Canada. The model
use circular buffers around a specific monitoring station and capture information on
roads, traffic flows, landuse types, population, and housing within these buffered zones
(Briggs et al., 2000; Jarrett et al., 2005; Ross et al., 2006).
A study associating air pollution to landuse pattern becomes increasing important for
urban planners to plan the development of a new residential complex or to gauge the need
for more green space in the city. Relating landuse to air pollution would also help in
planning the need for construction of more roads to reduce traffic congestion, or even
while selecting the site for a new school or an old-age nursing home.
2.7.1 Landuse pattern studies in mega cities of India
There are very few studies in India that relate air pollution to the landuse pattern of the
city. Recent studies by the Indian government emphasizes on the need to focus on the
degradation of urban air quality in the mega cities of India. The government has
published the Auto Fuel Policy report in 2002, in which the committee has recognized the
urgent need for research in the field of pollution source apportionment (Government of
India, 2002). The repost states that a study of different source pollutants would help in
the landuse planning o f the mega cities in terms of sighting of parking depots, availability
of bypasses for long distance traffic, road geometry, location of industrial clusters, and
location of park and open spaces in different parts of the city. The report also emphasizes
the need for separate emission standards for residential, industrial, and commercial areas
and that it is very important to predict the concentration of pollutants at various
industrial, residential, and commercial locations in a city (Government of India, 2002).
2.7.2 Landuse patterns in Calcutta
Landuse pattern studies in Calcutta only delineate the various urban landuse categories.
Residential areas cover approximately 57% (Nag, 2001) of the total area of Calcutta.
45
Industrial areas cover 7% of the land area whereas parks and open spaces cover 10% of
the area in Calcutta (Nag, 2001). However, which of these urban landuse categories are
more polluted has not been investigated.
Another urban landuse category that needs mention is the total road area in Calcutta that
is of significant concern. Roads in Calcutta comprise only 5.8% of the total area (as of
2001) (Reporter, 2005), compared to 20% to 30% road area in any city in a developed
country. This small amount of road area in the city is one of the major causes for the
traffic congestion in the city during rush hours. Presently, the city planners in Calcutta
have built a couple of flyovers in the high traffic density zones. What the urban planners
in Calcutta lack, are comprehensive maps of the different areas in the city that have high
vehicular pollution. High vehicular pollution could be attributed to a high density of
vehicles and subsequently the demand for an increase in road area.
The city of Calcutta has expanded vastly in the last twenty years; this expansion is
confined to the eastern and southern parts of the city at the expense of the wetlands and
the salty marsh. The real estate market have encroached on the marshes and wetlands in
Calcutta and have converted quite a number o f these wetlands to high-rise buildings,
office complexes, shopping malls, entertainment centers, markets, and residential
quarters for the high-income-group population (Kundu et al., 1996; Sikdar et al., 2002).
Studies indicate that there was a 43.4% decrease in wetland and a 58.9% increase in
urban/built-up area in Calcutta from 1973 to 1993 (Rao et al., 1999). Environmentalists
have also studied the environmental impact of the expansion of Calcutta in the eastern
and southeastern fringes; they have concluded, “The frequency of adverse impacts is
greater then beneficial impacts”. However, the adverse impacts are “short term,
reversible, and are of low magnitude” and appropriate measures will ameliorate the
adverse impacts. Associating air pollution to landuse pattern will answer many queries
by the environmentalists with respect to the expansion of the city.
A study of landuse pattern in Calcutta becomes very important in terms of delineating the
areas o f high pollution. Whether the industrial clusters are heavily polluted, or if
46
residential areas share the maximum burden of vehicular pollution, or if the newly
developed residential areas built at the expense of the wetlands and salty marsh are more
polluted than other areas of the city is an important question for investigation.
2.8 The research objectives
This research has built up on the rich volume of literature on air pollution, population,
and landuse. The main objectives of this research are to investigate relationships between
air pollution and population and again the relationship between air pollution and the
landuse pattern of the city. A cartographic model (Tomlin, 1990) detailing the research is
shown in Figure 2.1. Some o f the main issues that have been addressed in this research
include the procedure to estimate ward (equivalent to census tracts) level pollution from
source pollutants (industries and vehicles) and also from the ambient air quality
measurements made by the WBPCB. Also, ward level social and economic indices and
ward-wise landuse patterns have been calculated. Finally, wards with a higher pollution
have been correlated to wards with higher vulnerable populations to investigate issues on
environmental equity.
47
C A LC U TTA M ETR O PO L ITA N A REA
LANDUSE POLLUTION POPULATION
•Industrial
Pollutant Air quality M etrics
•Com m ercial Socio-Econom ic
Sources M easurem ents •Total Population
•Residential & slum Indicators
•Population D ensity
•Adm inistrative •O ccupational structure
•P opulation Grow th
•Transport and storage •N O x •Backw ard Population
•Child Population
•Green space •S 02 •Literacy
Industry V ehicles •Other
•RPM •Slums
•SPM
W ard-wise Fuel C onsu m p tio n V ehicle types
LA N D U SE distribution Industrial C ategories •Bus
W ard-w ise
•Red •A uto-rickshaw s
population pressure
•O rdinary R ed •Trucks
•Orange •C ars & C abs
W ard-w ise
•G reen •M otorcycles
PO LLU TIO N
from air-quality
Socio-Econom ic W ard-w ise PO L L U T IO N W ard-w ise
m easurem ents
Indicators based from source pollutants Socio-Econom ic distribution
on landuse pattern o f PO PU L A TIO N
PO LLUTION A P P O R T IO N M E N T E N VIR O N M EN T A L
H IG H R IS K ZONES
based on landuse patterns J U S T IC E /IN J U S T IC E
Figure 2.1 Schematic representation of this research
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54
3 DATA SOURCES AND DATA QUALITY
3.1 Introduction
This dissertation is based on data collected from various governmental agencies and
private organizations. Bringing all this diverse data into a common platform was one of
the major challenges of this dissertation. This chapter will describe all the data types
ranging from the CAD (Computer-Aided Design) images, to paper copy maps, to data
gathered from the public administrative organizations, to the data collected by the
researcher. The first part of this chapter will elaborate on some data privacy issues in
India and the different sources of data and how each of these dissimilar data has been
amalgamated together such that it could be used for this research. The next part of the
chapter will discuss some spatial data quality issues specific to this research. Data
quality issues discussed in this chapter includes lineage, positional accuracy, attribute
accuracy, logical consistency, and completeness. The chapter will also describe the
metadata4 and the data quality standards specific to this dissertation. Lastly this chapter
will discuss some issues that arise while conducting environmental studies in developing
countries like India.
3.2 Legal Restrictions on mapping in India
Acquiring digital maps o f census-wards, roads, railways, and water bodies is not a
difficult task when mapping an area within the United States. However, due to data
restrictions and data privacy issues, acquiring either paper copy maps or digital
information on any metropolitan city in India becomes a very challenging task.
According to the defense ministry of India, “all topographical and geographical maps of
the country containing a specified belt along the land border and coast of India on the
scale 1:1,000,000 and larger” are considered as restricted maps (Bagla, 1999). There are
4 Metadata is the information that describes the content, quality, condition, origin, and other characteristics
of data or other pieces of information
55
some minor exceptions in certain areas along the south Indian coast. This restrictive
policy affects the distribution of large-scale maps of metropolitan cities like Bombay,
Calcutta, and Madras to tourists and other users. Policies on the availability of satellite
imageries to non-governmental organizations and research institutions are more
complicated. Although, five to six meter resolution satellite imageries are available
outside the country, the defense ministry officials argue about the privacy of the collected
data and continue its policy on data restrictions.
However, recently, the defense ministry has entrusted some governmental organizations
for digitizing topographical sheets of the whole country and have also permitted the
incorporation o f some updated information on the maps like roads, railways, bridges,
from the satellite images. This makes Geographical Information Systems (GIS) a
potentially useful technology in the metropolitan cities of India, who are yet to produce a
digital atlas for the major cities of India. Also, lately mapping initiatives by the mapping
organization in the cities have made available some 1:25,000 scale paper copy maps of
metropolitan cities available for research purposes.
3.3 Legal Restrictions on mapping in Calcutta
In Calcutta, some of the government agencies like the Calcutta Metropolitan

Development Authority (CMDA) and National Atlas and Thematic Mapping
Organization (NATMO) produce maps of Calcutta. Besides hand-drawn paper copy
maps of the city, CMDA is gradually migrating to CAD images. Some organizations like
the NATMO are exploring some GIS software packages. In the non-governmental realm,
paper copy maps are digitized by private companies based on the requirement of the
researcher, but this process of identifying a GIS firm and getting the relevant information
digitized is extremely time consuming and expensive. There is no unified effort by the
city planners or the governmental agency with regards to data sharing and a common
pool of information for research. Also, no data in India, even for research purposes, is
available free o f cost. For this particular research, census data, paper copy maps, and
pollution data of Calcutta has been purchased from the government agencies in Calcutta.
56
3.4 Maps and Data Sources
This section of the chapter will describe all the sources of maps and data that have been
used for this research.
3.4.1 Ward boundaries of Calcutta from the Directorate of Census Operations
The primary objective of this dissertation is to investigate the association of census ward-
wise air pollution with ward-wise population and ward-wise landuse pattern in the city of
Calcutta. Census-wards are the lowest geographical subdivisions for any urban area in
India. Although numerous organizations other than the census bureau use ward maps, the
most authentic source of precise ward boundaries were provided by the Directorate of
Census Operations in Calcutta. The ward maps were provided as an image file (JPEG, a
Joint Photographic Experts Group standard for compressing still images), which was later
digitized in Arc/Info 8.3 for further analysis. Approximately 20 digitizing hours were
spent on digitizing and ward boundaries. Figure 3.1 illustrates an example of the map
provided by the census; it shows only the southeastern part of Calcutta.
57
SOUTH EA STER N CALCUTTA
iWAfONC’1 / .. .. f f 7 • *
k r " U " r " ' - i \
-u j \
f
D5rii5fj:itj~O ifj * ~ k '**'
1 r\_ik f..k <

r
..
7 ^
•" - r ' - ' A ' ^ P C v y ' •
c - \ \ V~~
~ ■x . : \
\ K > /
rk V /">/ R ..~
/ (
Map not to S caie

SO U RC E: D irectorate of C e n s u s O p eratio n s
Figure 3.1 Scanned copy of the Source map from Census (southeastern part of Calcutta)
3.4.2 Road, Railway, and water bodies from NATMO and CMDA
Although the census provided the ward maps, they did not have any roads, railways, or
water body information on their maps. The road layer on the maps was mostly required
for the estimation of vehicular pollution index described later on in this dissertation.
Also location of railway junctions and water body boundaries were required on the map
for estimating the different landuse categories in the city. NATMO provided paper copy
maps with roads, railway, and water bodies on it. Figure 3.2 shows a part of southeastern
Calcutta as it appears in the NATMO map. The CMDA provided some CAD images
with the road, railway, and water body location. Figure 3.3 shows the southeastern part
o f Calcutta as it appears on the CAD image of the CMDA map.
58
SOUTH EA STERN CALCUTTA
1:25,000
SO U R C E: National Atlas and T hem atic M apping O rganization (NATMO)
Figure 3.2 Scanned copy of the Source map from NATMO (southeastern part of Calcutta)
As the CAD images could be imported easily into Arc/Info 8.3, the information provided
by CMDA was taken as the primary source. Next, the road and railway “arcs” and water
body “polygons” were extracted from the CAD image and were overlaid on the earlier
digitized ward boundaries. The NATMO map with roads, railway lines, and water bodies
was scanned in and set as a background image such that the information from the CMDA
map was verified with the NATMO map. Map topology5 was established for all the map
layers that include ward boundaries, roads, railways, and water bodies.
5 In an Arc/Info coverage, map topology is referred to the spatial relationships between connecting or
adjacent features in a geographic data layer (for example, arcs, nodes, polygons, and points).
59
SOUTH EASTERN CALCUTTA
Ri'vFR
RO A D
CANAL
ROAD
♦ cm c.dxf Point
Map not to Scale
cm c.dxf Polyltne
| cm c.dxf Polygon
s cm c.dxf M ultiPatch
SO U R C E : C alcu tta M etropolitan D e v e lo p m e n t A uthority (CM D A )
Figure 3.3 CAD image of Southeastern Calcutta from CMDA
Comparing the three sources, the Census, CMDA, and NATMO, and making one usable
map for analysis purposes was challenging. Specifically when some of the roads from
the two sources, the CMDA and the NATMO did not match one another. Field expertise
and biased judgments were made by the researcher for determining the exact location of a
feature, such as a road or a water body. Figure 3.4 shows the same part of Calcutta as
represented in Figure 3.1, Figure 3.2, and Figure 3.3. The researcher has produced the
60
map in Figure 3.4 based on all the above-mentioned sources. Approximately 50 hours
were spent rectifying and digitizing major roads of Calcutta.
SO U TH EA STER N CALCUTTA
R oads
w , SOURCES:
vvat a s D irectorate of Census Operations
C alcutta M etropolitan D evelopm ent Authority
N ationaf Atlas and Them atic M apping O rganization
Figure 3.4 Base map of Calcutta produced by the researcher (southeastern part of
Calcutta)
3.4.3 UTM coordinates of Calcutta from the Barddhaman University
Although the census bureau, the CMDA, and the NATMO provided some of the most
useful maps for this research most of their maps did not have very precise latitude and
longitudinal information in it. All of these maps were mere drawings and hence not
61
georeferenced6. The Barddhaman University, just a few kilometers north of Calcutta,
collected some Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates7 for the city of
Calcutta at various road intersections. These UTM coordinates were used for
georeferencing the previously digitized maps for further analysis.
3.4.4 Location of air pollution monitoring stations from the WBPCB
The city pollution control board or the West Bengal Pollution Control Board (WBPCB)
collected air quality data at twenty-five locations in the city of Calcutta. All their air-
quality monitoring stations were marked on a hand drawn map of Calcutta. However, the
pollution control board provides the exact road intersection for the location of each of the
monitoring stations. For example, for locating a particular station, WBPCB’s fde on
monitoring station location would say something like “Hazra air quality monitoring
station is located in Jatin Das Park, situated in the road intersection o f Hazra Road and
Asutosh Mukherjee Roadt\ This precise information was used to incorporate point
locations on the street map of Calcutta. Figure 3.5 shows the location of these
monitoring stations.
3.4.5 Landuse information from NATMO
NATMO has used satellite images, existing topographical maps, and intensive field
surveys and has published several landuse maps of Calcutta. Their most recent landuse
classification was for the year 2001. As mentioned earlier, one of the main problems on
conducting research in India is the restriction on information placed by the government
agencies. Most data is only available to researchers in the government agencies and not
directly to independent researchers. Calcutta is located very near the international
boundary with Bangladesh and is hence treated as a “restricted area” as regards to
6 Georeferencing is the process of aligning geographic data to a known coordinate system so it can be
viewed, queried, and analyzed with other geographic data. Georeferencing may involve shifting, rotating,
scaling, skewing, and in some cases warping or rubber sheeting the data.
7
UTM is a projected coordinate system that divides the world into 60 north and south zones, six degrees
wide.
62
availability of detailed topographical maps and high-resolution satellite images.
NATMO being a government agency has access to all such restricted information.
According to the Indian government policies, a private researcher would not have access
to the high resolution satellite images for working on a land use and land cover analysis
of the city. However, the researcher could have access to information from a
governmental agency like NATMO, who has used the satellite images and prepared the
land use map of Calcutta. This unavailability of first hand information, with respect to
high-resolution satellite images, has made this research very dependent on the landuse
classification used by NATMO.
The first step for converting the paper copy landuse map into a digital format was to scan
the paper copy landuse maps and import it into the Arc mapping system. The scanned
image was edge matched 8 with the map of Calcutta and was georeferenced with the
geographical coordinates of Calcutta. Next, each of the landuse categories was digitized
for the whole city o f Calcutta. Based on the digitized landuse boundaries, the landuse
category for each ward has been calculated. Details on calculation of ward-wise land
categories have been described in section 5.4.
8 Edge matching is the process to determine which edges (lines) from one map should be linked with a
similar edge from another map. As in this case, features from the scanned landuse map were matched with
the features from the existing ward map of Calcutta.
63
Air Pollution Monitoring Stations
Itad an g a
Min to.
oasl
■ W BPCB Monitoring Stations (outside Calcutta)
* W BPC B Monitoring Stations

o
1 Ward Boundary i__ i
Figure 3.5 Location of Air Pollution Monitoring Stations from the WBPCB
3.4.6 Census data from the Directorate of Census Operations
The Directorate of Census Operations in Calcutta functioning under the Census of India,
government of India, is the only authority that takes a count of the whole population in
the city. The census data for the year 2001 was collected from the 9th to the 28th of
February o f 2001. The data mirrors the socio-economic and demographic condition of
64
the people of India, which constitutes about one-sixth of the human population on this
planet. For the purposes of this research, the census provided data on ward-wise total
population, gender gap in population, child population, literacy, employment, backward
caste population, and slum population. This census data was used to calculate the ward-
wise surrogate social and economic index and also to investigate environmental injustice
concerns.
3.4.7 Ambient air quality information (daily and monthly data) from WBPCB
The city pollution control board monitors various qualities of air, water, and noise in the
city of Calcutta. For, the purposes of this research, only air quality measurements are
taken into consideration. Air quality is measured in the twenty-five monitoring stations.
The temporal resolution for air quality data, available for this research, includes daily
measurements for the year 2 0 0 1 and 2 0 0 2 , monthly measurements of air quality from
1993 to 2003, and annual measurements of air quality from 1988 to 1992. Data from
1988 to 1992 is very sparse and scattered and has very few monitoring stations.
3.4.8 Data on registered vehicles and vehicle routes from Transport Department
The motor vehicles department in Calcutta collects all information on the different types
of vehicles. Detailed data on the total number of public and private buses in the city, the
specific route of these buses, and the total number of buses registered per bus route for
the year 2001 have been provided by the motor vehicles. Similarly, the motor vehicles
also provided information on the total number of registered auto-rickshaws (three-
wheelers) and auto-rickshaw routes for the year 2001. Finally, the total number of tracks
and vans, private cars, taxi-cabs, and motorcycles registered with the motor vehicles for
the year 2001 has also been provided by the motor vehicles department in Calcutta.
3.4.9 Truck route information from the Police Department, Calcutta
Although the motor vehicles have a record on the total number of registered tracks in the
city, the Calcutta police department decides on the track routes in Calcutta. The
65
department of police also controls the timings of operation of the trucks. The department
has a hierarchical list of high and low truck traffic flow roads. The truck route roads are
divided into four categories, from busiest truck route roads where trucks ply 24 hours a
day, 7-days a week to less-busy truck route roads where the vehicles ply during non-rush
hours, from 8 :0 0 pm to 8 :0 0 am.
3.4.10 Vehicle Counts at Several road intersections by the researcher
For estimating the vehicular pollution index in Calcutta, hourly vehicle counts were taken
by the researcher at several road intersections in the city. The counts were taken during
peak hours of traffic, between 8:30 am to 9:30 am or between 5:00 pm to 6:00pm. The
vehicles that were counted in the process include private cars, taxicabs, and motorcycles.
66
3.5 Data Quality
There has been a rapid expansion in the range of applications utilizing sophisticated GIS
technology. These expanding applications have spawned a parallel increase in demands
for information regarding the “quality of the data in the information system” (Guptill et
ah, 1995). The primary objective of data quality standards is to help data recipients and
data owners evaluate the quality or reliability of the available data. Since the researcher,
from paper copy maps or form CAD images, has created all the digital map files used for
this dissertation a brief discussion on the spatial data quality becomes necessary. Setting
data quality standards and documenting the reliability of data requires considerable
forethought. The investment however pays off when evaluating the data for use and when
the data is shared. The remainder of this chapter will therefore attempt to communicate
the advantages and the limitations of the data used for this research.
According to the United States Federal Information Processing Standard 173 (FIPS 173)
there are five categories for assessing data quality: lineage, positional accuracy, attribute
accuracy, logical consistency, and completeness (NIST, 1994). Also semantic accuracy
and the temporal information are described in detail in Elements of Data Quality
published by the International Cartographic Association Commission on Spatial Data
Quality (Guptill et ah, 1995). However, the first five categories listed above have
received the most attention and will be described in detail as to how they are they meet
data quality standards with reference to this particular research.
3.5.1 Lineage
Lineage refers to the historical development of the digital data or data source, scale, and
map projection. The map of Calcutta with ward boundaries was obtained from the
Directorate o f Census operations. The map was not drawn to scale and was represented
on a simple planar projection. A small portion of the map is shown in Figure 3.1. When
the ward boundaries were digitized, a paper copy map from NATMO (shown in Figure
67
3.2) was scanned in and set as a background image. The map from NATMO was drawn
with a scale of 1:25,000 with planar map projection. The CAD image from CMDA
(shown in Figure 3.3) was drawn with a planar projection. The map was not drawn to
scale. Both the paper copy landuse maps (landuse map of Calcutta 1982 and Calcutta
landuse 2001) from NATMO were again drawn in a scale of 1:25,000 with a planar
projection. The NATMO and the CMDA have used satellite imageries, topographical
sheets, and field surveys as a source for their maps.
3.5.2 Accuracy
Accuracy is the “difference between the value of the variable, as it appears in the
database for any case, and the true value of that variable” (Haining, 2004). The two types
of accuracy described in this section are the positional and the attribute accuracy.
3.5.2.1 Positional accuracy
Positional accuracy refers to the correctness of location of geographic features, in both

the horizontal and vertical form. The water body information on the maps of Calcutta has
been primarily obtained from the CAD images provided by the CMDA. However, the
water feature information has been crosschecked with the NATMO map. Both the
published maps of Calcutta from the CMDA as well as the NATMO have been prepared
autonomously and both o f them have used satellite imageries and intensive field surveys
to verify the geographic features on their maps. Both the maps line up accurately in
terms of location of rivers, lakes, and canals.
3.5.2.2 Attribute accuracy
Attribute accuracy refers to the correctness of features found at particular locations; for
example appropriateness of land use/ land cover classification or the location of roads on
the map compared to its position on the ground. The roads and railway lines have been
digitized from the CMDA and NATMO maps. When the two maps are overlaid on one
another some of the roads and railway lines did not match up. For such mismatches, the
68
researcher based on field expertise and knowledge made subjective judgments as to the
appropriate location of a specific feature on the map. With respect to attribute accuracy
of landuse classification of Calcutta, the NATMO map was considered as the only
available and the most accurate source of information. The landuse map from NATMO
was digitized for estimating the ward-wise landuse categories. However, one of the
many criticisms of digitizing such huge paper copy maps into digital format is the error
that could be generated from manual digitization or from faulty landuse classifications by
the source map. The best possible method of error estimation would have been the use of
satellite imagery and digitizing certain boundaries like parks and open spaces or
agricultural areas from the satellite image and cross-checking with the corresponding
digitized map published by NATMO. However, due to unavailability of a fine resolution
satellite image o f Calcutta, the NATMO map was considered as the accurate source.
Details on the error estimation in landuse classification are described in section 5.4.3 of
this dissertation.
3.5.3 Logical consistency
Logical consistency refers to the “fidelity of relationships encoded in the data structure of
the digital spatial data” (Committee, 1998). All the paper copy maps have been digitized
using Arc/Info 8.3. Some of the CAD images were also transformed into coverages9 in
Arc/Info 8.3. Map topology including point, line and polygon topology was established
for all the map layers that include ward boundaries, water bodies, roads, railways, and air
pollution monitoring stations. Next, all the digitized map layers were appended together
such that all the map layers were logically consistent, meaning that a road layer did not
overlay on the water layer or that if a stream was considered the boundary between two
wards, the respective ward boundary map overlaid exactly on the stream layer.
9 An Arc/Info coverage is a digital vector storage framework for geographic information that is produced
by Arc/Info and used by Arc/Info, ArcView, ArcGIS and other widely used GIS software
69
3.5.4 Completeness
Completeness refers to how exhaustively spatial information has been observed and
represented for a particular area in the dataset. Data input and data conversion might lead
to an omission of certain spatial features. For this particular research, the road layer and
the water body layer does not include some minor features. The road layer is one of the
most important layers that have been used for this research. This research estimates
vehicular pollution based on vehicles plying on the main roads of the city. The road layer
therefore only includes the main roads. All lanes and by-lanes in Calcutta have not been
digitized from the paper copy map of NATMO or from the CAD image provided by the
CMDA. Digitizing all the narrow roads in Calcutta would not alter the results of the
vehicular pollution index but would have made the vehicular pollution index model more
complex and large. Hence, taking into consideration only the major roads even though it
is not complete dataset has been considered the appropriate choice for this research.
Also, all the minor water areas that are below 10 hectares (0.1 kilometer square) in area
have not been digitized. The reason for not digitizing some of the very small water
bodies was to keep the map simple and avoid unnecessary errors.
3.5.5 Semantic accuracy and temporal information
Also important for the purposes of spatial data quality are the semantic accuracy and the
temporal information when dealing with the spatial data quality. Semantic accuracy
refers to the “quality with which geographical objects are described in accordance with
the selected model” (Guptill et al., 1995). “It refers to the pertinence of the meaning of
the geographical object rather than to the geometric representation” (Guptill et al., 1995).
The map files used in this research are used to spatially map the industry and vehicular
pollution, demographic characteristics of population, and landuse pattern. The maps are
also used to model the vehicle flow patterns in the city and estimate a vehicle pollution
index. The map files are appropriate for modeling the different aspects (pollution,
population, and landuse) of this research and therefore pertinent as geographical objects
rather than mere geometric representations. Temporal aspects of the spatial data become
70
very important when modeling time in geographical datasets. This research for the most
part deals with data collected in the year 2001; however pollution data collected over
time, census data from various decades, and landuse maps of 1982 and 2001 are studied
and have been referred to in various parts of this dissertation.
3.6 Data Standards for this dissertation
This dissertation uses the data standards specified by the Federal Geographic Data
Committee (FGDC). FGDC is a committee that “promotes the coordinated development,
use, sharing, and dissemination of geospatial data on a national basis” (Committee,
1998). This nationwide data publishing effort is known as the National Spatial Data
Infrastructure (NSDI). The NSDI is designed to enable the development and sharing of
digital geographic information resources. Specific data standards facilitate the
development, sharing, and use of such geospatial data. The FGDC develops specific
geospatial data standards for implementing the NSDI, in consultation with the different
government agencies, the private sector, and also the academic community. The FGDC
is also extended to the international community.
71
3.7 Environmental studies in developing countries
This section of the dissertation discusses some of the issues that researchers are
confronted with when conducting environmental research in developing countries like
India. The issues related to map and data availability in India is different when compared
to countries like the United States where most of the information is available in a digital
format free of cost.
3.7.1 Map availability
Conducting research in developing countries like India often becomes a challenging task
due to data restrictions and data privacy issues. There are numerous organizations
managed by the government, which has strict norms related to the privacy of the
collected database. There are legal restrictions on acquiring and distributing
topographical and thematic maps of the country that are close to international boundaries.
The India - Bangladesh international boundary is only about 60 miles east of Calcutta and
hence Calcutta is treated as one of the “restricted areas”. Availability of surveyed
topographical sheets and satellite imageries of Calcutta is a challenge. Also, digital
technology in Calcutta is still in its infancy; therefore, digital maps on census boundaries,
roadways, and landuse patterns are not available. High-resolution satellite images of
Calcutta are available but are not accessible to individual researchers. Researchers
therefore have to depend on landuse land cover classifications prepared by the NATMO
as opposed to classifying urban landuse of Calcutta from satellite images.
3.7.2 Data availability
Besides maps and imageries, most of the collected data, for example the pollution data
was unavailable for research. The WBPCB collects and store data on the air quality of
Calcutta since the early 1990’s. However, until 2003, this data was only available to
researchers from the pollution control board. Presently the WBPCB is required to make
public the ambient air quality on a regular basis for specific locations in the city.
72
Individual industrial units are required to obtain“consent to operate” (WBPCB, 2002)
within the city of Calcutta from the WBPCB, but at the same time the individual
industrial units are not obliged to disclose industrial emissions to their residents residing
in close proximity to the industry. Details on the industrial categorization and procedure
for setup of a new industry have been discussed in section 4.2.2.1 of this dissertation.
There is no “right-to-know” act in India as prevalent in the United States. Details on the
no “right-to-know” act have been discussed in section 2.4.2.3 of this dissertation.
3.7.3 Data sharing
Besides the unavailability of maps and data, there is no unified effort by the city planners
or the governmental agency with regards to data sharing and a common pool of
information for research. Therefore, several researchers generate redundant information
leading to an inappropriate utilization of their time and resource. Also, no data in India,
even for research purposes, is available free of cost. For this particular research, census
data, paper copy maps, and pollution data of Calcutta has been purchased from the
government agencies in Calcutta.
Policies and regulations in India are therefore different when compared to countries like
the United States. A revision of the conventional rules by the government has become
necessary for advancement and research in India.
3.8 Chapter Summary
This chapter describes the different sources of maps and data that have been used for this
research. The digital map files, created by the researcher and used for this dissertation
are in the form o f shape files (or *.shp files). The specific data quality standards
(metadata) for one of the shape files, ward boundaries, have been attached in Appendix
3A, of this dissertation. The data standards are based on the FGDC data standards. The
chapter also describes the some of the problems related to map and data availability and
data sharing as encountered by researchers when conducting environmental studies in
developing countries.
73
3.9 References
Bagla, P. 1999. Indian Scientists Question Government Grip on Data. Science 285
(5428):659.
Committee, F. G. D. 1998. Spatial Data Transfer Standard Part 6: Point Profile: Federal
Geodetic Control Subcommittee and Federal Geographic Data Committee.
Guptill, C. S., and Morrison, J. L., eds. 1995. Elements o f Spatial Data Quality. Edited by
Salge, F. First Edition ed, Semantic Accuracy: Elsevier Science.
Guptill, C. S., and Morrison, J. L., eds. 1995. Elements o f Spatial Data Quality. Edited by
Morrison, J. L. First Edition ed, Spatial Data Quality: Elsevier Science.
Haining, R. 2004. Spatial Data Analysis. First Edition ed, Data Quality: Implications fo r
Spatial Data Analysis. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
NIST; National Institute of Standards and Technology. 1994. Federal Information
Processing Standard 173-1 (Spatial Data Transfer Standard Part 1, Version 1.1):
U.S. Department of Commerce.
WBPCB. Air Quality Monitoring ofKolkata West Bengal Pollution Control Board, 2002
74
4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY-1: ESTIMATING
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the ways to estimate environmental pollution in Calcutta. One of
the main objectives of this dissertation is to determine the spatial distribution of air
pollution in different wards of the city. This chapter describes two different methods
used to determine ward-wise distribution of air pollution. The first part of this chapter
describes pollution estimation from different sources namely the vehicular and the
industrial sources of pollution. The second part of the chapter describes the method for
estimation of environmental pollution from data measured by the city pollution control
board. Both the methods have similar objective - ward-wise pollution estimation.
Vehicular and industrial pollution estimation is based on the emissions from air polluting
sources, namely the vehicles and the industries. The pollution generated by these sources
is dispersed through air to neighboring regions. This dispersion of pollutants is primarily
controlled by weather phenomena such as wind patterns and seasonal climatic variations.
This dispersed pollution is measured at different spatial locations by the state pollution
control board and thus is not analogous to the estimation done using sources.
4.2 Estimating pollution from pollutant sources: Vehicle and

Industry pollution
The first part of this chapter will describe the procedure for estimation of pollution from
the two major sources of pollution namely the vehicles and the industries. Ward-wise
distribution of vehicular pollution as well as ward-wise distribution of industrial pollution
will be discussed separately in following sections of this chapter. All the analysis on
estimation of vehicular pollution is based on data collected from the motor vehicles
department of Calcutta (Government of West Bengal, 2003). Similarly, all the data
related to industrial pollution estimation is based on data collected from the city pollution
75
control board and the Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA), who
conducted a survey on all the polluting industries in Calcutta and its surrounding areas
(CMDA, 2002).
4.2.1 Estimation of Vehicular Pollution
4.2.1.1 Modes of transportation
There are several types o f polluting and non-polluting vehicles plying in the city of
Calcutta. While buses serve a huge volume of population that are traveling within the
city limits, non-polluting means of public transport such as electric trains serve the
majority of traffic who come into Calcutta from suburban areas and the city fringes
(Agarwal, 1996). The major source of energy used by the automobile industry in India is
gasoline and diesel fuel. While most of the light weight vehicles like the private cars,
motorcycle and auto-rickshaws use gasoline as a fuel, the heavier vehicles like buses and
trucks use diesel fuel (Kandlikar and Ramachandran, 2000). The principal emissions
from the gasoline-fuelled vehicles are carbon monoxide, unbumt hydrocarbons, and
nitrogen-oxides while those from diesel vehicles are particulate matter, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and sulphur dioxide (Lahiri et al., 2002). The description
below lists all the different types of vehicles plying the roads of Calcutta.
Bus: Buses are the most widely used mode of transportation within the main city. There
are government buses, privately owned buses, mini or smaller buses, special buses,
limited stop buses, chartered buses exclusively for office goers, school buses, and express
buses that travel long distances outside the city limits. Buses have predefined bus routes
and fixed stops for picking up and dropping off people. Usually buses run from as early
as 5:00 am in the morning to as late as 1:00 am at night. There are more than 8000 buses
registered with the motor vehicles department of Calcutta. Buses cover most parts of the
city with more than four hundred operational routes (Government of West Bengal, 2003).
Buses mostly use diesel as a fuel.
76
Figure 4.1 Picture o f an auto-rickshaw
Auto-rickshaw or autos (three-wheelers): The auto-rickshaws (Figure 4.1) are five

passenger seat vehicles that have predefined route like buses. They have shorter routes
than a bus do and in most cases are a link between a major bus junction and minor side
roads or between two major bus junctions via minor side roads. However, auto
rickshaws are not allowed into the Central Business District (CBD). Many passengers
prefer auto-rickshaws as they are a faster means of travel and sometimes their small
structure conveniently can maneuver faster through the jam-packed traffic of Calcutta.
However this character of the auto-rickshaws to cut into traffic sometimes creates
disorganized traffic and in turn creates bigger traffic congestion. There are about 14,000
auto-rickshaws registered with the motor vehicles department in Calcutta with 119
operational auto-rickshaw routes (Government of West Bengal, 2003). Auto-rickshaws
mostly use gasoline as a fuel.
Truck: Trucks have restricted access within the city of Calcutta. Trucks do not have a
predefined route but they do have some specific roadways through which they ply.
Trucks are not allowed in any other unstipulated roadway or within the CBD. Also there
are some roads that allow trucks only during specific hours (8:00 pm to 6:00 am) when
the traffic volume is low. There are more than 60,000 trucks registered with the motor
vehicles department in Calcutta (Government of West Bengal, 2003). Trucks mostly use
diesel as a fuel.
77
Private cars and taxicabs: Cars and taxicabs do not have any predefined routes and can
ply on any public roads. There are more than 300,000 cars and taxicabs registered with
the Calcutta motor vehicles department (Government of West Bengal, 2003). Some cars
use gasoline while others use diesel as fuel. Most taxicabs however use diesel as fuel.
Motorcycles (two-wheelers): Scooters/motorcycles are private vehicles and most people

use it for travel within the city or sometimes to work. There are more than 350,000
motorcycles registered with the motor vehicles department in Calcutta (Government of
West Bengal, 2003). Scooters mostly use gasoline as fuel.
4.2.1.2 Other non-polluting modes of transportation
Local commuter trains: Trains are the most popular mode of communication between
Calcutta and its suburban areas. An important aspect of the traffic flow pattern in the city
is the inflow and the outflow of daily commuters, better known as “daily-passengers” to
and from the CMA or the Greater-Calcutta region. Calcutta, being the main metropolis in
the area, provides more job opportunities. The two most important railway junctions are
the Howrah and the Sealdah stations. According to a popular newspaper “More than 1.1
million passengers commute daily on nearly 700 electric multiple unit (EMU) trains on
both Howrah and Sealdah divisions” (Mandal, 2005). Even though railway transport
does not cause any environmental pollution, the passengers from these trains are in need
of buses/taxicabs from the railway junction to their workplace. This makes the Howrah
and the Sealdah railway station (Figure 1.3) areas nucleus for the buses, private cars, and
taxicabs, to converge and/or diverge.
Metro Railway: The other mode of transportation that has significantly reduced the traffic
load on the city roads is the underground Metro railway. The metro railway runs from
Tollygunge in the south to Dum Dum in the north, a distance of 16.5 kilometers,
traversed in 33 minutes. A regular bus ride on the same route during rush hour will take
more than 2 hours. The metro railway serves about 200 thousand passengers everyday.
78
The Calcutta metro railway boasts of a fast, comfortable, and a pollution free travel
(Museum, 2002).
Ferry: The River Flooghly provides a fast and comfortable travel from the Howrah
region, which is just opposite to the Calcutta metropolitan area, to the main city. Some
commuters who travel from the suburban areas to the Howrah railway station also prefer
to use the ferry for travel to the CBD area.
Rickshaws and hand pulled rickshaws: These are either two wheeled carriers or or three
wheeled carriers known as cycle rickshaws. Rickshaws travel for very short distances
usually in narrow lanes and streets. No rickshaws are allowed in the CBD.
Trams: Introduced by the British Indian government, the trams are still one of the most
comfortable means o f transportation in the city. But the major complaint of electric
trams is its slow and sluggish character, which induces vehicular congestion. Trams have
been withdrawn from a few high traffic density roads.
Circular Railway: It operates between Dumdum in the north to the western part of the
city near the banks of the Hugh River. The circular railway is mostly underused and
there are plans for extension of this railway facility to the greater Calcutta area. The
different types of vehicles describe above serve a huge segment of the population. Table
4-1 lists the percentage of total passengers served by each of the above-mentioned
vehicle. Also included is the percent strength o f the vehicle with respect to total vehicles
in Calcutta. It is interesting to note that although buses contribute 3.81% of the total
vehicular fleet in Calcutta, they serve more than 43% of the total population. The
predominant fuel used by the respective vehicle is also mentioned in Table 4-1.
79
Table 4-1 Types of Vehicles plying the roads o f Calcutta
Type of Vehicle % Of total % Polluting vehicle Predominant

passengers it strength in 2002* fuel type used
serves* by the polluting
vehicles**
Buses 43.20 1.23 Diesel
Private cars 2.84 36.37 Diesel and

gasoline
Taxi cabs 7.49 4.23 Diesel and

gasoline
Auto-rickshaws 15.46 1.50 Gasoline
Motorcycles 7.07 44.47 Gasoline
Suburban Railways 15.83 — —
Metro Railway 1.40 — —
Ferry services 1.76 — —
Trams 1.17 — —
Trucks and Vans —

8.67 Diesel
Circular Railway 0.14 —
Others 3.64 (walk, 3.52 Diesel (tractors)

rickshaw & hand
pulled rickshaw)
Source: (**Kandlikar and Ramachandran, 2000; *Lahiri et al., 2002)
4.2.1.3 Vehicle Growth
One of the major causes for the increase in vehicular congestion in the city of Calcutta is
the increase in vehicular fleet strength with little or no increase in the road area. In 1990-
91 the total number of vehicles in the city was 469,919 whereas by the year 2002 the total
vehicles were 789,705, a 40% increase in vehicular traffic within a span of 11 years.
Table 4-2 lists the increase in the number of vehicles in Calcutta from 1999 to 2002.
80
Table 4-2 Vehicle strength in Calcutta
Up to Up to 2000 Up to 2001 Up to 2002
Vehicles/Y ear
1999 (Growth rate) (Growth rate) (Growth rate)
Motor cycle 312,225 324,649 (3.83%) 336,477 (3.52%) 348,348 (3.41%)
Private car 248,435 265,411 (6.42%) 284,631 (6.73%) 292,456 (2.68%)
Bus 7,638 7,811 (2.21%) 8,105 (3.63%) 8,396 (3.47%)
Mini-bus 1,138 1,179 (3.48%) 1,183 (0.34%) 1,187 (0.34%)
Large taxi 5,010 5,825 (13.99%) 6,335 (8.05%) 6,674 (5.08%)
Medium taxi 24,076 25,059 (3.92%) 26,680 (6.08%) 27,327 (2.37%)
Truck 39,408 40,081 (1.68%) 40,533 (1.12%) 41,133 (1.46%)
Van 22,028 23,166 (4.91%) 24,254 (4.49%) 24,590 (1.37%)
Auto
10,323 10,962 (5.83%) 13,056 (16.04%) 13,966 (6.52%)
rickshaws
Tractor 4,767 4,767 (0%) 4,784 (0.36%) 4,787 (0.06%)
Other 17,606 20,926 (15.87%) 20,786 (-0.67%) 20,841 (0.26%)
TOTAL 692,654 729,902 (5.10%) 766,824 (4.81%) 789,705 (2.90%)
Source: (Government of West Bengal, 2003)
Seldom do people discard their older vehicles; this leads to an ever-increasing number of
vehicles that emit more smoke from its engines than do the newer vehicles that are
manufactured keeping in mind the Euro10 norms (Banerjee, 2004). The average age
distributions of vehicles in Calcutta are listed in Table 4-3. Table 4-3 states that, more
than 30% of private cars and jeeps are greater than 12 years old compared to 10%
taxicabs. However, private cars and jeeps ply an average distance of 30 km/day
compared to 180 km/day for taxicabs. Also, buses travel an average of 210 km/day and a
motorcycle travels an average distance of 15 km/day (Banerjee, 2004). Keeping this
travel distance in mind and looking at the age of the vehicles it could be said that old
10 EURO norms are norms for regulating vehicle emissions in Europe. India follows these European
standards (EURO) for gasoline and diesel fuelled vehicles. Presently all metropolitan cities in India follow
EURO-3 emission norms.
81
taxicabs and buses happen to be more polluting than the huge fleet of older private cars
and jeeps.
Table 4-3 Average Age Distribution of Vehicles in Calcutta
Age/ Class Car & Motorcycles Bus Minibus Taxi Goods Auto
jeep Vehicle rickshaws
>12 years 30.53 8.47 2.34 2.18 10.38 3.46 —
11 to 7 21.08 32.60 38.48 24.25 26.55 36.42 21.89

years
6 to 2 30.06 40.81 35.35 46.14 25.79 42.13 32.50
years
< 2 years 18.33 18.12 23.83 27.03 37.28 17.99 45.61
TOTAL 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Source: (Banerjee, 2004)
4.2.1.4 Fuel consumption
According to Kandlikar and Ramachandran, (Kandlikar and Ramachandran, 2000) diesel

fuel is the primary fuel for buses, trucks, and other commercial vehicles in India and is
consumed five times more than gasoline. Diesel is cheaper than gasoline and less
environmental friendly. Therefore without governmental regulations, a bus, truck, or a
taxicab would prefer using diesel to gasoline for making greater profits. India follows the
European standard (Euro) standards for the gasoline and diesel fuelled vehicle standards.
Before Euro-1 standard implementation, the lead content in gasoline was 0.56gms/litre
maximum in 1994; this was phased out by 2000. Euro-2 standards require the reduction
of sulphur levels from “high-sulphur diesel” to “low-sulphur diesel” where the sulphur
level should be lower than 500 parts per million (ppm). Euro-3 demands a further
reduction in sulphur level in both diesel and gasoline. Vehicles owners and authorities in
Calcutta struggled hard to meet Euro-3 deadlines in 2005, along with five other
metropolitan cities in India. All vehicles running within the city limits now use Euro-3
emission norms.
82
4.2.1.5 Emission Factor of vehicles
Comprehending the amount of vehicular pollution in the city from the number of vehicles
plying the roads requires a representative value, known as emission factor. “Each vehicle
category relates the quantity of a pollutant released into the atmosphere to the level of
activity associated with each vehicle type” (Kandlikar and Ramachandran et ah, 2000).
An emission factor, F, can be defined as F = E/A, where E is the amount of pollutant
released (in grams) and A is the level of activity by the vehicle (typically measured in
kilometers). The emission factor takes into consideration the nature of technology of the
vehicles, power of the vehicle, vehicle operating conditions like engine temperature,
speed, ambient temperature, depreciation of the vehicle from age and usage, fuel quality,
and maintenance. Therefore emission factor differs from vehicle to vehicle.
The emission factor for vehicles plying in India is significantly higher than the emission
factor of a similar vehicle plying in a developed industrialized nation. Most vehicles in
India are not equipped with appropriate pollution control measures. Only recently the
government is performing mandatory emission check on all vehicles and all new cars are
being sold with catalytic converters (CPCB, 2000). Also, increased emission factors for
vehicles in India are caused due to high traffic congestion on the roads (Kandlikar and
Ramachandran, 2000; Government of India, 2002; Banerjee, 2004). High-density traffic
causes a significant reduction in the average traffic speed and sometimes stalling of
traffic due to intensive traffic jams. According to Bachman, the emission from a vehicle
varies depending on their specific modes of operation (Bachman et ah, 2000; Bachman,
2002). After the start of the engine, the initial rate of emission is high. After the engine
warms over a period of time, emissions drop and stabilize (Ning et ah, 2005). In high
traffic congestion areas, the vehicles are static or near to static causing higher emission
factors from a vehicle. Another factor causing higher emission factors and is hugely
understudied with respect to vehicular pollution is the adulteration o f gasoline and diesel
with kerosene (Kandlikar and Ramachandran, 2000). Kerosene is an important
household fuel used by the low-income families and as a result of this, the government
heavily subsidizes kerosene. Most auto-rickshaw drivers, who in most cases do not own
83
the vehicle and therefore are not responsible for any malfunction of the vehicle, take
advantage of this low kerosene cost and adulterate their gasoline even if this shortens the
life of the vehicle.
Kandlikar and Ramachandran list a probability distribution for emission factors for
different vehicle types and their pollutants; this is mentioned in Table 4-4 (Kandlikar and
Ramachandran , 2000). They studied exhaust emission pollutants.
Table 4-4 Probability Distribution of emission factors for different vehicle types (India)
PM 10(g/km)a CO (g/km)a HC (g/km)a NOx(g/km)a
Gasoline Cars IYO-3, 0.4, 0.5) T(5.0, 25.0, 40.0) T(3.0, 5.0, 10.0) T(0.5, 0.3, 0.6)
Diesel Cars T(0.5, 1.5, 2.0) T(0.5, 2.0, 4.0) T(0.25, 1.0, 2.0) T(0.8, 1.1, 1.4)
Heavy-duty diesel T(0.5, 1.5, 3.0) T(1.0, 3.0, 5.0) T(0.5, 2.0, 4.0) T(5.0, 10.0, 15.0)
vehicles (Trucks
and Buses)
Two-stroke T(0.2, 0.4, 0.6) T(5.0, 15.0, 20.0) T(5.0, 10.0, T(0.2, 0.3, 0.5)
engines (scooters, 25.0)
motorcycles, and
auto-rickshaws)
# T(a, b, c) refers to a triangular distribution with mode b and a and c as upper and lower
bounds respectively.
Source: (Kandlikar and Ramachandran, 2000)
The Clean Air Act (1970) identifies 6 major air pollutants that are of concern, carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), sulphur dioxide (S02),
particulate matter (PM), and lead (Pb) (Lahiri et al., 2002). O f these, carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, and oxides of nitrogen are present in automobile exhaust and particulate
matter is produced from diesel engines and tire wear and tear. Lead has been
successfully eliminated from all fuel types in India since the inception of Euro norms.
Euro-3 demands a significant reduction of sulphur content in both diesel and gasoline.
Table 4-4 describes variability in emission factors in vehicle pollution and also
measurement uncertainties. The lower bounds are the emissions factors for a standard
vehicle plying in a developed industrialized nation. The modes represent the emission
factors for a typical vehicle in India, while the upper bounds are the subjective estimated
84
made by the authors based on their field expertise and knowledge. With stricter emission
norms for the vehicles in India, the emission factors for vehicles plying in India are
subject to change and improvement. The modal value listed by Kandlikar and
Ramachandran would change accordingly; however, the upper and lower bounds for the
emission factors as listed by the authors would remain unchanged.
4.2.1.6 Estimating ward-wise vehicular pollution index
4.2.1.6.1 Setting up the GIS database
Detailed ward boundaries and road map o f Calcutta, used for this analysis was provided
by the Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA) and the National Atlas
and Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO) (Nag, 2001). The roads and wards were
digitized into Arclnfo 8.3 for further analysis.
There are several ways to model pollution from vehicles. The method of assigning
unique numbers to all the road segments of Calcutta is one such method designed by the
researcher. All the road segments within the Calcutta metropolitan area were assigned a
unique identifying number. Figure 4.2 shows the process of assignment of such unique
numbers to all road segments.
u> A3-
S. i Sr-
tu < !^
os |os
01 5 02 § 03 ^ 04 8th St
o
05 06 9th St
o
00
i—i
W a rd B o u n d a r y ------------------------
Figure 4.2 Assignment of unique segment numbers to roads.
85
The road network in the figure has three north-south running streets intersected by two
east-west running streets. Each street is assigned a number, (01 to 14 in Figure 4.2) such
that 8th Street has four segment numbers 01, 02, 03, and 04 because it has been
intersected by 3rd, 4th, and 5th Avenue. Similarly 3ld Avenue has two segment numbers,
07 and 08 because it is intersected by 8th street only. The database on all the road
segments of Calcutta contains about 1050 road segment numbers. Note that only roads
through which polluting vehicles ply have been considered for the analysis. Any lanes,
by-lanes and dirt roads have not been considered. Along with the database on segment
numbers is a second database that contains the vehicle route information. For example if
bus number 1A is going through 3rd avenue, then 8th street, then southward through 5th
avenue the database will have the route entered as 07, 02, 03, 13, 14 as highlighted in
Figure 4.2. Sometimes a ward boundary might follow a road segment. From Figure 4.2,
segment numbers 12, 13, and 14 follow ward boundaries; therefore the emissions from
any vehicle crossing segment numbers 12, 13, or 14 will be equally divided between the
two neighboring wards. The database on vehicle route information contains entries for
all bus routes, auto-rickshaws routes and truck routes. Private cars, taxicabs, and
motorcycles have been dealt with in a different way and have been described later on in
the chapter. There is also a third database that lists the number of vehicles registered per
route. For example bus 1A might have 50 registered vehicles and another bus route like
IB might have 70 registered vehicles. There are 119 auto-rickshaws routes, 414 bus
routes, and 21 truck routes operating within the city of Calcutta. Bus route and auto
rickshaw route information have been obtained from the motor vehicles department of
Calcutta and truck route information have been obtained from the police department of
Calcutta.
The estimation of vehicular pollution Index (VPI) makes certain assumptions:

• Major (main) roads carry more traffic load than minor roads and lanes
• Heavier the volume of traffic, greater is the vehicular pollution
• Non-polluting vehicles like rickshaws and hand pulled rickshaws mostly serve lanes
and narrow by-lanes. A few times a private car, a taxicab, or a motorcycle enters one
86
of these narrow lanes, but on the whole these lanes have little or no traffic
throughout the day and the contribution from this scanty traffic, to vehicular
pollution, is too small to take into consideration for analysis
• Also not considered for the analysis are the meteorological factors; wind direction
and seasonal variations of pollution have not been included in the calculation of
vehicular Pollution.
Keeping all the above-mentioned factors in mind, the calculation of vehicular pollution
takes into consideration the number of vehicles crossing each particular road segment in
one particular day. Note that I have only considered main roads and have omitted all
lanes and by-lanes that have minimal amount of traffic passing through it. The index
takes into account all types of vehicles that follow a predefined route, like buses, as well
as vehicles that have no distinct routes, like private cars. Therefore the need arises for
differentiating between different types of vehicles based on their routes, frequency of
travel, and also their emission factor. Based on this premise, I have divided the polluting
vehicles plying in Calcutta into three different categories.
1. Vehicles with a predefined route: buses and auto-rickshaws
2. Vehicles with no predefined routes but travel on specific roadways and have precise
travel times: trucks
3. Vehicles with no specific routes and no predefined travel timings: private cars,
taxicabs, and motorcycles
In the first category I have included those vehicles that follow a predefined route, like a
bus and an auto-rickshaw. The routes these vehicles follow are pre-approved by the
motor vehicles department in Calcutta. Also, all buses and auto-rickshaws operating on
the roads of Calcutta need to have a permit issued by the motor vehicles department in
Calcutta. The department has a limit to the “maximum number of permits to be granted”
(Government of West Bengal, 2003). For the case of buses, the vehicle department
assumes that all the vehicles with a permit will be operating on the roads on any
particular day. However, in most cases the maximum number of vehicle permits granted
and the number of buses running on the roads is slightly different. For example route
87
number 12 (that includes 12, 12A, 12B, and 12/1) has a total of 110 permits, but they
claim to have 108 functioning buses running on the city streets. Similarly, route number
13 (that includes 13, 13A, 13B, 13C, and 13D) has 49 permits granted although they have
42 buses operating. The number of permits issued depends on the motor vehicles
department and is revised every year. The maximum number of vehicles operating on the
roads is dependent on the bus route in-charge and changes periodically. Although
reporting on the number of vehicles operating per route is the responsibility of the bus
route in-charge, it is seldom being followed. For my analysis on vehicular pollution, I
have taken into consideration the maximum number of permits granted, as relying on the
data on the actual number of buses operating per route was unreliable. The scenario is
different for auto-rickshaws. There is a limit to the number of auto-rickshaws that can
operate in any given route; this number is revised every year by the motor vehicles
department (Government of West Bengal, 2003). However the department is stringent on
keeping the fleet of auto-rickshaws to a minimum, hence the number of permits issued is
less than or similar to the maximum capacity for that route. For example an auto
rickshaw route number 13 with a maximum capacity of 30 vehicles have only 10 permits
issued. Also, auto-rickshaw route number 12 has a maximum capacity for 161 and there
are auto-rickshaws that have permits to operate on route 12. For this analysis on vehicle
auto-rickshaw pollution, I have taken into account the number of auto-rickshaw permits
issued per route. Also, according to the motor vehicle department, the average number of
trips taken by a bus to and from its departure terminus to its destination terminus is three
round trips and a one-way trip. That means that any particular bus, on any particular day
would cross a particular road segment 7 times, accounting for three round trips, which
equals six and one, one-way trip. Although there is no stipulated rule for this three round
trips and a one-way trip, the buses are unable to make time for more trips and hence most
buses on an average follow such an unwritten policy. For the case of auto-rickshaws the
shorter the auto-rickshaw route the greater the number of trips an auto-rickshaw driver
can make. The number of trips per day per auto-rickshaw route depends on the discretion
of the auto-rickshaw driver.
88
Trucks fall under the second category of vehicles that follow some predefined roadways
and specified timings for travel, however, they do not have any precise routes nor do they
have any limit on the number of vehicles that are plying through a road on any particular
time. Any truck that is registered with the motor vehicles department in any part of the
country, can ply the roads of Calcutta provided they keep on specified roads and follow
regulations like fixed timings of operations. Many trucks connect the urban metropolis of
Calcutta to its suburban regions. There are also long distance trucks that facilitate export
and import of goods from one part of India to another. Trucks being big and bulky are
prone to cause traffic congestions; hence, some roads will only allow trucks after regular
hour traffic has subsided. Deciding on which roads through which trucks can ply and
their timings of operation is controlled by the department of police in Calcutta. The
police department also has a hierarchical list of high and low truck traffic flow roads. For
calculating vehicle truck pollution, the total number of trucks registered with the motor
vehicles in Calcutta has been taken into consideration. Also, high and low truck flow
density roads and their hours of operation have been considered. However, it needs to be
noted that not all trucks that are registered with Calcutta motor vehicles, will ply the
roads of Calcutta on one particular day. At the same time, since truck movement is a
national movement of traffic, there will be trucks plying the roads of Calcutta that are not
registered with the Calcutta motor vehicles.
In the third category of vehicles are the unsynchronized vehicles that can travel to any
part of the city at any specific hour provided the vehicle is registered with the motor
vehicles department. Cars, taxicabs, and motorcycles are all a part of this category. For
calculating the vehicular pollution index of these uncoordinated vehicles, vehicle counts
were performed at 20 randomly chosen road intersections during rush hours (sometime
between 8:30 am to 10:00 am and/or 5:00 pm to 6:30 pm). The count listed how many
private cars/taxicabs/ motorcycle crossed that intersection in one hour. Table 4-5 lists the
name of the intersection and their corresponding vehicle count per hour. Figure 4.3
shows the spatial location of these road intersections in the city.
89
Table 4-5 Vehicle counts at different road intersections per hour
Location Private Car Taxi Motor Cycle
Ahiratola 87 60 111
B.K. Pal 336 331 1338
B.B.D.Bag 560 560 398
Ballygunje Phanri 1768 960 653
Beltala 825 827 444
Bidhan sarani 550 600 285
Birla planetorium 889 1115 382
EMBP (near Park Circus) 1211 533 338
Chiria More 770 435 226
Deshpran Sashmal 709 614 271
Ekbalpur 475 475 349
Esplanade 828 1364 390
Hazra 913 1142 311
Jadavpur 495 341 282
Khidirpore 358 575 294
Maniktala 664 633 403
Sealdah 719 1345 401
Shyambazar 459 573 248
Taratala 449 478 333
Ultadanga 2185 1038 944
ROAD INTERSECTIONS WERE
VEHICLE COUNTS WERE TAKEN
, Shyanibazar
B.K. R aC
Ultadanga
Ar.ii atpla ^Sarani
B.B.D, * M anilla la
• Birla Planeioriu
Khidirpore y
EM BP
Bcitala
Ckbalpur .
Ballygunje Phai
llazra
'aratala.
D eshpran Sashm al
.JadavpuH
Road Intersections where

Vehicle Counts were taken
4 K ilom eters
Main Roads
Figure 4.3 Road intersections where vehicle counts were taken.
4.2.1.6.2 Estimating Vehicular Pollution from Buses
There are more than 8000 buses registered with the motor vehicles of Calcutta for the
year 2002 with more than 400 operating bus routes in the city. For calculating the
vehicle bus index for each ward, all the bus routes of Calcutta have been mapped. As
mentioned earlier, the vehicle route information database stores all the segment numbers
a particular bus route crosses. For calculating the ward wise vehicle bus index, the
number of buses crossing a particular road segment and the emission factor for buses has
been considered.
The procedure for estimating ward-wise vehicular pollution index can be explained by a
simple illustration of ward 1. In Figure 4.4, the solid lines represent the roads through
which buses ply in ward 1. There are other roads in this ward too, but to keep the
91
diagram simple these roads have not been shown on the figure. These solid lines are
assigned a unique identifying number; these are the bus route segments. According to
Figure 4.4, ward 1 contains segment numbers 256, 257, 271, 305, and 306. The next
aspect to look for in ward 1 is the number of buses that cross each of these route
segments. Let us assume for the sake of simplicity that there are a total of three bus
routes that pass through ward 1; routes 1A, IB, and 3D. Routes “1A” and “3D” cross
segment number 256 and 257. Route “3D” cross segment 271 and route “IB” cross
segment number 305 and 306. Next, buses registered for a particular route have been
considered. Let us assume that the three routes 1A, IB and 3D have 50, 60, and 40 buses
registered with the motor vehicles of Calcutta. Next, the distances of these segment
numbers are calculated in kilometers. Let us assume that each of these five segments
have a distance of d l, d2, d3, d4, and d5 kilometers respectively. Finally the emission
factor for buses is taken into consideration. For example, from Table 4-4, for nitrous
oxide, the average emission is 10 gms/km. So, the vehicle bus index for ward 1 will be
the total number of buses crossing a particular segment multiplied by the distance, the
emission factor, and the average number of trips taken by a bus from its departure
terminus to its destination terminus.
Vehicular pollution from buses could therefore be written as,
^ Y ,B r *d s *ks * 7 * E F
A (w )
Where, BPI is the Bus pollution index; w is the particular ward whose pollution is being
estimated, s is a particular road segment in ward w; B, is the total number of buses in
route r; r is the number of buses plying through segment s; ds is the distance of segment
s\ k is a multiplier and could be either 0.5 or 1 (k is approximately 0.5 when a road
segment goes along the ward boundary; k is 1 when the road segment is totally within a
ward boundary); 7 is the average number of trips the bus takes per day; EF is the
emission factor for heavy duty diesel vehicles; and A(w) is the area of ward w.
92
Number assigned
256 to a particular bus
route segment
,n Distance o f route
segment 256
Ward I Number o f buses

plying route
2BL
segment 256
Bus Number
Route o f buses
number per day
1B
1 A 50
IB 60
3D 3D 40
Vehicular Pollution Index (VPI) g/ward/day (Ward 1) =

[{(50+40)*dl}+{(50+40)*d2}+(40*d3) +(60*d4) + (60*d5)] *V * [EF( 10g/km)]
1 A verage N u m b e r o f trips a bus takes p e r day
Figure 4.4 Procedure for calculating Vehicle Pollution Index (ward 1).
Therefore, bus pollution index for ward 1 in grams/day/area=
[{(50+40)*dl}+{(50+40)*d2}+(40*d3) +(60*d4) + (60*d5)] *7 * [EF (10g/km)]
Where 7 (three round trips and a one way trip) is the average number of trips taken by a
bus to and from its departure terminus to its destination terminus as has been discussed
previously. The program for calculating ward-wise vehicular pollution index has been
prepared using the Interactive Data Language (IDL 6.2).
Another factor that cannot be ignored is that the volume of traffic during rush hours will
be greater than during other times of the day. Also, very few vehicles run in the middle
of the night. Based on vehicle flow pattern in the city it has been estimated that there
would be 9 out of 24 hours when the vehicle flow traffic could be considered as 100%.
According to Figure 4.5, if at 10:00 am the traffic volume on the roads of Calcutta is
100%, the traffic volume at 1:00 am will be close to 0%. The traffic volume has two
93
peaks one in the morning and another during evening rush hours. During afternoon
traffic volume is usually around 50% to 60% of what it is during rush hours. Also during
weekends and holidays the traffic is 50% or less throughout the day. Keeping the
variable traffic flow in mind and from field observations, an educated guess has been
made that out of 24 hours; there will be 9 hours on one particular day when the traffic
volume could be considered 100%. Vehicular pollution from 50% traffic flow for 8
hours a day is equivalent to vehicular pollution from 100% traffic flow in 4 hours. For a
24-hour period traffic flow will range from close to 0% to 100%. If I combine all hours
when the traffic flow would produce vehicular pollution worth 100%, the total number of
hours would be approximately 9 hours. Also, the analysis takes into consideration
pollution on one particular day; there are no separate indices for rush and non rush hours.
0 hrs 12.00 hrs 2 3 fr9 h rs
Figure 4.5 Graphical representation of traffic flow for a 24 hours period.
However the real world situation does not always function in a rigid rule of 50, 60, and
40 buses passing through a particular segment. In other words, all buses that are
registered with the motor vehicles might not be operating on one particular day. Also,
quite possibly the buses might deviate from their three round trips and a one way trip rule
which could alter the vehicle bus index substantially. Furthermore, my educated guess of
9 hours of peak traffic load for a day will also vary. Keeping all this uncertainty in mind
94
there was the need for some other simulation that would take into consideration these
variations. The Monte Carlo simulation that randomly generates values for uncertain
variables repeatedly was considered the best possible choice for this problem. Crystal
Ball 2000, professional edition (version 5.2.2) was used for the analysis. The number of
iterations was set to 10,000 and the emission factors and the total number of buses
crossing each road segment was set to a variable number with lower and upper bounds.
The newly calculated vehicular pollution index with Monte Carlo simulation took into
consideration the variability in the number of buses per route and the inconsistent volume
of traffic flow through a particular segment. The emission factor was set to a triangular
distribution with the minimum, likeliest, and the maximum values from Table 4-4. The
total number of buses per segment was set mostly to a lognormal distribution with the
mean value as the actual or a little below the actual calculated values and the standard
deviation set to 5% to 10% of the original value. The vehicle bus index that was finally
considered for mapping and analysis is the median value generated from these iterations.
Table 6-1 lists the ward-wise bus pollution index. Figure 6.1 shows the spatial
representation of bus pollution index in the different wards of Calcutta. Of course these
iterations will not produce the exact result, but it will account for the uncertainties in the
available data.
4.2.1.6.3 Estimating Vehicular Pollution from Auto-rickshaws
Calculating the vehicle auto-rickshaw pollution index was similar to calculating the
vehicle bus index. Since auto-rickshaws cover side roads that buses do not and the fact
that auto-rickshaws are not allowed in the CBD, separate segment numbers were assigned
to auto-rickshaw routes. Similar to buses, 10,000 iterations of Monte Carlo simulations
were performed on the analysis. The emission factors of auto-rickshaws were different
from buses and the two-stroke engines emission factors were taken into consideration
from Table 4-4. Table 6-2 lists the ward-wise auto-rickshaw pollution index. Figure 6.2
shows the spatial representation of auto-rickshaw pollution index in the different wards of
Calcutta.
95
4.2.1.6.4 Estimating Vehicular Pollution from Trucks
Calculating the vehicle truck index is a challenging task. There is insufficient data as to
the number of trucks plying on the city roads on a particular day and also there are no
specific truck routes like bus and auto-rickshaw routes. According to the motor vehicles
department, there are more than 65,000 trucks and vans registered as of 2002. The police
department in Calcutta provided a list of roads through which these vehicles ply. The
roads are categorized into four categories, from busiest truck route roads where trucks ply
24 hours a day, 7-days a week to less-busy truck route roads where the vehicles ply
during non-rush hours, from 8:00 pm to 8:00 am. Based on this data from the police
department, the total number of registered trucks was divided among all roads through
which trucks ply, such that each road had a particular number of trucks plying through
them on one particular day. Therefore, a road with very high truck flow was given a very
high weight compared to a road that had the lowest truck flow. There is no set number
specified by the police department or no distinct route provided by the motor vehicles, so
calculating an accurate number for its pollution load becomes very difficult. Also, there
is a basic assumption that not all trucks registered with the motor vehicles will be plying
the city roads everyday; similarly, there will be trucks from outside Calcutta that will be
plying on the city that is not accounted for. Similar to buses and auto-rickshaws, each
road was assigned an unique segment number. The total number of trucks crossing each
segment was based on the number of trucks plying through each road on one particular
day, this as explained earlier was calculated on the basis of weights assigned to each road
segment and the total number of trucks registered with the motor vehicles. Also, taken
into consideration were the emission factor and the distance of each road segment. Truck
pollution index could therefore be written as:
96
Where, TPI is the Truck pollution index; w is the particular ward whose pollution is being
estimated, 5 is a particular road segment in ward w; Ts is the total number of trucks plying
through segment s; ds is the distance of segment s; k is a multiplier and could be either
0.5 or 1 (k is approximately 0.5 when a road segment goes along the ward boundary; k is
1 when the road segment is totally within a ward boundary); EF is the emission factor for
heavy duty diesel vehicles; and A (w) is the area of ward w.
Similar to buses and auto-rickshaws, 10,000 iterations of Monte Carlo Simulations were
performed. The emission factor and the number of trucks plying per route were set to a
variable number with lower and upper bounds. The simulation has taken into
consideration some of the above-mentioned uncertainties for the data on trucks. Table
6-3 lists the ward-wise auto-rickshaw pollution index. Figure 6.3 shows the spatial
representation of auto-rickshaw pollution index in the different wards of Calcutta.
4.2.1.6.5 Estimating Vehicular Pollution from Cars, Taxi Cabs, and Motorcycles
As private cars, taxicabs, and motorcycles follow no synchronized route and they do not
have any specified timings for travel, vehicular pollution index for these vehicles had to
be dealt in a way different from the other vehicles mentioned above. The only way to
actually find the number of vehicles crossing each road segment was to have an
approximate count as to the total number of private cars or taxicabs or motorcycles that
crossed a particular road segment in a period of 24 hours. However, counting vehicles in
such a large city is not a feasible solution. Therefore, vehicle counts were taken at
random road intersections (listed in Table 4-5) and this count was interpolated for the
remainder of the roads. The rational behind such a count was that a four-point road
junction will be a converging point for traffic and the traffic count in a road junction will
be a sum of the traffic counts from the connecting roads. Therefore if a four way
crossing had a total count of 100 cars per hour and the traffic volume, by general
observation, on all its connecting roads are the same, then all the four connecting road
segments are assigned a traffic distribution of 25 cars each. However most times the
linking roads carry variable amounts of traffic, therefore, based on the above example,
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the two main roads in a four point junction are assigned a traffic count of say, 35 cars
each and the two other minor roads are assigned a traffic count of 15 cars each. Although
the example might sound simple, interpolating twenty vehicle count points to the entire
road network of Calcutta was a challenging task. The need arose to break the counts into
classes. Let us take the example of private cars. From Table 4-5, per hour traffic flow
ranged from 336 cars per hour to 1211 private cars per hour for most cases. In a minor
junction the count could be as low as 85 cars per hour or below and in a very busy
junction the count could be as high as 2185 cars per hour or higher. The entire range of
values was divided into a couple of classes the first one being less than 200 cars per hour,
the next being 201 - 400, then 401 to 600 and so on. Assigning a class number to a
particular road segment would be a much simpler task than coming up with an exact
value for the number of vehicles crossing a particular road segment. The roads
equivalent to the one with the lowest vehicle count (85 cars per hour) were assigned a
value of 100 cars per hour and below; similarly roads equivalent to the road with the
highest per hour vehicle count of 2185 were assigned a value of 2000 cars per hour and
above. Keeping this scheme in mind, all the road segments of Calcutta were assigned a
particular value range. For example, a range of say less than 200 cars per hour was
assigned a class number of 1, 201 to 400 cars per hour was assigned a class number of 2;
class 3 could have a range of 401 to 600 cars per hour; class number 4 a range of 601 to
800 cars per hour an so on. Table 4-6 shows such assignment of class numbers. Next,
the car pollution index was calculated with the number of cars crossing each road
segment per day times the emission factor from the cars. Car pollution index could
therefore be written as:
*EF
CPl(w) =
A(w)
Where, CPI is the Car pollution index; w is the particular ward whose pollution is being
estimated, s is a particular road segment in ward w; Cs is the total number of cars plying
through segment 5 ; ds is the distance of segment s; k is a multiplier and could be either
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0.5 or 1 (k is approximately 0.5 when a road segment goes along the ward boundary; k is
1 when the road segment is totally within a ward boundary); EF is the emission factor for
cars; and A(w) is the area of ward w.
Table 4-6 Class intervals taken into consideration for calculation of car, taxicab, and
motorcycle pollution index
Vehicle Private cars Taxicabs Motorcycles
Less than 200 Less than 330 Less than 110
Class intervals 200 - 400 3 3 0 -5 0 0 110-230
400 - 600 500 - 700 230 - 340
600 - 800 7 00 -1 0 0 0 340 - 455
8 0 0 - 1,000 1,000 and above 455 - 900
1,000- 1,300 900 and above
1,300 and above
The values from Table 4-5 provided an hourly count of vehicles, which was worked out
to a daily vehicle count. O f course, the daily vehicle count was calculated keeping in
mind that traffic peaks at two different times of the day during the rush hours and the
traffic diminishes significantly by midnight. As with the other vehicles, 10,000 iterations
of the Monte Carlo Simulation were performed. Further, it needs mention that Monte
Carlo Simulations become increasingly important for estimating the vehicular pollution
index for these unsynchronized vehicles like cars, taxicabs, and motorcycles. Since most
of the calculations are based on observed values, the simulations would reduce the
uncertainty of the data significantly. The emission factor was set to a triangular
distribution with the maximum, optimal, and the minimum values set according to the
values mentioned in Table 4-4. Similarly, the number o f cars passing through each road
was also set to maximum, most likely, and minimum based on the numbers of the class
intervals chosen, as described above. Table 6-4 lists the ward-wise car pollution index.
Figure 6.4 shows the spatial representation of car pollution index in the different wards of
Calcutta. The same procedure for was performed for calculating the vehicle taxicab
index and the vehicle motorcycle index. Table 6-5 and Table 6-6 list the ward-wise
taxicab and motorcycle pollution index. Figure 6.5 and Figure 6.6 shows the spatial
representation of taxicab and motorcycle pollution index in the different wards of
Calcutta.
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4.2.2 Estimation of Industrial Pollution
Globalization and economic liberalization policy implemented during the last few years
has caused a rapid industrial growth, specifically for small-scale industrial units. The
industry census of CMA reflects an increment of 4,000 to 14,000 industrial units from the
year 1980 to 2000 (CMDA, 2002). Industrial development significantly contributes
towards the economic growth of a country. However, this industrial progress brings
along with it environmental hazards. A substantial amount of these problems to air,
water, land, flora, fauna, and human health can be significantly reduced if the industries
are judiciously sited and adequate pollution abatement measures are taken at the time of
setup of an industry.
During the past few decades, the growth in population and the demand of consumer
commodities has persuaded entrepreneurs to set up industries in every nook and comer of
Calcutta, without considering issues related to treatment of emissions before discharging
it into the air or planning an organized waste disposal system. Most of this industrial
growth in Calcutta has been the establishment of small-scale industries mostly in
residential areas (CMDA, 2002). In Calcutta, industrial pollution presently contributes
about 48% of the total environmental pollution (Banerjee, 2004). This increasing
pollution has brought about the industrial policy statement of July 1980 that recognized
the need to preserve ecological balances and improve living conditions in the urban
centers. Based on this policy, the expansion of existing industries and the setting up of
new industrial complexes within the limits of the metropolitan city o f Calcutta is not
permitted.
4.2.2.1 Categories of Industries
To prevent air, water, and soil pollution arising from the industrial processes, industrial
licensing procedures are required to be followed by the entrepreneurs before setting up an
industry by obtaining clearance from the state pollution control board. Also, a particular
industry needs to follow the stipulations and conform to certain quality standards related
100
to pollutants released. All industries are also required to take “consent to operate” from
the state pollution control board annually for keeping its liquid, gaseous, and solid
discharges within the notified permissible limit (WBPCB, 2002). Based on their
emissions and the norms, sometimes, polluting industries that violate permissible
standards are asked to close down or served with a notice for relocation outside the
residential areas. For example, small dairy units within the city of Calcutta that supplied
milk and milk products to a substantial percentage of the population in Calcutta even in
the year 2000, no longer exist within the city limits today, due to immense pollution
caused by the dairy animals.
Based on the total environmental pollution by an industry, the pollution control board
since 1998 categorizes all polluting industries within the city into three major categories.
“Red” category meaning highly polluting industries; “orange” category meaning
moderately polluting industries; and “green” category meaning less polluting industries.
The “red” category is divided into “special red” meaning extremely polluting and
“ordinary red” meaning less polluting than the “special red” category industries and more
polluting than the “orange” category of industries. There were 8832 industrial units
within the city of Calcutta in 2003 (CMDA, 2002). 1651 of which are “red” category
industries, 1,086 are “orange”, and 6,095 are “green” category industries. There is yet
another category, the “exempted” category of industries that does not contribute to any
environmental pollution and are not included in the total count of industries. Examples
of some of the industries mentioned under “special red” category includes thermal power
plants, iron and steel industries, aluminum, zinc and copper smelting industries, leather
tanneries, chemical, petrochemical, and electrochemical manufacture etc. Examples of
some “ordinary red” category industry includes, manufacture of rubber goods, glass and
fiberglass, lubricating oil, ceramics, milk processing and dairy products etc. Examples of
some of the “orange” category industry include cotton spinning and weaving, non
alcoholic beverages, paint, brickfields, jute processing etc. Some “green” category
industries include mineral water, bakery, ice making, candy, carpet weaving etc. In the
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“exempted” category of industries is the manufacture of candles, handmade soap, soft
toys, brass painting, hardware assembly etc.
Presently, industries mentioned in the list of “special red” and “ordinary red” categories
are not permitted within the CMA. These industries can however be set up beyond the
CMA with adequate pollution restrictions and site clearance by local bodies. “Orange”
category industries are not permitted within the city of Calcutta (the CMC area);
however, they can be set up in the suburban areas of Calcutta with adequate
environmental pollution constraints. “Green” category industries can be set up anywhere
whether within the city limits or in the suburban areas with proper air and water pollution
controls. The “exempted” categories are non-polluting industries and require no “consent
to operate” from the state pollution control board. However, there are certain exceptions
to all the above-mentioned categories that are location specific and are decided by the
pollution control board.
4 .2 .2.2 Industrial Growth and Ward wise spatial distribution of industries
The earliest industries in the city and its surrounding areas was located on the basis of
availability of raw materials, human resource proximity, access to the market,
transportation advantages, easy refuse disposal in the river, and other technical and
economic conditions. Neither the entrepreneurs nor the government paid much attention
to the environmental considerations. The earliest industries in the Calcutta metropolitan
area were the jute mills. Prior to India’s independence, when Bangladesh was a part of
India, the jute growing areas were mostly located in West Pakistan (presently
Bangladesh) and the factories were mostly located along the River Hugh in India
(CMDA, 2002). Calcutta and its surrounding areas faced a huge problem due to the
partition of the two countries in the 1940’s. The industries in India suffered from lack of
raw materials from the Bangladesh area and gradually some of the industrial units
became sick units and have no production even to the present day.
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After independence, the population in the metropolitan area increased. The population of
Calcutta increased from 1.2 million in 1931 to 2.9 million in 1961; this forced residential
space and industrial space to coexist side by side. There were more pressing problems
related to the development of a new state and the problems related to unorganized
industrial growth was ignored. There were no data or documentation nor were there
restrictions regarding the setting up of a new industry. The industrial policy statement of
July 1980 was the first attempt that recognized the need to preserve the ecological
balance and improve the living condition of the urban metropolis.
Presently, the industries in Calcutta are mostly located on the northern, northeastern,
eastern, and western parts of the city. Figure 4.6 shows the spatial distribution of the
different industrial units throughout the city of Calcutta. Out of the total number of 8832
industries in Calcutta, ward 14 has 349 industrial units, ward 25 has 425 industrial units,
and ward 6 has 357 industrial units. A detailed list with the number of industries in each
ward and the category to which they belong is listed in Appendix 4A. The most
important aspect about the high density of industrial units in these wards is that the wards
are primarily residential wards and most of the industrial units in these wards belong to
“red” and “orange” category of industries (CMDA, 2002).
103
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION
OF INDUSTRIES
T o ta l N u m b e r o f I n d u s tr ia l U n its
! •»•■») W a r d s w i t h N O in d u s t r ie s
I 11-21
{ 1 22 64
2000 0 2000 4 0 0 0 K ilom eters
Figure 4.6 Ward-wise distribution of industrial units
DISTRIBUTION OF "RED"
CATEGORY OF INDUSTRIES
T otal N u m b e r o f "R E D ’
C a te g o ry In d u stries
1 -2 3
2 4 -4 2
43-
00 0 2000 4000 K ilom eters

Therm al P o w er P lant
Figure 4.7 Ward-wise distribution of “RED” category industries.
104
However, Figure 4.6 showing the spatial distribution of all the industrial units in the city
presents a misleading picture with respect to environmental pollution. A “red” category
industry will be more polluting and hence more hazardous to human health when
compared to a “green” category industry. For example, ward number 21 with 220
industrial units has 189 “red” category industries, 2 “orange” and 29 “green” category
industries. Ward number 17 on the other hand has a total of 235 industrial units with 10
“red” category industries, 4 “orange” and 221 “green” category industries. Therefore,
residents of ward 21 will be exposed to more industrial pollution than residents of ward
17. Figure 4.7 shows the ward wise distribution of “red” category industries. Ward
numbers 21 and 6 are the wards with a greater number of “red” category industries.
4.2.2.3 Fuel consumption
A detailed inventory by the Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA) lists

three to four types of fuel generally being used by industries in Calcutta. A majority of
the industrial units use electricity as the main source of fuel. Also, used considerably are
coal, different types of oil like diesel and kerosene, firewood, and gases. The leading
electricity users are concentrated in wards 3, 6, 13, 31, 6, and 80. The monthly
consumption of electricity of these wards is sometimes higher than 50,000 KW hours in
more than 887 industrial units (CMDA, 2002). Coal and coal gas are also used
considerably due to its easy availability from the coalfields in West Bengal. There are
more than 2000 industrial units that use about 80 tonnes of coal per month per industry.
A detailed list of coal usage per ward is listed in Appendix 4A. More than a thousand
industrial units use diesel and kerosene as fuel with a monthly consumption of 1000 liters
per month. Most of this fuel is used for operating the generator. From a study of the fuel
being used by the industries, together with the manufacturing process of the units, it has
been established that “coal as a fuel or energy generates more pollution than many other
sources of smoke” (CMDA, 2002). Coal is used considerably in boilers, generators, acid
processing plants, and furnaces and emits smoke, dust, and also foul smell. Some small
industrial units also use firewood as a source of fuel.
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4 .2 .1.4 National Industrial Classification (NIC) codes of industrial units
All industrial units in India are classified according to the national industrial
classification (NIC) of all economic industries. Each type of industrial unit is assigned a
code depending upon the category to which it belongs (CPCB, 2000; WBPCB, 2002).
Agriculture and mining industries have NIC codes from 0.10 to 199.00; all manufacturing
units from 200.00 to 399.3; electricity from 400 to 439; construction from 500 to 519;
wholesale and retail trade and hotels and industries, a NIC code from 600 to 691;
transport, storage, and communication services from 700 to 759; financial, insurance, real
estate, and insurance services from 800 to 899.9; community, social, and personal
services from 900 - 990; and activities from 1000 to 1010. Table 4-7 shows an example
of a few NIC codes in the manufacturing units’ category.
Table 4-7 National Industrial Classification (NIC) codes

NIC code Industrial Category
200 Slaughtering, preparation and preservation of meat
200.1 Mutton-slaughtering, preparation
200.2 Beef-slaughtering, preparation
200.3 Pork-slaughtering, preparation
200.4 Poultry and other slaughtering, preparation
200.5 Preservation of meats except by canning
Source: (CPCB, 2000)
In Calcutta, there are 375 food products industries manufacturing canned food, meat,
bakery products, flour milling, refining oil, dairy products, fish oil, starch, animal oil, fat
etc. There are 1017 paper units that manufacture pulp, paper, paperboard, newsprint,
hardboard containers, boxes, and packaging materials. Some of these paper units release
by-products like bleaching chemicals, salts, and toxic wastes. The state of West Bengal
also acts as an important raw material resource base for the leather industry in the form of
hides and skins. An eco-friendly leather complex is being set up in Calcutta with state-
of-the-art facilities for manufacture of leather products. Industries producing chemical
and chemical products like nitric acid, ammonia, acid oils from refining, organic acids,
turpentine all fall under NIC code of 300 to 309.9. The petrochemical industry has
106
become one of the most buoyant sectors of the economy and has been considered as an
important tool for industrial growth. Another industry that needs mention is the large
expansion of plastic processing units. There are 338 plastic producing units in Calcutta
producing plastic granules, rubber, film, poly-bags, scrap etc. However, plastic and its
by-products are a major source of pollution. These products, not being biodegradable
add up to tonnes of solid waste that cannot be recycled. Table 4-8 provides a list of the
different types o f industrial units in Calcutta and to what NIC code each of the industrial
categories belongs.
ible 4-8 Types ol' Industries in Calcutta

Number of
NIC Code Type of Industry Industries
200-219.9 Food products 375
230-235 Cotton textiles 15
236 Bleaching 126
240-248 Wool, silk, and man-made textiles 15
250-259 Jute and other vegetable textile fibers (except cotton) 17
260-269.9 Textile products (including wearing apparel) 493
270-279 Wood products 323
280-289 Paper products 1017
290-299 Leather products 210
300-309.9 Chemical products 321
310-319 Rubber, plastic, petroleum, and coal products 786
320-329.9 Non-metallic mineral products 176
330-339 Basic metal and alloy industry 114
340-349 Metal products 1167
350-369.9 Machinery and equipment other than transport equipment 699
370-379 Transport equipment 56
380-389.9 Other manufacturing industries 1744
390-401 Repair of capital goods 344
Other 834
TOTAL 8832
Source: (CMDA, 2002)
4 .2 .2.5 Estimating ward wise industry pollution index
This dissertation discusses two different ways to estimate industrial pollution. The first
method estimates industrial pollution based on the West Bengal Pollution Control Board
(WBPCB) classification of industries into “red”, “orange”, and “green” categories of
107
industries. The second method estimates industrial pollution based on the fuel consumed
by the polluting industries. The first method does not have any absolute pollution values
associated with it. The second method on the other hand qualtifies the anount of
industrial pollution based on the fuel consumed by the industries.
4.2.2.5.1 Industrial Pollution Index based on PCB industrial categorization
One of the ways for estimating ward-wise industrial pollution, is based on “red”,
“orange”, and “green” categorization of industries by the pollution control board. The
industrial categorizations of industries are related to the NIC code details of an industry,
raw materials used, total production details, storage of raw material and finished
products, fuel consumption details, and finally waste disposal details. There are three
types of waste disposal that are considered for categorization of industries, air pollutant
released, water pollution details, and solid waste disposal. Also taken into consideration
is whether or not the pollutant is treated before being released into the atmosphere.
Considering the categorization of industries based on all the above-mentioned factors, a

ward wise industrial pollution index can be estimated. The rational behind such
estimation is that a “red” category industry will be more polluting than a “green”
category industry.
A detailed list on the ward-wise industrial categories in each ward is provided in

Appendix 4A. The assumption behind the industrial pollution indices calculation is that
if a “green” category industry produces 10 units of pollutants, an “orange” category
industry will produce greater than 10 units, say 20 units of pollutants, an “ordinary red”
category of industry will produce greater than 20 units, say 30 units of pollutants, and a
“red” category of industry will produce greater than 30 units say, 40 units of pollutants.
The above assumption is not accurate and has no real values associated to it, however,
with the given data on industrial pollution, one way to estimate industrial pollution index
was to assign weights to the different categories of industries. Table 4-9 shows the four
different categories of industries in ward number 14 based on the 1981 - 1984 industrial
108
classification survey. From the table, a food-processing unit was assigned a “red”
category because it uses 1000 liters of diesel per month as fuel whereas a paint
processing industry using electricity as fuel was classified as an “ordinary red” category
industry. A closer look at the complete list of industries also revealed that most “orange”
and “green” category of industrial units were using electricity as the source of power and
were also producing commodities that did not release considerable amount of pollutants
to the atmosphere.
To calculate ward-wise industrial pollution based on industrial categorization, all “green”

categories of industries were assigned a weight of one and all “orange” categories of
industries a weight of two. Meaning, all “orange” category industries would emit twice
the amount of pollutants than a “green” category of industry. Similarly all “red”
categories of industries were assigned a weight of four. Meaning, all “red” (including
“ordinary red” and “red”) category industries would emit twice the amount of pollutants
than an “orange” category of industry. Therefore, ward number 21 with 220 industrial
units is considered more polluted than ward 17 with 235 industries. Ward number 21 has
189 industrial units in the “red” category, whereas ward 17 has 221 industrial units in the
“green” category. Keeping these assigned weights in mind, a ward-wise industrial
pollution indices chart was generated. A spatial map showing the ward-wise industrial
pollution in Calcutta is shown in Figure 6.9.
4.2.2.5.2 Industrial Pollution Index based on fuel consumption
An alternate and a more efficient way to estimate ward-wise industrial pollution is based
on the fuel consumption by the industrial units. Greater the consumption o f fuels like
coal, diesel oil, and coal gas by a particular industry, greater will be the emissions from a
particular industry. Unfortunately, individual industrial units as well as the pollution
control board, for privacy issues does not release any information specific to a particular
industry. Therefore, the inventory made by the CMDA for identifying and mapping of
industries of Calcutta was used to estimate industrial pollution index based on fuel
consumption.
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The CMDA lists the total consumption of coal by a particular ward in their report
(CMDA, 2002). The CMDA also has lists the fuel consumption of some of the polluting
industrial units that either has an annual turnover greater than Rupees 10,000,000
($212,766) or a fuel consumption greater than 1,000 units per month. A very small
fraction of the database is listed in Table 4-9. One way to estimate industrial pollution is
based on this database that takes into consideration the figures for fuel consumption.
However, only 1351 industrial units are listed in the database when compared to a total of
8832 industrial units that are demarcated as polluting industries. At the same time, the
industrial units not listed in the database do not have high fuel consumption (i.e. less than
1,000 units per month) nor do the industries produce huge amounts of goods (because
their annual turnover is less than Rupees 10,000,000 per month). Appendix 4A lists the
fuel consumption in each ward.
India is third-largest producer of coal in the world (Mamoria, 1994). According to

Geological Survey of India's estimates, coal reserves were 212 billion tonnes as on
January 1, 2000. Coal and coal gas therefore are the primary fuels for the industrial units.
Other predominant fuel types include electricity, diesel oil, furnace oil, firewood, and
charcoal. The industrial inventory report by the CMDA (CMDA, 2002), state that “from
a study of the fuel being used together with the manufacturing process of the units, it is
seen than coal as a fuel or energy generates more pollution than many other sources”.
Therefore, industrial emission factors from coal were primarily taken into consideration
to estimate ward-wise industrial pollution. Coal fired industrial units in Calcutta produce
Sulphur dioxide (S 0 2), carbon dioxide (C 02), Oxygen (0 2), Nitrogen (N2), Carbon (C),
Fly Ash also referred to as Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM), and soot. The amount
of emission from coal powered industrial units depends on the grade or type of coal used
by the industrial units. Industries in the eastern region of India mostly use bituminous11
and sub- bituminous variety of coal. Normally, 1 kilogram of coal produces 0.0088 kg of
11 Bituminous coal is a relatively hard coal containing a tar-like substance called bitumen. It is superior in
quality than lignite coal but poorer than anthracite coal. The carbon content in bituminous coal ranges from
60% to 80%
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S 0 2, 1.3321 kg of C 0 2, 0.3186 kg of 0 2, 5.247 kg of N2, 0.007414 kg of C, 0.003633 kg
of SPM, and 0.000074142 kg of soot per day (Cooke et al., 1999; Mittal et al., 2004).
Table 4-9 Some industrial units in Calcutta (ward 14)

Unit Name NIC Fuel Consu Annual Production Industry
Code Code mption Tumove Type type
Qt./P r(xlO 6
M Rs)
3125 Tara Glass 321 Coal 50000 40.0 Sodium Red
and silicate Kg silicate
works
2990 Imperial fruit 202 Diesel oil 1000 5.0 Mango Red
preserving litre chatni
Co.
2982 Vishwanath 300.3 Coal 3900 2.4 Nitric acid Red
Chemical Kg
Works
2881 Apollo Paint 303.2 Electricity 1020 4.0 Paints Ord.
Ind. KWH (primer) Red
3154 Joyguru 270 Coal, 1300 1.5 Drying of Ord.
Enterprise Firewood, Kg wood Red
Charcoal
4464 Bharat 341.3 Electricity 1000 0.18 Chimney Orange
chimney and KWH and steel
engineering tank (job
works work)
3005 Shitun 345 Electricity 1500 0.26 Electroplati Orange
Enterprise KWH ng and
dicing (job
work)
3570 Elite Interiors 276 Electricity 200 26.5 Wooden Green
KWH furniture
3148 S.N. Electric 349 Electricity 1408 1.5 Flashlight Green
Works KWH holders
Source: (CMDA, 2002)
Based on the above emission factor, the industrial pollution from coal in each ward was
calculated. Appendix 4A lists ward-wise coal consumption in kilograms per day.
Besides coal, the emission factor from diesel oil was also taken into consideration when
calculating the ward-wise industrial pollution index. Emissions from electricity could not
111
be taken into consideration in this analysis because the use of electricity in an industrial
setting could vary from electric furnaces to use of electric fans and lights in an industrial
unit. While furnaces would produce pollutants based on the raw materials used and the
end product produced, the electric lights and fans would produce no air pollution.
Now, some industrial units are more efficient than others. The efficiency depends on the
combustion technology, operating conditions, and fuel properties. Therefore, the
emissions from coal or from diesel oil vary from one industrial unit to another. A Monte
Carlo simulation that randomly generates values for uncertain variables repeatedly was
considered the best possible choice for this problem. Crystal Ball 2000, professional
edition (version 5.2.2) was used for the analysis. The number of iterations was set to
10,000 and the emission factors and the different types of fuel consumption in each ward
were set to a variable number with lower and upper bounds. An educated guess was
made, such that the emission factor of each pollutant could either be 20% below or above
the specified value. The newly calculated industrial pollution index with Monte Carlo
simulation took into consideration the variability in the emission factor.
The industrial pollution index that was finally considered for mapping and analysis is the
median value generated from these iterations. Table 6-7 lists the ward-wise industrial
pollution index for soot, fly ash and SO2 . Figure 6.10 shows the spatial representation of
industrial pollution index in the different wards of Calcutta. These iterations will not
produce the exact ward-wise industrial pollution index, but it will account for the
uncertainties in the available data. However, one major drawback for estimation of ward-
wise industrial pollution based on fuel consumption is the unavailability of data from the
less polluting industrial units whose fuel use is less 1,000 units per month or whose
annual turnover is less than Rupees 10,000,000 per month.
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4.3 Estimating pollution from air quality measurements: Spatial
Interpolation of pollution control board monitoring data
Ward-wise distribution of air pollution can also be obtained from air pollution
measurements. The state pollution control board at specific locations in the city conducts
air pollution monitoring. Spatial interpolation is required on this sparse data to obtain
ward-wise distribution of air pollution. This section will describe the three different
spatial interpolation techniques explored to determine ward-wise distribution of air
pollution. All the analysis for spatial interpolation is based on the data collected by the
pollution control board in the city. This section of this chapter will also discuss the error
indices generated from the interpolation of the data and the shortcomings of the technique
for further analyzing the relationship between air pollution, population, and landuse
pattern in the city.
4.3.1 Environmental Monitoring in Calcutta
The state pollution control board or the WBPCB monitors air, water, and noise pollution
level in Calcutta. Ambient air quality monitoring is conducted at 45 stations throughout
the state of West Bengal with 25 locations in Calcutta alone. According to the WBPCB,
the monitoring stations are located more near the “polluting clusters of industries”
(WBPCB, 2002). Recently, the WBPCB has set up an automatic air quality monitoring
station in the central part of the city that constantly monitors respiratory particulate
matter (PMio). Also, the pollution control board in the city maintains a web site where
they report the ambient air quality of Calcutta on a daily basis (WBPCB, 2002).
4.3.2 Spatial and temporal resolution of ambient air quality data
Figure 4.8 shows the locations of the twenty-five, air quality monitoring stations in
Calcutta. Also shown in the figure is the location of the two most polluting thermal
power plants within the city limits; one in the northern part of the city and the other in the
western part of the city. The thermal power plants mostly use coal as the source of power
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generation and contribute to more than half of the city’s industrial pollution. The
temporal resolution for air quality data, available for this research, includes daily
measurements for the year 2001 and 2002, monthly measurements of air quality from
1993 to 2003, and annual measurements of air quality from 1988 to 1992. Data from
1988 to 1992 is very sparse and scattered and has very few monitoring stations.
However, the terms “twenty-five monitoring stations” and “daily air quality
measurements” sound misleading, because all monitoring stations do not have their air
quality measured on the same day. This means that, on any particular day, ambient air
quality monitoring is conducted in only four to six monitoring stations. So, for one
particular day, there will be air quality measurements in any four, or five or six
monitoring stations and the next day there will be air quality monitoring in another set of
monitoring stations. This is carried out such that each monitoring station has its air
quality monitored five to seven times every month. The WBPCB also publishes a
monthly report with the average air quality measurements on RPM (PMio), SPM (PM2.5),
SO2, and NOx for each month. This monthly measurement is an average of the daily
values. Hence, the monthly measurement for station Hyde Road (located in the western
part of Calcutta; Figure 4.8), will be an average o f the total measurements made for the
monitoring station Hyde Road in that particular month. Although the WBPCB measures
SPM, PMio, SO2, and NOx, all calculations in this section use PMio values. PM ]0 is most
hazardous to human health and has therefore been chosen for analysis purposes.
4.3.3 Limitations of ambient air quality measurements
One problem with this monthly measurement values is the inability to draw a comparison
amongst the monitoring stations. For example, station Hyde Road (Figure 4.8) might
have six measurements on a particular month, four o f which could be on a regular
weekday and two of the six measurements could be on a weekend or on a public holiday.
On the other hand station Garia (located in the southern part of Calcutta, Figure 4.8),
might have seven measurements all on regular weekdays. Weekends and public holidays
have a lot less traffic on the roads; also, many industries are closed during such days with
114
little or no production. Therefore air quality measurements during weekend and during
public holidays will definitely record lower air quality measures than on a regular
workday. So, from the above example, two weekend measurements at station Hyde Road
would distort the average value significantly when compared to station Garia.
This problem with the data, published by the pollution control board, to deal with spatial
comparisons, brought about further investigations on vehicular pollution and industrial
pollution separately. However, the measurements by the pollution control board is a sum
total of the total air pollution in the city, which comprises of vehicular pollution
(comprising 50% of the total pollution in the city), industrial pollution (48% of total
pollution in the city), and domestic sources of pollution (2% of total air pollution in the
city) (Banerjee, 2004). This research only analyzes vehicular and industry pollution.
Domestic pollution has not been considered in this research because its contribution to
the total pollution in the city is significantly lower when compared to the two other
sources of pollution.
Even though the one of the main drawback of the pollution control board data lies in its
inability to handle spatial comparisons, nevertheless the data provides the first ever effort
made by the government to make the residents of Calcutta aware about the high pollution
levels in different parts of the city. In this research, there is a distinction made between
vehicular pollution and industrial pollution; wards with high vehicular and industrial
pollution have also been identified; however, there has not been any analysis that studies
the total air pollution of the city as a whole. Also, vehicular and industrial pollution
estimation is based on the emissions from air polluting sources, the vehicles and the
industries. The pollution generated by these sources is dispersed as a result of the
prevalent wind direction, wind velocity, and air temperature. The measured data by the
pollution control board takes into consideration such spatial dispersion of air pollution
due to meteorological factors that both vehicular and industrial pollution cannot account
for. Values measured from the monitoring stations have been interpolated and seasonal
and monthly changes in the pattern of pollution have been investigated. Also,
115
methodologies to deal with weekly changes in ward wise pollution distribution have been
explored.
Dunlop Bridge
LOCATION OF
POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD
Cossjpore
AIR POLLUTION MONITORING STATIONS
t Shyambazar
Saltlake
'Ultadanga
Howrah Bridge
.College Street \
Lglba;
Lalbazar ' ,< , \
- - ~ Belaghata
Rajbhaban Moulali
Paribesh Bhavan
] I\de Road
Min to Park
u la p sia f
Mpmjnpur
Ha/.ra 'Hondo I Gate
Air P ollution M onitoring S ta tio n s
laratala Kasbk
T herm al P o w e r R a n t i i
Wand B o u n d ary
/ ( / Tolhgiinge Jadavpiir
Behala Chowrasta
Baishnabghata
,\. ...
Ciaria
1 0 1 2 Ki l omet ers
Figure 4.8 Location of pollution control board air quality monitoring stations.
4.3.4 Setting up the GIS database for spatial interpolation
There are certain map and data files that are required for this analysis. First, there are
two map files that have been used for spatially interpolating the ambient air quality
measurements by the state pollution control board. The first file is the map of Calcutta,
with 141 census wards. This is a vector file, with polygonal ward boundaries. The
second map file shows the spatial location of the twenty-five monitoring stations. This
file is another vector file where the monitoring stations are shown as point locations with
specific x and y coordinates. All the map files were digitized from paper copy maps
provided by the Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA) and National
116
Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO). The other accompanying file is a
database that lists the name of the twenty-five monitoring stations and the corresponding
value of the pollutant in pg/m3. Refer to Appendix 4B for the monthly pollution values
for PMio obtained from the pollution control board.
4.3.5 Spatial interpolation of the available pollution data
The next step was to spatially interpolate the air pollution values from the twenty-five
monitoring stations such that all the 141 wards had a pollution value that was the
pollution index for that particular ward. Although twenty-five data points (monitoring
station values) were used for determining monthly and seasonal ward-wise air pollution
index, there was a significant reduction in the number of monitoring stations when
changing to calculation of weekly ward-wise pollution index. This significantly
increased the error level of spatial interpolation such that interpolating the weekly
pollution index or even trying to calculate daily pollution index from a few data points
became absolutely ineffective.
Spatial interpolation has been performed using available methodologies in Arclnfo 8.3.
There were three methods that have been explored for spatial interpolation. They are
described in the following sections.
4.3.5.1 Spatial Interpolation using Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) Algorithm
The IDW method of interpolation employ distance weighting, giving differential weights
to the observations based on their proximity to the missing value. Therefore if the
pollution indices for the ward where the Cossipore thermal power station (located in the
northern part o f Calcutta, from Figure 4.8) is to be calculated, the measured pollution
values from station Cossipore and Dunlop Bridge would attach more weight than values
from station Shyambazar.
117
4.3.5.2 Spatial Interpolation using Splines
Spline interpolation produced a smooth surface, with the smallest amount of curvature,
such that the surface passed exactly through the input data points or the pollution values
measured by the monitoring stations. The main drawback of spline interpolation thus
was the rapid changes in pollution values just close to the monitoring station.
4.3.5.3 Spatial Interpolation using Kriging
Kriging is thought to be the most rigorous method (Haining, 2003) for modeling uniform
surface behavior in sparse data as in the case air pollution monitoring stations in Calcutta.
Kriging is based on the regionalized variable theory (Franke, 1982; McBratney et al.,
1986; Mitas et al., 1988; Oliver, 1990; Liu et al., 2001) that assumes that the pattern of
variation in the measured air pollution values is similar at all locations throughout the
surface. Kriging uses the spatial correlation structure of the data to determine the
weighting of values instead of using their inverted distances as in IDW. The spatial
corelation in the air pollution data is quantified by the semi-variogram. The semi-
variogram is estimated by the sample semi-variogram that is computed from the
measured pollution data at the monitoring stations. The value of the sample semi-
variogram for a separation distance of h is the average squared difference in the air
pollution values between pairs of monitoring stations separated by distance h as
expressed by the equation below.
rW^-^-'Zlzw-zixi +h)}2
2 n /=1
Where n is the number of pairs of sample points separated by distance h. The semi-
variogram is modeled by fitting a parametric function to the sample semi-variogram. The
model semi-variogram is an estimate of correlation between data points that determines
the weighting values used to estimate the value of point that is not sampled.
118
4.3.6 Seasonal and monthly distribution of air pollution
Seasonal air pollution was calculated for the three main seasons in Calcutta; summer
season (extending from March to June), rainy season (extending from July to October),
and winter season (extending from November to February). The average pollution values
for summer season were an average of measured pollution values for the month of
March, April, May, and June. All the twenty-five monitoring stations had a total of three
seasonal values, one for each of the seasons mentioned above. The monthly air pollution
measures were calculated with the help of data published by the pollution control board.
The monthly values are an average o f the daily measured values. Values from the
twenty-five, air pollution monitoring stations were then interpolated using the kriging
method of spatial interpolation. Figure 6.11, Figure 6.12, and Figure 6.13 maps the
seasonal distribution of air pollution in the different wards of Calcutta.
4.3.7 Error estimation from spatial interpolation
In Arc Info 8.3 both the vector map files were converted to a raster grid. The two map
files, one that had the ward boundaries and the other file with locations of the air
pollution monitoring stations were overlaid on one another. All “no-data” areas were
marked with a “-9999” value. Spatial interpolation (with kriging method) produced a
third raster grid whose boundaries matched the other two raster map files. The ward
boundaries were imposed on the interpolated grid layer such that the ward boundaries
acted as a mask and extracted pollution values from the interpolated layer. For example,
all pixels from the interpolated raster grid layer that corresponded to ward 1 were taken
into consideration for determining the pollution index for ward 1.
The overlay of all the three above mentioned raster grids, made possible the comparison
of the interpolated pollution value versus the original value measured by the pollution
control board. For comparison, the x and y coordinates of the monitoring stations were
matched with the x and y coordinates of the interpolated file. The values from both the
files were extracted; the difference in values between the two files provided an error
119
index. Table 4-10 shows the error index that was generated for the monitoring stations in
all the three seasons. The errors for the individual stations are shown together with the
mean seasonal error level.
Table 4-10 shows the error indices from twenty-three monitoring stations. The remainder
of the three stations, Dunlop Bridge, Saltlake, and Paribesh bhavan (shown in Figure 4.8)
were included in the interpolation procedure. Their values also influenced the results of
spatial interpolation; however they are not listed in the comparison table because the
spatial location of the stations is outside the CMC area.
Table 4-10 Error Index from spatial interpolation of PMIO values (seasonal air
pollution). Original values measured by the state pollution control board.
Monitoring WIN TER SEASON RAINY SEASON
Station (No\'ember 2000 to (July 2000 to October
Fe miary 2001) 2000)
Original Interpolated Error Original Interpolated Error
Value Value Value Value
Cossipore 276 200 -75 172 115 -56
Shyambazar 185 195 10 43 90 47
Ultadanga 201 194 -6 67 75 8
Howrah Br. 252 189 -62 90 81 -8
College Street 148 187 39 41 67 26
Lalbazar 201 181 -19 102 62 -39
Rajbhaban 110 181 71 60 66 6
Belaghata 188 184 -3 58 55 -2
Moulali 195 182 -12 55 59 4
Hyde Road 169 179 10 48 57 9
Minto Park 161 179 18 40 58 18
Mominpur 169 177 8 50 53 3
Tapsia 194 185 -8 52 55 3
Bondel Gate 191 185 -5 57 55 -1
Hazra 158 178 20 49 53 4
Kasba 242 188 -53 71 53 -17
Taratala 204 179 -24 62 54 -7
Jadavpur 193 188 -4 42 50 8
Tollygunge 196 187 -8 51 50 0
Behala Chow. 189 183 -5 58 54 -3
Baishnabghata 171 189 18 35 50 15
Garia 184 190 6 49 47 -1
Error Sum: 495.772 Error Sum: 295.526
Error Mean: 22.5351 Error Mean: 13.4330
120
Monitoring SUMMER SEASON 2000
Station (March 2000 to June 2000)
Original Interpolated Error
Value Value
Cossipore 146 103 -42
Shyambazar 64 91 27
Ultadanga 89 85 -3
Howrah Br. 98 84 -13
College Street 65 77 12
Lalbazar 95 74 -20
Rajbhaban 49 74 25
Belaghata 90 74 -15
Moulali 75 74 0
Hyde Road 82 81 0
Minto Park 53 74 21
Mominpur 72 72 0
Tapsia 80 69 -10
Bondel Gate 90 69 -20
Hazra 59 71 12
Kasba 58 66 8
Taratala 88 76 -11
Jadavpur 71 67 -3
Tollygunge 60 69 9
Behala Chow. 82 73 -8
Baishnabghata 47 63 16
Garia 73 65 -7
Error Sum: 295.479
Error Mean: 13.4308
The seasonal pollution indices error table (Table 4-10) shows that the error level was
highest for monitoring station Cossipore followed by station Rajbhavan, and
Shyambazar. A closer look at Table 4-10 indicates that the error was greater for higher
and lower air pollution values. Values that were closer to the average air pollution
generated a lower degree of error. The mean seasonal error was highest for the winter
season than the summer and the rainy season.
4.3.8 Measuring ward-wise weekly air pollution
To measure ward-wise weekly air pollution from the air quality measurements by the
pollution control board gets to be very challenging. The main reason is related to the
significant reduction in the number air quality monitoring stations. While there were
twenty-five data points for monthly and seasonal calculations, the total number of input
data points for weekly measurements were sometimes as low as ten. The lesser the
number of monitoring stations, the greater is the error from the interpolated values.
Figure 6.14 and Figure 6.15 map weekly air pollution in the different wards of Calcutta.
Table 4-11 shows a weekly error index generated by interpolating weekly air pollution
data for the week of 16th to 20th December 2000. Also important to note is the value of
pollution indices in each census wards. Table 4-12 shows a small portion of the weekly
ward wise air pollution calculations. A complete table detailing interpolation of air
pollution values is listed in Appendix 4C. Note that most of the wards listed in Table
4-12 have the same pollution indices of 229.58x. Table 4-12 is a representative of the
pollution indices calculations for all the 141 wards in Calcutta. When examined in detail,
pollution indices for measuring weekly air pollution was useless, as most of the values
that it showed for a particular ward was redundant with the values with the other wards.
Table 4-11 Error Index from spatial interpolation of PMIO values (weekly air pollution).
Original values measured by the state pollution control board.
Monitoring Station WINTER SEASON (December 16th
2000 to December 20th 2000)
Original Interpolated Error
Value Value
BAISHNABGHATA 228 238 10
BEHALA CHOWRASTA 214 229 15
COLLEGE STREET 170 233 63
GARIA 276 229 -46
HAZRA 209 229 20
HOWRAH BRIDGE 359 234 -124
HYDE ROAD 181 233 52
JADAVPUR 252 229 -22
MINTO PARK 210 233 23
MOULALI 204 234 30
SHYAMBAZAR 322 233 -88
TAPSIA 219 241 22
TOLLYGUNGE 233 229 -3
Error Sum: 518.695
Error Mean: 39.84615
122
Table 4-12 A portion of ward-wise weekly (December 16th to 20th 2000) air pollution
indices for P VU0
Ward Number Pollution Index
109 238.507
129 229.583
94 229.589
120 229.583
104 233.118
130 229.583
97 229.585
116 229.584
95 229.584
96 229.592
102 229.615
103 229.583
121 229.574
127 229.583
128 229.570
This redundancy in ward wise pollution indices values made the pollution control board
data unsuitable for further analysis on weekly and daily distribution of air pollution in the
city of Calcutta. Furthermore, with the sparse distribution of data points (monitoring
stations); there was the need for some robust ways to determine ward wise environmental
pollution in Calcutta. The necessity to investigate the apportionment of pollution in
Calcutta between vehicular pollution and industry pollution and the need to correlate
ward-wise air pollution to population and landuse pattern in different wards caused
further investigations regarding specific estimations of ward-wise vehicular pollution
index and ward wise industry pollution index.
4.4 Chapter Summary
This chapter describes the different ways to estimate environmental pollution in Calcutta.
This dissertation describes two different methods to determine the ward-wise pollution.
The first method, estimates pollution from the source pollutants, the vehicles and the
industries; the second method estimates pollution from the ambient air quality
measurements by the city pollution control board. Vehicle pollution estimations take into
consideration the traffic volume of the city, the road network, and the emission factor of
each of the different types of vehicles. The industrial pollution estimation takes into
123
consideration the industrial categorization as classified by the WBPCB and the ward-wise
fuel consumption in the different wards of Calcutta. The ambient air quality
measurements taken by the city pollution control board are spatially interpolated such
that each ward in Calcutta has a pollution value associated with it. The chapter answers
one of the main research questions of this dissertation - the procedure for determining the
spatial distribution of air pollution in the different wards of Calcutta.
4.5 References
Agarwal, M. K. 1996. Urban Transportation in India. First Edition ed. New Delhi: Allied
Publishers Limited.
Banerjee, S. 2004. Status of Atmospheric Pollution in West Bengal: An Assessment.
Calcutta: University o f Calcutta and WBHDR.
Cooke, W. F., Liousse, C., Cachier, H., and Feichter, J. 1999. Construction of a lo x lo
emission data set for carbonaceous aerosol and implementation and radiative
impact in the ECHAM4 model. Journal o f Geophysical Resrarch 104
(D18):22137 -22162.
Franke, R. 1982. Smooth Interpolation o f Scattered Data by Local Thin Plate Splines.
Computers and Mathematics, with Applications 8 (4):237- 281.
Government of India. 2002. Report of the expert committee on Auto Fuel Policy Report.
Government of West Bengal. 2003. The Kolkata Gazette. Calcutta: Transport
Department.
Haining, R. 2003. Spatial Data Analysis: Theory and Practice. First Edition ed, Data
Quality: Implications fo r Spatial Data Analysis. Cambridge, United Kingdom:
Cambridge University Press.
Kandlikar, M., and Ramachandran, G. 2000. The Causes and Consequences of Particulate
Air Pollution in Urban India: A Synthesis of Science. Annual Review o f Energy
and Environment 25:629 - 684.
124
Liu, H., and Jezek, K. C. 2001. Detecting Outliers in Irregularly Distributed Spatial Data
Sets by Locally Adaptive and Robust Statistical Analysis. International Journal
o f Geographical Information Science 15 (8):721 - 741.
Mamoria, C. B. 1994. Economic and Commercial Geography o f India. Agra, India: Shiva
Lai Agarwala & Company.
Mandal, S. 2005. Metro-Style Messages on Trains. The Telegraph, 31st January, 2005.
McBratney, A. B., and Webster, R. 1986. Choosing Functions for Semi-Variogram s in
Soil Properties and Fitting them to Sampling Estimates. Journal o f Soil Science
37:617- 639.
Mitas, L., and Mitasova, H. 1988. General Variational Approach to the Interpolation
Problem. Computer and Mathematics, with Applications 16 (12):983- 992.
Mittal, M. L., and Sharma, C. 2004. Anthropogenic emissions from energy activities in
India: generation and source characterization. Emissions from thermal power
generation in India. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio Supercomputer Center.
Museum, N. R. Metro Railway National Rail Museum, New Delhi, 2002 . Available from
http://www.railmuseum.org.
Ning, Z., Cheung, C. S., Lu, Y., Liu, M. A., et al. 2005. Experimental and Numerical
Study of the Dispersion of Motor Vehicle Pollutants Under Idle Condition.
Oliver, M. A. 1990. A Method of Interpolation For Geographic Information Systems.
International Journal o f Geographic Information Science 4 (4): 313 - 332.
125
5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY-II: POPULATION AND
LANDUSE PATTERN
5.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the ward-wise population characteristics and the landuse pattern in
Calcutta. The first part of the chapter will explain the demographic characteristics of
population. The census of India measures certain characteristics of population like age,
sex, literacy, occupation etc. Based on some of these variables, this chapter will also
specify the procedure for calculating the social and economic index of population. The
second part o f the chapter will describe the different landuse categories in Calcutta and
the procedure for calculating the percentage of various landuse categories in each
particular ward.
5.2 Population dynamics in Calcutta
5.2.1 Census data and census variables
The census of India is well reputed for its “authenticity” and “coverage in its unbroken
succession every ten years” (Banthia, 2001) despite wars, civil conflicts, communal riots,
or natural calamities. Except for the first census that was taken in the year 1872, the
census is undertaken in the first year of each decade, i.e. 1881, 1891, 1901, to the present
census of 2001 that was undertaken from the 9th to the 28th of February, 2001. The city
of Calcutta along with the rest of India also had its 14th census in the year 2001.
The Census of India, an organization functioning under the ministry o f home affairs,
government of India, conducts the census in India. The census commissioner further
appoints individual directorates of census operations who conduct the census in each
individual state. The directorate of census operations, West Bengal, has conducted the
census for the state of West Bengal and also for the city of Calcutta.
The census of India measures different demographic variables like total population,
gender gap in population, child population, occupation structure of population, literacy
126
rate, backward population, data on slums, data on houses, household amenities and assets
(in the rural areas), migration data, fertility data, religion data, disability data, data on
agriculture, mining, and various other variables. The data on slum population, disabled
population, and different religious groups have been introduced for the first time in the
2001 census. For the purposes of this research, the census variables that have been taken
into consideration are total population, male and female population, child population,
slum population, backward caste population, total literates and illiterates, and the
occupational structure of population. The first part of this chapter will describe each of
the census variables measured in Calcutta that have been used for this research and how
these variables compare to the whole nation.
5.2.2 Growth of population and density of population
The total population of India as at 0:00 hours on 1st March 2001 stood at 1,027,015,247
persons (Banthia, 2001). India became the second country in the world after China to
cross the one billion mark. The population of the country rose by 21.34 % between the
years 1991 and 2001. Calcutta is the 3rd most populous city in India after Mumbai
(Bombay) and Delhi. The population of Calcutta is 4,580,544 (Sen, 2001; Sen, 2001)
making Calcutta the 24th most populous city in the world (Nations, 1997). The
population of Calcutta has shown a steady growth since the year 1735 when the
population was around 100,000.
Table 5-1 lists the total population increase in Calcutta city and also the population
growth in India since the first census. Figure 5.1 graphically represents the population of
the city of Calcutta for the various censuses. The density of population in India is 324
persons per square kilometer. However, this does not compare anywhere near to the
population density in the city of Calcutta. The state of West Bengal has the highest
density of population, 904 persons per square kilometer according to the 2001 census.
The population density of Calcutta city, which is the capital of the state of West Bengal,
is 24,760 persons per square kilometer. In some small pockets the density of population
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is greater than 175,000 persons per square kilometer (Sen, 2001; Sen, 2001), a figure far
above WHO’s suggested ideal number of 2,500 persons per square kilometer.
Table 5-1 Total Population

Year Population growth
INDIA (growth rate) CALCUTTA (growth rate)
1872 ** 633, 009
1881 253,891,821 612, 307 (-3.27%)
1891 287,223,431 (13.13%) 682, 305 (11.43%)
1901 238,396,327 (-17.00%) 933,754 (36.85%)
1911 252,093,390 (5.75%) 1,016,445 (8.86%)
1921 251,321,213 (-0.31%) 1,053,334 (3.63%)
1931 278,977,238 (11.00%) 1,221,210 (15.94%)
1941 318,660,580 (14.23%) 2,167,485 (77.49%)
1951 361,088,090 (13.31%) 2,698,494 (24.50%)
1961 439,234,771 (21.64%) 2,927,289 (8.48%)
1971 548,159,652 (24.80%) 3,148,746 (7.57%)
1981 683,329,097 (18.09%) 3,305,006 (4.96%)
1991 846,302,688 (23.85%) 4,399,819 (6.61%)
2001 1,028,610,328 (21.54%) 4,580,544 (4.11%)
** Although the first census of India was in 1872, it could be stated that the census of the
17th February 1881 was the first synchronous enumeration that had been attempted for the
whole country. “Not that no previous count of the people had been effected in the
various provinces and states composing the British-Indian Empire. In the majority of
these states, and in all the British provinces, there has been a previous census, but the
enumeration in the various provinces and sates has been effected in different times and by
independent agencies. There has been no attempt to secure uniformity and the
arrangement of the statistics then obtained” (Plowden, 1883).
5.000.000
4.500.000
4.000.000
3.500.000
O 3,000,000
_i 2,500,000
O 2,000,000
1,500,000
1 , 00 0 ,0 0 0
500,000
YEAR
Figure 5.1 Population of Calcutta in the different census years
5.2.3 Sex ratio
The sex ratio according to the census is the number of females per thousand males. The
all India sex ratio in India is 933 females for every 1000 males according to the 2001
census (Banthia, 2001). The patriarchal societal structure of India and the overwhelming
desire for hoy children has lead to this uneven sex ratio. The urban sex ratio is even
lower than that in the villages.
The sex ratio in Calcutta is 828 females per 1000 males, much lower than the national
average (Sen, 2001; Sen, 2001). However, this unbalanced sex ratio in Calcutta is mainly
attributed to the high influx o f male population who migrate from the neighboring
villages and the nearby suburban areas to the city in search of well-paid jobs.
5.2.4 Child population and child sex ratio
The child population according to the census of India includes children in the age group
of six years of age and below. Unfortunately, the sex ratio in India is greatly skewed and
biased against females. According to the 2001 census, the all India child sex ratio is 927
129
females per 1000 males (Banthia, 2001). Some of the important reasons that contribute
towards skewed sex ratio are neglect of girl children, high maternal mortality, sex-
selective female abortions, and female infanticide (Banthia, 2001).
The child sex ratio in Calcutta is 923 females per 1000 males, lower than the national
average (Sen, 2001; Sen, 2001). This unexplained and skewed sex ratio could possibly
be an indicator towards “female infanticide and female foeticide” (Sridhar, 2004;
Reporter, 2006). The government is ensuring that the education curriculum in the
schools is revised and textbooks are designed such that students are informed about child
rights and educated about gender sensitive issues.
5.2.5 Literacy and the gender gap in literacy rate
Literacy as defined by the National Literacy Mission is “acquiring the skills of reading,
writing and arithmetic and the ability to apply them to one's day-to-day life” (Banthia,
2001). According to the 2001 census, the percentage of literates to total population in
India is 65.38%. There are 75.85% male literates and 54.16% female literates making the
gender gap in literacy rate in India quite high. Although the total number of literates in
India does not look very impressive, the rate of increase in literacy rate from 52.21% to
65.38% from 1991 to 2001 was quite satisfactory. The increase in literacy rate among
males and females from the year 1991 to 2001 are 11.72% and 14.67%.
According to the latest census, about 75% of the total population in Calcutta is literate
(Sen, 2001; Sen, 2001). 77.71% of the male population in Calcutta is literate and 71.37%
of the female population is literate. The gender gap in literacy in the city is not as
prominent as evident in the other parts of the country.
5.2.6 Slum population
Economic vibrancy in the large metropolitan cities attracts people from far and near to
the city in search o f employment opportunities. In Calcutta this rural to urban migration
has resulted in accelerated urban expansion. However, rural migrants are attracted to the
130
urban areas regardless of poor housing conditions and lack of infrastructure leading to the
transfer of rural poverty to urban areas.
As defined by the census of India, a slum is “a compact area of at least 300 people or
about 60-70 households of poorly built congested tenements, in unhygienic environment
usually with inadequate infrastructure and lacking in proper sanitary and drinking water
facilities” (Banthia, 2001). It is for the first time in the history of census in the country
that the slum demography is represented in the census data as an actual count. According
to the government of India, slum demography has become increasingly important in the
present decade due to “formulation of effective coordinated policy for improvement and
rehabilitation, as they have not received due attention in urban planning and have
remained an area of neglect”.
In India 42.6 million people lived in slums in 2001, of which 1.49 million are in Calcutta
alone. Slum population in India constitutes 15% of the total urban population of the
country. In Calcutta, slum population constitutes 32.533% of the total population of
Calcutta. 55.39% of the slum dwellers are males and the rest are females. Also, 0.15
million of the total slum population is the child population, in other words 3.26% children
in Calcutta live in unhygienic environment and are below 6years of age (Sen, 2001; Sen,
2001).
5.2.7 Backward caste population
The caste system plays an important role in the day-to-day livelihood of the people of
India. Although the caste system is not very apparent in the metropolitan cities of India,
sometimes, even among the most educated people, the caste system does hold some
strong feelings. According to some scholars, in early India, the society was divided
broadly into four sections, based on the occupation of the people. Classes included
educated decision makers of the society, warriors who fought against enemies,
businessmen who generated revenue for the society, and lastly physical laborers, who
mostly worked on the least desired jobs. Gradually this occupation stratification became
131
so rigid that it got transferred from one generation to another and eventually an
individual’s identity rested on his occupation. This occupational stratification in society
gave birth to the caste system, or a system in society with lower and higher castes where
the higher caste people looked down on the lower caste population. Calcutta was no
different from the rest o f the country; caste system, untouchability, and a social
stratification of society were all a part of the culture in Calcutta during the 19th century.
After independence, the constitution of India banned untouchability also special attention
was given to the lower caste population (who were known as scheduled caste and
scheduled tribe population) with respect to free education, job opportunities, and
reservation of a certain percentage of seats in competitive examinations and in
government jobs.
The census of India, even to the present day, takes a count of the population who belong
to the scheduled caste and the scheduled tribe population. One important aspect to note is
that the scheduled caste and the scheduled tribe population are not necessarily the
population who live in slums. Slum dwellers could very well be from the scheduled caste
or scheduled tribe community or could be an outcome of unemployment or
underemployment. In Calcutta, according to the 2001 census, there are 95,319 people
who are from the scheduled caste or scheduled tribe community and live in slums, this
constitute about 6.4% o f the total slum population (Sen, 2001; Sen, 2001).
In the earlier census enumerations, the caste system was a very good indicator of income
and status of a person. But to what extent the caste system is still a good indicator of
economic status of a person, in the city of Calcutta, is a topic for debate. In remote
villages, the caste system still holds deep roots that are difficult to eliminate. Although
today in Calcutta, the caste system is virtually non-existent especially among the newer
generation; nevertheless sometimes the caste system does haunt even the most educated
and sophisticated of persons.
In the city of Calcutta, according to the 2001 census, there is a total of 284,645 backward
caste population, 96.55% of who are scheduled castes and the rest are scheduled tribes.
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Of the 284,645 people, 95,319 persons live in slums. There are 150,866 scheduled caste
males and 123,969 scheduled caste females and also 5471 scheduled tribe males and
4339 scheduled tribe females in Calcutta. Scheduled caste and scheduled tribe
population constitute only 6.22% of the population of Calcutta (Sen, 2001; Sen, 2001).
5.2.8 Occupational structure of population
Occupational structure of population classifies the total working class population into
different job categories. The different occupational categories according to the census of
India include the agricultural laborers, cultivators, household and industry workers, other
employment category workers, and marginal (only employed for a part of the year)
workers. As India is mostly an agricultural country, most employment classifications for
census purposes are made keeping in mind the predominant occupational structures. As
the all India figure suggests, 31% of the total workforce are cultivators, more than 27%
are agricultural laborers, 4% work in household and industry jobs, and 37% work in other
services that include office goers, academicians, bankers, medical practitioners, engineers
etc. In the cities, like in Calcutta, agricultural laborers and cultivators constitute an
insignificant percentage of population. The occupational structure of population is
important only to get an idea of the total number of industrial workers and also to have an
idea about what percentage of population are marginal workers or are unemployed.
According to the 2001 census, there are a total of 1,725,190 employed persons, 85.30%
of the workforce is male and the rest are females. There are 38876 male industry workers
and 9372 female industry workers. Also 1.91% of the population is marginal worker.
The percentage of unemployed persons in the city is 62.33% (Sen, 2001; Sen, 2001).
There has been an 8% increase in the total employment in Calcutta since the 1991 census.
5.3 Surrogate socio-economic index of population
One of the primary research questions in this dissertation is to investigate the relationship
between air pollution and population and also to look into environmental equity concerns,
if any, in the different wards of Calcutta. For investigating environmental equity, there
133
are different indicators that need to be studied. A relationship between child population
and industrial population in the different wards of Calcutta and the relationship between
slum dwellers and industrial and vehicular air pollution are some of the indicators that
will emphasize on the environmental equity concerns. Yet another way to look at
environmental equity is to determine the relationship between income and standard of
living of the people and air pollution. Unfortunately the census of India does not gather
any information related to annual income, average expenditure, or assets of a particular
household in the urban areas. Neither do any governmental or local agencies gather or
publish information on the high-income or low-income neighborhoods. This lack of
published data makes environmental equity studies in countries like India quite
challenging. This research therefore takes the initiative to estimate a surrogate socio
economic index that is comparable to the standard of living of the people in the different
wards of Calcutta. This socio-economic index is later associated to the ward-wise
industrial pollution and ward-wise vehicular pollution to determine issues related to
environmental equity.
5.3.1 Variables used for calculating socio-economic index
As the name suggests the socio-economic index deals with the social and the economic
standard of the people (Banthia, 2001). The surrogate socio-economic index is calculated
keeping in mind the literacy level of the persons residing in a ward, the employment rate
of the persons, the number of slum dwellers in a particular ward, and the number of
backward persons in the respective ward.
Literacy/illiteracy is an important indicator for the calculation of socio-economic index.

A literate person is more likely to have a better job or in other words more money than an
illiterate person. Therefore higher the literacy rate in a particular ward better will be the
standard of living in that ward. Literacy is also closely related to employment. An
employed person will definitely have a higher standard of living than an unemployed
person. Therefore, for calculating the socio-economic index, employment/unemployment
has been taken as an important indicator for determining the socio-economic status of a
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person. The number of slum dwellers residing in a ward is also an important indicator of
socio-economic status of a person. Slum dwellers mostly work as physical laborers and
have significantly less amount of income. The final determinant for estimating the social
and economic status of a ward is the caste structure. During 1950, after India’s
independence, the caste o f a person would have been one of the best indicators for
determining the socio-economic status of a person. Presently, with government
incentives, the cast structure explaining the economic status of a person is gradually
fading, particularly in the urban areas. However, the caste system does have deep roots
embedded in the social structure of the Indian society. And therefore, the caste structure
in a particular ward has been taken into consideration for the calculation of socio
economic index.
5.3.2 Procedure for calculation of ward-wise surrogate socio-economic index
The four factors described above, literacy/illiteracy, employment/unemployment, general

population/backward caste population, non-slum/slum dwellers have been considered for
calculating the surrogate socio-economic index for all the wards in Calcutta. The total
number of illiterates in a ward, unemployed persons in a ward, total number of slum
dwellers, and total number of scheduled caste/tribe population in a ward are considered as
negative indicators for calculating socio economic index. This means that higher the
number of illiterates, unemployed persons, slum dwellers, and backward caste
population, the lower will be the social and economic index in that particular ward. On
the contrary, a greater number of literates and employed persons in a ward, or lower
number of slum dwellers and backward caste population would mean higher standard of
living or a higher socio-economic index in the particular ward. These factors will be
hence considered as positive indicators for calculating socio economic index.
For calculating the socio-economic index it was necessary to ascertain what proportion of
the total population were literates/illiterates, employed/unemployed, general
population/backward caste population, and non-slum/slum dwellers. Hence there was a
need to normalize each o f the above-mentioned variables by total population.
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Normalization helps in comparison of dissimilar data and is most suitable as in this case
for comparison of different census variables. Each of the normalized variables provides
an index that contributes to the calculation of the surrogate social and economic index.
The four separate indices derived from the census variables and used for calculating the
surrogate socio-economic index are described below.
• Total illiteracy divided by the total population in a particular ward would provide an
illiteracy index
• Total unemployed persons divided by the total population in a particular ward would
provide an unemployment index
• Slum index is the total slum population in a ward, normalized by the total population
in the particular ward
• Backward population index is computed by the summing up total scheduled caste and
scheduled tribe population in a ward and dividing the sum by the total population of
the ward.
For this research, the socio-economic index is a combination of each of the above indices.
Now, for example, if the slum population for the year 2001 in ward 1 is 26,712 and the
total population of ward 1 is 49,013, the slum index (proportion of slum population to
total population) in ward 1 will be: 26712/49013 or 0.545. Similarly, data on total
number of illiterates, backward caste population, and unemployed persons were also
divided by the total population of the respective wards. Finally, all the normalized data
have been added together and divided by the number of variables or four. The number
four denotes the four variables, illiterates, unemployed persons, slum dwellers, and
backward population that have been used for computing the surrogate socio-economic
index. All the four variables have been assigned equal weights (0.25% each) for the
calculation o f socio-economic indices.
Surrogate socio-economic index have been calculated for the census years 1981, 1991,
and 2001. However, since 2001 is the first census year when slum demography have
been represented, socio-economic index calculations for the census years 1981 and 1991
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only considers literates/illiterates, employed/unemployed persons, and general
population/backward caste population. Figure 6.17, Figure 6.18, and Figure 6.19 map the
social and economic index of population for the years 2001, 1991, and 1981. Figure 6.16
maps the socio-economic index for the year 2001 and includes the ward-wise slum
population as a measure of the social and economic index of population. Also, for the
purpose of this research, only 2001 census year socio-economic index have been
considered for investigating environmental equity concerns.
5.4 Calculating ward-wise landuse pattern in Calcutta
One of the main objectives of this research is to examine the relationship between air
pollution and the different landuse categories in Calcutta. Whether residential areas,
hospitals, or educational areas are more polluted than the industrial areas is an important
question for investigation. The base map for landuse classification has been collected
from the National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO). NATMO has
published their first landuse map of Calcutta in the year 1982; subsequently NATMO has
revised and updated its map of Calcutta based on the changes in the urban landuse
pattern. The latest version of landuse map of Calcutta is for the year 2001. For the
purposes of investigating the relationship between urban landuse pattern and air
pollution, the 2001 landuse classification map have been taken into consideration. The
first part of this section will list the various urban landuse categories that have been used
by NATMO and the changes in landuse patterns since 1982. The second part of this
section will describe the procedure for calculating the different urban landuse categories
in each ward.
5.4.1 Landuse categories
NATMO classifies several urban landuse categories for the city of Calcutta (Nag, 2001).
Being a city that hosts 4.5 million people, huge portions of the city area are categorized
as residential areas. From my own calculations, residential area for the whole city of
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Calcutta, in 2001, covers about 57% of the total area of the city. A few times, residential
areas coexist with industrial areas and are classified as mixed residential-industrial areas.
In the recent decade, residential units in the city usually apartment complexes along the
main road, lease the first floor of their house to small business units. In the process, the
owner of the residential unit collects some added revenue. These residential units that
house small business units have been classified by NATMO as a mixed commercial-
residential landuse category. This mixed commercial-residential category has been
introduced in the 2001 landuse classification map and is presently the next most
significant urban landuse category in Calcutta covering almost 12% of the total area of
the city. In the 1982 landuse classification map, residential area covered 62% of the total
area of the city of Calcutta. Although from the figures it appears that residential areas in
the city have decreased since 1982, the case does not hold true when mixed commercial-
residential areas are summed up with the residential areas thereby making the built-up
residential areas covering 69% of the total area of the city in the most recent landuse
map.
An interesting aspect of landuse classification is the spatial delineation of slums in the

present (2001) landuse classification. Locations of slums and total number of slum
dwellers have always been a sensitive issue for the government officials in Calcutta. In
the previous landuse map of 1982 there was a separate category that outlined slum areas.
The slum, although a residential area, was not included under the residential category in
the landuse classification map. However, in the revised 2001 landuse classification map,
slum areas have been merged along with the residential landuse category, making studies
using the spatial location of slums a challenging task.
The other sensitive urban landuse categories are agricultural areas and wetlands. In the
1982 landuse classification, the wetlands were listed as a separate category, in the latest
map wetlands are merged with the agricultural areas. Agricultural areas and wetlands,
even 30 years ago covered a significant portion of the city’s area, but in the present
decade, urban sprawl has lead to a 43.4% decrease in wetlands and a 58.9% increase in
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urban/built-up area in Calcutta from 1973 to 1993 (Rao et al., 1999). A look at the
statistics of ward number 108 in Table 5-2 makes it clear. According to the 1982 landuse
classification, ward 108 had 43% of its area as wetlands; in 2001 the same ward has 42%
of its area covered with residential units. Also of interest are the parks and open space
that was not present in 1982. Most of the present open space areas are former wetlands
that have been filled up and would be used for constructing more residential units. Table
5-2 also lists all the different landuse categories that have been used by the NATMO for
the years 1982 and 2001 landuse classification.
Besides the above mentioned landuse categories, the city of Calcutta also has some large
industrial units located along the banks of the river Hugh, along the western part of the
city. Also small household industrial units are scattered throughout the city of Calcutta.
Industries form an integral part of the city of Calcutta and occupied almost 7% of the
total area of the city both in 1982 and also in the latest landuse map of 2001. The other
important landuse categories marked in the landuse map of Calcutta include commercial
areas occupying more than 5% of the total area of the city in 2001 and 10% of the total
city area in 1982; parks and open spaces cover about 9.5% of the total area of the city in
2001 and about 6% of the total area of the city in 1982; agricultural areas and wetlands in
2001 encompass about 4% o f the total area o f Calcutta compared to 8% in 1982.
Some of the other less important landuse categories mapped in the 2001 landuse
classification map of Calcutta are the transportation and storage areas that cover about
2% of the total area of the city; administrative purpose areas and utility services areas that
take up 2.5% o f the city area; and some other very insignificant urban categories
including educational areas, burial and cremation grounds, and hospitals, each
contributing less than 0.5% o f the total area of the city of Calcutta. All these less
significant landuse categories have remained more or less unchanged since the 1982
landuse classification. Ward-wise landuse categories for 2001 have been listed in
Appendix 6D.
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Table 5-2 Detailed landuse categories in Ward-108
Landuse categories for Source: 1982 landuse Source: 2001 landuse
WARD - 108 map from NATMO map from NATMO
Education
Industrial 5%
Commercial
Park and Open Space 14%
Burial and Cremation Grounds
Hospitals Less than 1%
Transport and Storage
Administrative
Agriculture 45% 38%
Wetlands 43% Not classified in 2001
Residential 12% 42%
Slums Not classified in 2001
Mixed Commercial-Residential Not classified in 1982
Utilities Not classified in 1982
TOTAL 100% 100%
5.4.2 Methodology for calculating landuse categories in each ward
The first step for converting the paper copy landuse map into a digital format was to scan
the paper copy landuse maps and import it into the Arc mapping system. The scanned
image was edge matched12 with the map of Calcutta and was georeferenced13 with the
geographical coordinates of Calcutta. Next, each of the landuse categories was digitized
for the whole city of Calcutta. In the process of digitization each landuse category was
assigned a unique value; for example, all residential areas were assigned a value of 11,
commercial areas a value of 12, industrial areas a value of 13 and so on. Subsequently,
the digitized landuse map was transformed into a raster grid with 229 * 227 pixels14. The
ward map was also converted into a raster grid with 229 * 227 pixels. Each pixel in the
raster grid covered an area of 0.00989245 square kilometer. Figure 5.2 is a screenshot
12 Edge matching is the process to determine which edges (lines) from one map should be linked with a
similar edge from another map. As in this case, features from the scanned landuse map were matched with
the features from the existing ward map of Calcutta.
13 To establish the relationship between page coordinates on a planar map and real-world coordinates
14 Pixel/cell refers to the smallest unit of information available in an image or raster map.
140
from the ArcGRID session and shows the digitized landuse map of Calcutta for the year
2001 and 1982. The various landuse categories in Figure 5.2 are shown in different
colors. Figure 6.21 maps residential areas, Figure 6.22 maps mixed commercial and
residential areas, Figure 6.23 maps commercial areas, Figure 6.24 maps slum areas,
Figure 6.26 maps industrial areas, and Figure 6.27 maps parks and open spaces and
agricultural areas for the different wards of Calcutta.
(a) (b)
Figure 5.2 Screenshots from ArcGRID session showing landuse categories (a) 1982 (b)
2001
Next, the landuse category in each ward had to be calculated. The most challenging task
for calculating the ward wise landuse categories was to overlay the digitized landuse map
and the ward map of Calcutta exactly on top of one another such that the pixels
corresponding to ward 1 matched exactly with the pixels from the landuse map that are in
ward 1. The ward boundaries were imposed on the digitized landuse map such that the
ward boundaries acted as a mask and then landuse category values from the landuse map
layer were extracted. Therefore, all pixels from the landuse map layer that corresponded
to ward 1 were taken into consideration for determining the various landuse categories
for ward 1. As mentioned earlier, each landuse category had a specific value associated
141
with it (e.g. the value o f a residential category was different from the value associated
with the industrial category). For example in ward 1 there were a total of 100 pixels with
residential, industrial, and commercial landuse category contributing to 50, 25, and 25
pixels. It would be said that 50% of ward 1 is residential area, 25% is industrial area and
25% of ward 1 is commercial area. The procedure for determining the ward-wise landuse
pattern has been prepared using the Interactive Data Language (IDL 6.2). The different
ward-wise landuse categories have been listed in Appendix 6D.
5.4.3 Error Estimation in landuse classification
One of the many criticisms of digitizing such huge paper copy maps into digital format is
the error that could be generated from manual digitization or from faulty landuse
classifications by the source map. This error gets propagated into landuse categorization
in different wards, and also subsequently in answering the main research question as to
what is the relationship between air pollution and the different landuse categories. The
best possible method o f error estimation would have been the use of satellite imagery and
digitizing certain boundaries like parks and open spaces or agricultural areas from the
satellite image and cross checking with the corresponding digitized map published by
NATMO.
However, due to unavailability of a fine resolution satellite image of Calcutta, the

NATMO map was considered as the accurate source. Cross checking with the source
map was performed to account for errors generated due to manual digitization. Out of the
141 wards it was decided that 6% of the wards would be rechecked for any digitization
errors. From a random number generator, 8 ward numbers were selected. Each of these
8 wards was digitized again. Next, all the landuse categories in the 8 wards were
digitized. Each of these wards was treated as an individual map and the different landuse
categories in each o f the 8 wards were determined. Now the result from the previous
ward-wise landuse classification was compared to the present classification with each
individual wards. The difference in results provided an error index for each of the 8
wards. Detailed error index of landuse classification have been provided in Appendix
5A. O f the eight wards that were checked, ward 16 had the highest amount of error and
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ward 51 had the lowest amount of error. The error level for the various landuse
categories in each ward ranged from 0.02% to 11.4%. The mean error for all the landuse
categories in the eight wards was 2.32%. The median error for all the landuse categories
in the eight wards however was 1.38%.
5.5 Chapter Summary
This chapter describes the procedure for estimation of ward-wise social and economic
index of population and ward-wise landuse pattern. The chapter answers one of the
primary questions of this dissertation, what is the procedure for calculating ward-wise
social and economic index of population. The chapter also introduces the various census
variables that have been used in this dissertation to address issues related to
environmental equity. The chapter also describes the procedure for calculating the
different landuse categories in each of the census wards. The different landuse
categorization will be used to define the apportionment of pollution based on different
landuse patterns.
5.6 References
Banthia, J. K. 2001. Primary Census Abstract - General Population. New Delhi:
Government of India.
Nations, U. 1997. United Nations Demographic Year Book.
Plowden, W. C. 1883. Census of British India. 17th February 1881 Volume 1. London.
Reporter, Staff. 2006. Female foeticide count at 10 million. The Telegraph, 01.09.2006.
Census of India.
Sridhar, L. Female foeticide: The collusion o f the medical establishment Info Change
News and Features, 2004 . Available from http://www.infochangeindia.org.
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6 MAPPING AIR POLLUTION, POPULATION, AND
LANDUSE
6.1 Introduction
One of the main research questions for this dissertation is related to the spatial
distribution of air pollution in the different wards of Calcutta. This chapter will map
ward-wise air pollution. The research will map pollution estimation from pollutant
sources, which include both vehicle and industrial pollution and pollution estimates from
air quality measurements where a ward-wise pollution index is calculated from spatially
interpolating the pollution control board air quality data. Besides air pollution, this
chapter will also map ward-wise demographic characteristics of population and the
different landuse categories.
6.2 Mapping Air Pollution
As described in the previous chapter, there are two different ways to determine ward-wise
distribution of air pollution. The first method estimates pollution from different sources;
including vehicles and industries. The second method estimates pollution from data
measured by the city pollution control board at specific locations. This part of the
chapter will describe ward-wise distribution of pollution from all such methods.
6.2.1 Mapping pollution from pollutant sources: Vehicular Pollution
6.2.1.1 Mapping the Vehicular Pollution Index
The vehicle pollution in the city has been estimated for all the polluting vehicles in the
city of Calcutta, and has been described in detail in section 4.2. Polluting vehicles in
Calcutta are limited to private and public buses, auto-rickshaws (three-wheelers), trucks,
cars and jeeps, taxicabs, and motorcycles. The type of vehicle and the quantity of a
pollutant it releases into the atmosphere is dependent on the emission factor of the vehicle
144
and varies from one automobile to another. Hence, estimates of vehicular pollution also
vary from one vehicle to another. This chapter discusses the vehicular pollution
estimation in the different wards of Calcutta.
Figure 6.1 shows the different wards in Calcutta with lowest to highest vehicle bus
pollution. Section 4.2.1.6.2 describes the procedure for calculating bus pollution index.
Wards with larger area; as in the southern and eastern part of the city, might have a
higher pollution value when compared to wards with a smaller area, as in the
northwestern part of the city. Therefore, all maps show the pollution index per unit area.
Also, there are two wards (129 and 141) through which no bus route passes; such wards
have been included in the lowest vehicular index category. Detailed ward-wise pollution
indices for all the vehicles are listed in Appendix 6A. Table 6-1 shows a subset of the
pollution indices and lists bus pollution index values for nitrous oxide and particulate
matter emissions.
Table 6-2 lists auto-rickshaw pollution index values for nitrous oxide and particulate
matter emissions. Section 4.2.1.6.3 describes the procedure for calculating the auto
rickshaw pollution index. Figure 6.2 maps the vehicle pollution from auto-rickshaws.
From Figure 6.2, it is evident that the spatial pattern of pollution from auto-rickshaws is
different from the pollution from buses; this is because auto-rickshaws are not allowed in
the CBD area they cater to minor roads and areas that are not covered by buses.
Table 6-3 lists pollution index values for nitrous oxide and particulate matter emissions
from trucks and large vans. Section 4.2.1.6.4 describes the procedure for calculating the
truck pollution index. Figure 6.3 maps the vehicle pollution from trucks and large vans.
Since trucks travel through designated roadways and have fixed times for travel, the
spatial pattern of vehicle pollution from trucks is very different from the other vehicles.
145
WARD-WISE VEHICULAR POLLUTION
PUBLIC AND PRIVATE BUSES
Vehicle Pollution Index

J Lowest
j Low
Medium
I Mgh
I Highest
Kilometers
Ligure 6.1 Vehicle pollution from buses
Table 6-1 Ward-wise Vehicular Pollution Index from Buses in Kilograms/day/Km2

Pollutant Nitrous oxide Particulate Matter
Highest 357,900 to 513,700 57,800 to 84,200
High 210,800 to 357,899 34,200 to 57,799
Medium 100,000 to 210,799 16,300 to 34,199
Low 43,700 to 99,999 7,100 to 16,299
Lowest 155 to 43,699 25 to 7,099
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AUTO- RICKSHAW

Lowest
| | Low
| J Medium
] High
2 Kilometers
Figure 6.2 Vehicle pollution from auto-rickshaws
Table 6-2 Ward-wise Vehicular Pollution Index from auto-rickshaws in

Kilograms/c ay/Km2
Highest 7,220 to 11,210 8,900 to 13,700
High 4,720 to 7,219 5,800 to 8,799
Medium 2,990 to 4,719 3,700 to 5,799
Low 1,000 to 2,989 1,210 to 3,699
Lowest 1.5 to 999 20 to 1,209
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TRUCKS AND LARGE VANS
I Lowest
| ] Low
| | Medium
f | H ig h
f . ' H i ;hest
2 Kilometers
Ligure 6.3 Vehicle pollution from trucks
Table 6-3 Ward-wise Vehicular Pollution Index from trucks in Kilograms/day/Km2

Highest 291,200 to 413,400 47,400 to 67,330
High 179,300 to 291,199 29,200 to 47,399
Medium 97,900 to 179,299 15,900 to 29,199
Low 46,100 to 97,899 7,500 to 15,899
Lowest 650 to 46,099 108 to 7,499
Table 6-4, Table 6-5, and Table 6-6 list pollution index values for nitrous oxide and
particulate matter emissions from private cars, taxicabs, and motorcycles respectively.
Section 4.2.1.6.5 describes the procedure for calculating car, taxicab, and motorcycle
pollution indices. Ligure 6.4, Figure 6.5, and Figure 6.6 map the ward-wise vehicle
pollution from private cars, taxicabs, and motorcycles respectively.
148
CARS AND JEEPS

Lowest
Low
M edium
High
Highest
4 Kilometers
Figure 6.4 Vehicle pollution from cars
2
Table 6-4 Ward-wise Vehicular Pollution Index Fom cars in Kilograms/day/Km
Highest 15,920 to 28,730 2,030 to 3,700
High 10,320 to 15,919 1,310 to 2,029
Medium 9,390 to 10,319 810 to 1,309
Low 2,030 to 9,389 260 to 809
Lowest 15 to 2,029 40 to 259
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TAXI CABS
Lowest
Low
Medium
High
Highest
2 Kilometers
Figure 6.5 Vehicle pollution from taxi-cabs
2
Table 6-5 Ward-wise Vehicular Pollution Index from taxicabs in Kilograms/day/Km
Highest 6,960 to 11,770 8,650 to 14,675
High 4,570 to 6,959 5,670 to 8,649
Medium 2,785 to 4,569 3,430 to 5,669
Low 1,310 to 2,779 1,630 to 3,429
Lowest 130 to 1,309 160 to 1,629
150
MOTORCYCLES

Lowest
Low
Medium
High
Highest
1 0 1 2 Kilometers
Figure 6.6 Vehicle pollution from motorcycles

2
Table 6-6 Ward-wise Vehicular Pollution Index from motorcycles in Kilograms/day/Km
Highest 970 to 1,451 1,190 to 1,770
High 640 to 969 780 to 1,189
Medium 415 to 639 510 to 779
Low 215 to 414 260 to 509
Lowest 20 to 214 20 to 259
Figure 6.7 is a comprehensive map where the spatial patterns of vehicle pollution from all
the vehicles are represented. The comprehensive vehicle pollution map represents the
sum of the vehicle pollution index values from all the vehicles mentioned above. This
map only provides a broad picture of the vehicular pollution in the city and is not
representative of any particular vehicle.
151
COMBINING ALL VEHICLES

Lowest
Low
Medium
] High
j Highest
4 Kilometers
Figure 6.7 Vehicle pollution from all polluting vehicles
6.2.1.2 Spatial representation of vehicle pollution
Each type of vehicle travelling in the city of Calcutta has a different pollution pattern.
Vehicular emissions from a motorcycle are different than the vehicular emissions from
trucks and large vans. Vehicular pollution also depends on the type of fuel (diesel or
gasoline) used by the vehicle. As a general trend, vehicular pollution is highest in the
CBD, followed by the Ultadanga (Figure 1.3) area. At Ultadanga, vehicles converge to
enter the newly developed Saltlake area (Figure 1.3). The CBD area is the busiest part of
the city, and auto-rickshaws and trucks are not allowed in this region. Buses,
motorcycles, and cars constitute the bulk of traffic load in the CBD, contributing for a
high pollution index in the busiest part of the city.
152
In the next few paragraphs, vehicular pollution in the different parts of the city have been
described. The reason for a high or low vehicular pollution index has also been
discussed. The city of Calcutta has been divided into five parts including, north Calcutta
or the older city area, the CBD, eastern Calcutta or the wetlands area, western Calcutta or
the dock area, and the newer and expanding southern Calcutta.
6.2.1.2.1 Northern Calcutta
Northern Calcutta is the oldest area in the city. The extreme northern Calcutta has low to
medium vehicular pollution index values. The truck pollution index is higher than
average due to the high demand for the transport of raw materials and finished products
by the large number of industrial units in this area. Ward 6 in the northern part of the
city houses 357 industrial units. Besides transportation demands by the industries, there
are ferry routes along the banks of the river and a sizeable number of commuters travel
from the Howrah region (urban area across the River Hugli) to the CBD. The auto
rickshaws serve most of these commuters from the ferry points to their places of work or
from the ferry points to the nearby bus station. There are a fair number of buses that also
traverse these wards. Some of the wards border the CBD area and are a major
contributor of traffic to and from the CBD region of Calcutta. The extreme northern
Calcutta region is important because it serves as a transition zone between the CBD area
where people commute to work and the suburban areas that are to the north of the city.
The wards in the Ultadanga (Figure 1.3) area have a fairly high vehicular pollution index.
The main reason for high pollution is the commute to and from the Saltlake region that
serves as the seat o f activity and house offices, the newly developed software hub,
shopping malls, and residential quarters for high-income groups. Besides Saltlake, the
EMBP’s (Figure 1.3) northern end at Ultadanga creates a bottleneck due to accretion of
fast flowing traffic from south Calcutta. The Sealdah (Figure 1.3) railway station also is
a major railway junction. Apart from high traffic density, northern Calcutta is an older
part o f the city and has narrow roads that are prone to traffic jams and vehicular
congestion causing vehicular pollution in this region to rise to significantly high levels.
153
6.2.1.2.2 The Central Business District
The CBD is the main seat of activity in Calcutta. Most public and private offices,
shopping malls, entertainment centers, restaurants and also the big open space, the
Calcutta maidan, are a part of the CBD. The CBD boasts of well-off residential
apartments and also has a fair share of slum population. All types of vehicles either
converge to or diverge away from this area. The bulk of traffic from the Howrah station
commutes to the CBD area; the remainder of the traffic has to cross this region to reach
the other parts of the city. Trucks and auto-rickshaws are not allowed in the CBD,
however, they are both allowed in and around the Howrah station area. This area has a
very high vehicular pollution index.
6.2.1.2.3 Western Calcutta
Western Calcutta or the dock area has low bus, taxicab, and car pollution indices, but
high truck pollution and medium motorcycles pollution indexes. Western Calcutta is one
of the poorest and less developed areas with a high slum population. There are fewer bus
routes going to this region; however motorcycles are a common feature. Although few in
number, the western part of Calcutta houses some large scale industries including a
thermal power plant. These large-scale industries require huge inflow and outflow of raw
materials and finished products to and from the industries causing the truck pollution
index to be fairly high.
6.2.1.2.4 Eastern Calcutta
Eastern Calcutta is unique because most of the wards are agricultural areas and wetlands.
Both population and road density is sparse in this region. However, very recently most of
the eastern Calcutta wards are growing at the cost of the wetlands and the marshy areas.
Newer housing in these areas includes the building of residential quarters, expensive
hotels, malls, and also new roadways. The eastern metropolitan by-pass (EMBP) (Figure
1.3) traverses this area. The EMBP is a broad highway with vehicles traveling at very
high speeds with few signal lights. The motor vehicles department has kept the number
154
of bus routes traversing the EMBP to a minimum. Private cars, taxicabs, and
motorcycles comprise the bulk of EMBP traffic. Auto-rickshaws are also not allowed in
the EMBP. Elowever auto-rickshaws do connect people from the inner city to the
periphery of the EMBP. Trucks are allowed in the EMBP area during night hours.
Vehicle pollution is mostly lower in this area o f the city. But with newer development, it
would be interesting to note the change in the pattern of vehicular pollution in the eastern
wards o f the city.
6.2.1.2.5 Southern Calcutta
Southern Calcutta is mostly a residential area, with a few big shopping malls, movie
theaters, and very few office buildings. The standard of living of the people is high in
this area. Vehicular pollution is mostly moderate with pockets of high pollution near the
major road junctions. One of the most common means of communication in this area is
the auto-rickshaws; auto-rickshaws connect one major bus stop with another and often
commuters prefer auto-rickshaws because they are not as crowded as buses, and with
only five passengers the auto-rickshaw does not stop as frequently as the bus. Trucks are
not allowed in most parts of southeastern Calcutta. However, most households in this
area of the city have private cars and can afford to take a taxicab to work everyday.
Motorcycles are also common. With the exception of a few wards, there are no big
industrial units in this region. Also southern Calcutta, with wider streets and a couple of
newly constructed fly-overs, provides more or less a comfortable commute with few
traffic jams. Vehicular pollution values are a bit higher in the southwestern part of
Calcutta. The Taratala and Behala (Figure 1.3) areas have higher vehicular pollution
indices than the other parts of south Calcutta. The truck pollution index is somewhat
higher near the southwestern part of the city, as trucks need to traverse through the
southwest part of Calcutta to reach the port area in the extreme western part of Calcutta.
155
6.2.2 Mapping pollution from pollutant sources: Industrial Pollution
As described in section 4.2.2 of this dissertation, industrial pollution is estimated in two

different ways. Section 4.2.2.5.1 describes the estimation of industrial pollution based on
categorization of industries by the city pollution control board. Section 4.2.2.5.2
describes the estimation of industrial pollution based on the ward-wise fuel consumption.
There is very little correlation between the results from the two different methods in
terms of wards with high and low pollution. Estimating industrial pollution based on fuel
consumption provides emissions in KWhour and has been considered a better option
while associating industrial pollution with population.
6.2.2.1 Spatial Distribution of Industries
Presently, the industries in Calcutta are mostly located on the northern, northeastern,
eastern, and western parts of the city. Figure 4.6 shows the spatial distribution of the
different industrial units throughout the city of Calcutta.
Out of the total number of 8832 industries in Calcutta, ward 14 has 349 industrial units,
ward 25 has 425 industrial units, and ward 6 has 357 industrial units. Wards 14, 25, and
6 are all located in the northern part of the city. The disturbing fact about the high
density of industrial units in the above-mentioned wards is that these wards are primarily
residential wards and most of the industrial units in these wards belong to “red” and
“orange” category industries (CMDA, 2002). Figure 6.8 maps the density of population
as well as the spatial distribution of industries. The density of population is mapped
according to the ward-wise total population data as of 2001 obtained from the directorate
of census operations. A detailed list with the number of industries in each ward and the
category to which they belong is listed in Appendix 4A. From Figure 4.6, note that there
are several wards in the central and the southern part of the city that have no polluting
industries, such wards are labeled as “wards with no industries”.
156
Population Density
and
Industrial Distribution
Total N u m b e r o f I n d u s tr ie s P o p u l a t i o n D e n s i t y in $ q . K M.
0 1-21 V//A o.oo

O 22-64 | l 0.01 - 276B7.23
27 687.24 - 4 3 6 0 6 . 3 3
O 65-154
4 3 6 06 .3 4 - 67 373.12
O 1 5 5 - 253
H 673 73 .13 - 106536.84
O 254 - 425
1 0 6 5 3 6 . 8 5 - 152045.89
0 1 .5 3 6 K ilo m e te rs
1 i i i l — i i i I
Figure 6.8 Ward-wise population density and industrial distribution
6.2.2.2 Mapping the Industrial Pollution Index
Figure 6.9 maps the industrial pollution index as calculated form the data obtained from
pollution control board. The procedure has been described in detail in section 4.2.2.5.I.
As explained earlier, there are little or no industries in the central and southern part of
Calcutta. The most polluted sections of the city are the western, eastern, and the northern
parts. Figure 6.10 maps the industrial pollution based on the ward-wise fuel
consumption, as described in section 4.2.2.5.2.
157
W ARD-W ISE INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
Based on Pollution Control Board

Industrial Categorization
Industrial Pollution Index

| ^ | Wards with N O industries
I | Lowest
n low
m i Medium
■ I High
Highest
1 0 1 2 Ki l omet er s
Figure 6.9 Ward-wise industrial pollution (based on pollution control board

categorization of industries)
W ARD-W ISE INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
Based on Fuel Consumption
Industrial Pollution Index
Wards with N O industries

I | Lowest
| | Low
HH Medium
■ I High
! ■ Highest 1 0 1 2 K ilom eters
Figure 6.10 Ward-wise industrial pollution (based on fuel consumption)
158
A part of the calculated industrial pollution indices, an estimate for the ward-wise fuel
consumption for fly ash, soot, and sulphur dioxide has also been listed in Table 6-7.
These are normalized by area; therefore the highest concentration of industrial pollution
is in the western and the northeastern parts of Calcutta. Higher industrial pollution in the
western and northeastern parts of Calcutta can be attributed to the high consumption of
fuels such as coal, charcoal, and diesel oil. Appendix 6B lists the industrial pollution
index for every census ward in Calcutta.
Table 6-7 Ward-wise Industrial Pol ution Index in grams/day/Km2

Pollutant Fly Ash (SPM) Soot Sulphur dioxide
Highest .0 1 -6 ,0 1 0 .0 1 -4 1 3 .01-4,902
High 6,010.01 -20,068 413.01-2,155 4,902.01 - 16,966
Medium 20,068.01 - 34,808 2,155.01 - 16,953 16,966.01 -48,846
Low 34,808.01 - 113,736 169,53.01 -34,194 48,846.01 -113,816
Lowest 113,736.01 -309,917 34,194.01 - 113,840 113,816.01 -750,982
159
6.2.3 Mapping pollution from air quality measurements: Spatial Interpolation
The WBPCB monitors the quality of air at twenty-five locations in the city of Calcutta
(WBPCB, 2002). They measure suspended particulate matter (SPM), respiratory
particulate matter (RPM), nitrous oxides (NOx), and sulphur dioxide (SO2 ). Section 4.3
describes the procedure for spatial interpolation of air quality measurements such that
each census ward has a particular pollution index associated to it. This part of chapter 6
will map results from the spatial interpolation of air quality data. The first part of this
section will map seasonal air pollution from RPM or PM 10 ; the second part of this section
will map weekly air pollution from RPM, PMi0 being the most hazardous pollutant
(WHO, 1999) to human health has been chosen for mapping purposes. Ward-wise
pollution values for PM 10 have been listed in Appendix 4B of this dissertation.
6.2.3.1 Seasonal air pollution
Ward-wise seasonal air pollution was calculated for the year 2000- 2001 and has been
described in section 4.3.6. Figure 6.11, Figure 6.12, and Figure 6.13 map ward-wise
pollution levels for the three main seasons in Calcutta. The seasons include, the summer
season (extending from March to June), rainy season (extending from July to October),
and winter season (extending from November to February). For calculating seasonal air
pollution, data from all the twenty- five air pollution monitoring stations were used for
spatial interpolation purposes. Figure 4.8 shows the location of these twenty-five air
pollution monitoring stations throughout the city of Calcutta. Monitoring stations
Paribesh Bhavan, Dunlop Bridge, and Saltlake are located outside the jurisdiction of
Calcutta and hence have not been marked in Figure 6.11, Figure 6.12, and Figure 6.13.
However, the air quality values from these three stations have been taken into
consideration for spatial interpolation purposes. Figure 6.11, Figure 6.12, and Figure
6.13 show the distribution of RPM for the three distinct seasons in Calcutta. Pollution
values are listed in grams/pm, which is the standard measuring unit for pollutants used by
the city pollution control board (WBPCB, 2002). Note that Figure 6.11, Figure 6.12, and
160
Figure 6.13 use the same legend, such that comparisons between the different seasons are
convenient.
Ward - Wise Distribution of Air Pollution

Summer 2000
Respiratory particulate matter

in gms/Um
40-50
50-60
60-70
I— 1 70 - 80
“ 3 80-90
90-100
00-110
10-120
20-30
30-40
140-150
150-160
60-170
70 - 80
80-90
190 - 200
200-210
Air Pollution 4 Kilometers

Monitoring Station
Figure 6.11 Seasonal air pollution: Summer 2000
161
Monsoon 2000
R e s p ir a to ry p a rtic u la te m a tte r
in g m s /U m
[— | 40 - 50
j— | 5 0 -6 0
I— I 60 - 70
j— 1 70 - 80
{— I 8 0 -9 0
t— I 9 0 - 100
H 100-110
I . j 110 -1 2 0
r~1 120-130
h i 130-140
rm 1 4 0 -is o
H 150-160
E SI 160-170
M 170-180
■ I 180-190
■ ■ 1 9 0 -2 0 0
S 200-210
9 A i r P o llu tio n
M o n i t o r i n g S t a ti o n
Figure 6.12 Seasonal air pollution: Monsoon 2000
Winter 2000-2001
1 R e s p ir a to ry p a rtic u la te m a tte r 1
in g m s /U m
4 0 -5 0
—
5 0 -6 0
6 0 -7 0
= ==
7 0 -8 0
------- 8 0 - 9 0
__ 9 0 - 100
100 -1 1 0
1 1 0 -1 2 0
1 2 0 -1 3 0
1 3 0 -1 4 0
1 4 0 -1 5 0
1 5 0 -1 6 0
1 6 0 -1 7 0
1 7 0 -1 8 0
1 8 0 -1 9 0
1 9 0 -2 0 0
200 -2 1 0
A i r P o llu tio n 4 K ilom eters

M o n it o r in g S ta tio n
Figure 6.13 Seasonal air pollution: Winter 2000 - 2001
162
6.2.3.1.1 Seasonal variation of pollution
At a glance, winter is the most polluted and the unhealthiest season in Calcutta due to
photochemical smog (WBPCB, 1994 - 2001; CPCB, 2000). During the winter months, a
temperature inversion stabilizes the atmosphere above the urban area causing the air
pollutants to accumulate in the stationary layer covering the entire city. Artificial heat
input into the atmosphere by combustion and metabolic processes exceeds the heat
derived from the sun. This creates a heat island that serves as a trap for the pollutants
(Turner et ah, 1990; WBPCB, 1994 - 2001). The monsoons with gusty winds and heavy
rains are less polluted than the winter and the summer season. The summer season is less
polluted than the winter season but more polluted than the humid rainy season (WBPCB,
1994-2001; CPCB, 2000).
6.2.3.1.2 Spatial variation of pollution
Throughout the year, air pollution is highest in the wards that are in the northern part of
Calcutta. The western wards also show higher pollution values than the rest of the city.
Besides high vehicular density in these regions, there are two highly polluting thermal
power plants located in the northern and in the western part of the city as shown in Figure
4.8. The Cossipore thermal power plant station in the northern part of Calcutta emits
approximately 0.016526 gigagrams of SO2 per day. The Garden Reach thermal power
station in the western part of the city also emits 0.024044 gigagrams of SO2 per day.
Both the thermal plants use about 0.89Kgs of coal per KWH (Mittal, 2006). The
southern part of Calcutta is comparatively less polluted than the northern part of the city
due to fewer industrial units and a relatively lower vehicular density.
6.2.3.2 Weekly air pollution
Weekly air pollution values were calculated for the time period from December 1st to
December 30th, 2000 and have been described in section 4.3.8. Pollution values are
higher in the month of December and lower during the hot summer and the humid rainy
season. December was hence chosen as the month for weekly air pollution analysis and
163
mapping purposes. Six sets of analysis were made for the month of December,
December 1st to 5th, December 6th to 10th, December 11th to 15th, December 16th to 20th,
December 21st to 26th, and December 27th to 30th. Figure 6.14 and Figure 6.15 show the
ward-wise distribution of air pollution for the first and last week of December.
An important issue with respect to mapping of weekly air pollution is the fewer number
of input data points (air pollution monitoring stations) used for spatial interpolation
purposes. This leads to a high degree of error with respect to spatial interpolation results.
Details on weekly air pollution calculation and error indices have been listed in section
4.3 of this dissertation.
164
W ard - W ise D istribution o f Air Pollu tio n
December 6th to December 1Oth 200

in gms/Um
| | 254.613 -255.064
j j 255.064 - 255.363
j . 15.363 - 255.468
255.468-255.561
255.561 -256.153
Air Pollution
Monitoring Station
4 Kilometers
® Data Points
Figure 6.14 Weekly air pollution: December 6th to 10th 2000
December 27th to December 30th 2001

in gms/Um
204.5-209.974
209.974-220.701
220.701 - 229.777
229.777 - 234.539
234.539-238
Air Pollution
* Monitoring Station
® Data Points 4 Kilometers
Figure 6.15 Weekly air pollution: December 27th to 30th 2000

165
6.2.3.2.1 Spatial variation
The spatial pattern of ward-wise weekly air pollution is related to the total number of
input data points during the interpolation procedure. Since an average of ten to seventeen
monitoring station data points was available for a particular week, the results are
temporally biased on the availability of data. For example, in Figure 6.14, which shows
the ward-wise distribution of pollution from December 6th to 10th, note that the pollution
indices are different than their neighbors only in the wards that have an input data point
(air pollution monitoring station value) close by. In the remainder of the wards, which do
not have an input data point nearby, the pollution indices averages out to a standard value
as represented by the rest of the wards in the city. Monitoring stations that have data
associated with it are highlighted as “data points” in Figure 6.14 and Figure 6.15.
Appendix 4C lists the ward-wise pollution indices, which affirms that most of the
interpolated values range between 255.3 to 255.4 grams/pm. Also note that all pollution
index values in Figure 6.14 ranges between 254.6 to 256.1 grams/pm. This is erroneous
when actual (measured) pollution values range from 249.80 to 268.80 grams/pm.
The degree of error declines when the total number of input data points (air pollution
monitoring station value) increases. Figure 6.15 has seventeen data points and the
performance of the spatial interpolation technique improves considerably. From the
legend in Figure 6.15, air pollution values range between 204.5 to 238.0 grams/pm when
compared to the range of values in Figure 6.14. However, the northern most air pollution
monitoring station, Cossipore (Figure 4.8), is ignored from the analysis. Cossipore,
being closest to the highly polluting thermal power station, has a very high pollution
value. Calculating a ward-wise pollution index without incorporating Cossipore leads to
a low pollution index in northern Calcutta and a high pollution index in southern
Calcutta. This picture is different from the results of the seasonal distribution of ward-
wise air pollution.
This high degree of error makes it impossible to use the pollution control board data for
further analysis. The ward-wise pollution index derived by using the pollution control
166
board data has not been used to answer the main research question related to investigating
the relationship between air pollution and population and also air pollution and landuse
patterns. Nevertheless, the data by the city pollution control board provides the first ever
effort made by the government to make the residents of Calcutta aware of high pollution
levels in different parts of the city.
6.3 Spatial and temporal representation of the surrogate socio

economic index
Section 5.3 describes the procedure for calculating surrogate social and economic index
in all the wards of Calcutta for the census years 1981,1991, and 2001. As described in
section 5.3, the surrogate social and economic index of population takes into
consideration the total number of literate persons residing in a ward, the total number of
employed persons, the number of backward caste population in the respective ward, and
the total number of slum dwellers in a ward.
6.3.1 Census variables used for calculating socio-economic index
Ward-wise slum population has only been enumerated for the census year 2001. Prior to
the 2001 census, the directorate of census operations in India did not enumerate slum
population as a separate category. The latest census of 2001 detailed data about slum
areas of the country particularly in cities and towns having a population of 50,000 or
more based on 1991 census. Therefore for calculating the surrogate social and economic
index, literacy/illiteracy, employment/unemployment, and general caste/backward caste
population has been taken into consideration for all the three census years, 1981, 1991,
and 2001. An additional factor, the slum population, has only been taken into
consideration separately for the census year 2001. For the year 2001, there are two
separate socio-economic indices; one that takes into consideration the three factors;
literacy/illiteracy, employment/unemployment, and general caste/backward caste
population; and yet another separate socio-economic index estimate that takes into
consideration the three factors as well as the slum population.
167
The index, although not an indicator of ward-wise average income levels, is a surrogate
for the standard o f living of the people in the different wards of Calcutta. This socio
economic index is later associated to the ward-wise industrial pollution and ward-wise
vehicular pollution to determine issues related to environmental equity. The social and
economic index ranges from 0 to 1, where 1 is the highest standard of living and 0 is the
lowest standard of living. In other words, the higher the socio-economic index in a
particular ward the better is the standard of living of the people in that ward.
6.3.2 Socio-economic index over time
For 1981 the socio economic index ranges from 0.75 to 0.50 with 0.69 being the median
index value. For the census year 1991 the index ranges in between 0.74 to 0.37 and 0.67
is the median index value. The highest and lowest socio-economic index in the census
year 2001 is somewhat similar to the indices of 1981, with 0.76 and 0.54 being the lowest
and the highest values; the median value for 2001 is 0.70. Now, if the slum population as
a factor is added on to the socio-economic index of 2001, the highest and lowest values
for the social and economic index ranges from 0.40 to 0.82, the median index increases to
0.72. A complete listing of the social and economic index for the census years 1981,
1991, and 2001 have been listed in Appendix 6C of this dissertation.
6.3.3 The spatial representation of socio-economic index
According to the index, the standard of living of the people is higher in some of the wards
of central Calcutta and also in most of the wards of southern Calcutta. The standard of
living is lower in the wards of northern Calcutta. The western and the eastern parts of the
city have the lowest social and economic index. This low index could be attributed to the
lower literacy rates, a greater number of unemployed persons, and considerably greater
number of backward class people. Two of the eastern wards of Calcutta (wards 57 and
58) have more than 125,361 slum dwellers, which is approximately 8.5% of the total
slum dwellers residing in the city of Calcutta. Southern Calcutta on the other hand has
very little or no slum population has a higher literacy rate, and lower unemployment
168
rates. This subsequently leads to a higher standard of living and a high social and
economic index.
6.3.4 Mapping the socio-economic index
Figure 6.16, Figure 6.18, and Figure 6.19 shows ward-wise social and economic index for
the city of Calcutta for the census years 2001, 1991, and 1981. Figure 6.16, Figure 6.18,
and Figure 6.19 takes into consideration literacy /illiteracy, employment/ unemployment,
and general caste/backward caste population. Figure 6.17 shows the social and economic
index of population for the census year 2001 and it takes into consideration literacy
/illiteracy, employment/ unemployment, and general caste/backward caste population as
well as the total number of slum dwellers in each of the census wards.
90CIAL AND ECONOMIC INDEX 2001
0.41 - 0 . 5 6 1
J 0.5 61 - 0.651
[ ______ | 0 . 6 5 1 - 0 . 7 1 4
HMl 0.714-0.757
0.757-0.818
2 Kilometers
Figure 6.16 Socio-economic index 2001
169
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC INDEX 2001
Excluding SLUM Index
1 0 1 2 Kilometers
Figure 6.17 Socio-economic index (excluding slum index) 2001
1 0 1 2 Kilometers
170
No wards for 1981

0.497 - 0.601
0.601 -0 .6 5 4
0.654 - 0.694
0.6 9 4 - 0.749
0.749 - 0.985
2 Kilometers
Figure 6.20 shows the change in the ward-wise social and economic index for the city
from the year 1991 to 2001. Since the ward boundary changed during the census years
1981 and 1991, a change in the social and economic index from 1981 to 1991 could not
be shown.
A positive change in the socio-economic index from 1991 to 2001 indicates an

improvement in the standard of living whereas a negative change indicates a decline in
the standard of living. Most of the wards show a positive change in the social and
economic index, meaning that the standard of living in the wards has improved in terms
of increased employment rates and greater number of literates. A few wards to the
western part of the city show a negative change in socio-economic index, which
represents a decline in the standard of living. Most wards that show a negative change in
socio-economic index are industrial wards. One possible reason for the negative change
in socio-economic index is the increase in unemployment rate due to new rules by the
171
pollution control board with respect to relocation of high polluting industries from the
metropolitan areas to elsewhere outside the Calcutta metropolitan area.
CHANGE IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC INDEX

1991 to 2001
Change in Social
and Economic Index
0.04-0.173
+ 0.01-0.04
0 -0 .0 1
NO CHANGE
-0 .0 1 -0
m1
-0.04--0.01
1 2 Kilometers
Figure 6.20 Change in Socio-economic index from 1991 to 2001
172
6.4 Landuse patterns in Calcutta
Section 5.4 describes the procedure for calculating the percentage of various landuse
categories in each particular ward. This part of chapter 6 will map the major landuse
categories. The source map for ward-wise landuse classification has been obtained from
the National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO) (Nag, 2001). Ward-
wise landuse patterns are mapped for 1982 and 2001.
6.4.1 Residential areas
The most important landuse categories as defined by NATMO for both 1982 and 2001
include residential areas, parks and open spaces, industrial zones, commercial areas,
educational areas, burial and cremation grounds, hospitals, transportation and storage
space, administrative areas, and agricultural lands. For the 2001 landuse classification,
NATMO introduces a new category in their map, the mixed commercial and residential
areas. Also, urban landuse categories that existed in the 1982 landuse classification and
were absent from the 2001 landuse category are the slum areas in the city, and the
wetlands.
Calcutta houses 4.5 million people, therefore residential areas comprise of the single most
important urban landuse category in Calcutta. For the year 2001, a couple of wards in
southern Calcutta (ward numbers 103, 104, and 91) have about 100% of its area devoted
to residential quarters. A few of the wards in western Calcutta (ward numbers 133 and
134) have less than 5% of its area devoted to residential areas. Calcutta is fast
developing and the eastern parts of Calcutta, which were marshy wetlands in 1981, are
now covered with luxurious residential units. Also, large agricultural plots present in the
eastern part in 1980 have disappeared in the recent decade. Figure 6.21 shows the
percentage residential area for 1982 and 2001 in the different wards in Calcutta.
173
LANDUSE CATEGORIES
Residential Area-1982 Residential Area -2001
Percentage Residential Area
0-25
2 5 .0 1 - 5 0
50.01 - 70
70.01 - 85 Kilometers
85.01 -1 0 0
Figure 6.21 Landuse category: Residential areas
6.4.2 Mixed Commercial and Residential areas
In the recent decade, residential units in the city, usually apartment complexes along the
main road, lease the first floor of their house to small business units. In the process, the
owner of the residential unit collects some added revenue. These residential units that
house small business units have been classified by NATMO as a mixed commercial-
residential landuse category. This mixed commercial-residential category has been
introduced in the 2001 landuse classification map and is presently the next most
significant urban landuse category in Calcutta covering almost 12% of the total area of
the city. In the 1982 landuse classification map, residential area covered 62% of the total
area of the city of Calcutta. Although from Figure 6.21 it appears that residential areas in
the city have decreased since 1982, the case does not hold true when mixed commercial-
residential areas (shown in Figure 6.22) are summed up with the residential areas thereby
174
making the built-up residential areas covering 69% of the total area of the city in the most
recent landuse map.
LANDUSE CATEGORIES
Mixed Commercial and

Residential Areas - 2001
Percentage Commercial -
Residential Area
12.01 -28
28.01-55
28.01-55
2 K ilo m e te rs
Figure 6.22 Landuse category: Mixed commercial and residential areas
6.4.3 Commercial areas
Commercial areas also exist separately from the residential areas. There are huge
markets and shopping complexes in many parts of the CBD area and also spread out in
various parts of the city. According to Figure 6.23, the 1982 landuse classification shows
more commercial areas than the 2001 landuse classification map because commercial
areas in 1982 have been merged with the residential areas and have been defined as a
mixed commercial-residential landuse category. In some of the wards in the CBD area
(wards 37 and 38) commercial landuse category is almost 50% in both 1982 and 2001.
175
LANDUSE CATEGORIES
Commercial Area-1982 Commercial Area -2001
P ercen ta g e Commercial Area

| 0 -1
| ~ ] 1.01 -5
| 5.01 -1 0 6 Kilometers
| 10.01 -2 5
\ 25.01 - 50
Figure 6.23 Landuse category: Commercial areas
6.4.4 Slum areas and Slum population
An interesting aspect of landuse classification for 2001 is the spatial delineation of slums.
In the landuse map of 1982, as in Figure 6.24, there was a separate urban landuse
category that outlined slum areas. The slum, although a residential area, was not
included under the residential category in the landuse classification map of 1982.
However, in the revised 2001 landuse classification map, slum areas have been merged
along with the residential landuse category, making studies using the spatial location of
slums a challenging task. An important point to note is that the spatial locations of slums
and total number of slum dwellers have always been a sensitive issue for the government
officials in Calcutta. Figure 6.24 shows the percentage slum areas for the year 1982.
However, in 2001, the census of India made its first effort to enumerate the sensitive
slum areas in all major cities of in the country. Figure 6.25 maps the total slum
176
population for the year 2001 according to the data provided by the directorate of census
operations in India. The slum population data detailed by the census has no relation with
the urban landuse category map produced by the NATMO.
LANDUSE CATEGORIES
Slum Areas-1982
Percentage Slum A rea

No Slum Areas
1 0.1 -5
5.1-10
10.1 -15
15.1 -20
20.1 - 30
4 K ilo m e te rs
Figure 6.24 Landuse category: Slum areas
177
SLUM POPULATION 2001
Number of Slum Dwellers

0 1 - 6,000
O 6.001 - 12 000
0 1 2 .0 0 1 -2 8 ,0 0 0
0 2 4 8 Kilometers ' 0 ) 28,001 - 55,000

1 i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i ^ 0
55.001 - 87.000
Figure 6.25 Ward-wise slum population in 2001.
6.4.5 Industrial areas
Presently, there are more than 8,833 polluting industries in Calcutta. According to the
city pollution control board, 1651 of these industries are very polluting industries, 1086
industrial units are moderately polluting, and 6095 are less polluting industrial units.
Recently, the city of Calcutta has set up rules such that there would be no new addition of
very polluting or moderately polluting industries within the Calcutta metropolitan area
jurisdiction. However, less polluting industries could be set up within the city limits with
adequate pollution control measures. Industrial areas for each ward have been shown in
Figure 6.26.
178
LANDUSE CATEGORIES
Industrial Area-1982 Industrial Area-2001
Percentage Industrial Area

0 -4
| | 4.1 -13
|_____ | 13.1 -25
6 Kilometers
Figure 6.26 Landuse category: Industrial areas
According to the urban landuse classification of 2001, quite a number of census wards in
the western part of the city have more than 40% of its area categorized as industrial area.
For the year 1982, not only the western Calcutta wards but also a few wards in the
northern part of the city had more than 40% of its area demarcated as industrial area.
Most wards in the southern and the central part of the city have no industries for both
1982 and 2001.
6.4.6 Green space
Parks and open space and agricultural areas two of the most important landuse categories
for any urban area, and they have been shown as green space in Figure 6.27. Though
there have been a rapid decline in the agricultural areas in the city, even in 2001 some of
the western wards (ward numbers 125, 126, and 127) in the city have more than 70% of
179
its area devoted agricultural production. Some of the wards in southern Calcutta also
have a considerable portion of their land for agricultural purposes.
LANDUSE CATEGORIES
P ark s and O p e n S p a c e - 1 9 8 2 P ark s an d O p e n S p a c e - 2001
Agricultural A rea - 1 9 8 2 Agricultural A rea - 2 0 0 1
Percentage Green Space Category

Park an d O p en S p a c e A gricu lture! A rea
n o
1.D1 - 1 0 13.01-40
10,01 - 25
1.01 - 2 0
50,01 - 100 70,01 - 100
Figure 6.27 Landuse category: Park and open space and Agricultural areas
Parks and open spaces are not a very common feature in the city of Calcutta. The
government recently is making a conscious effort to plant trees and also to create parks in
various parts of the city to maintain ecological balance. In the heart of the CBD area is a
huge portion of land (this area has no ward number, and has often been referred as ward
number 0 in this dissertation) that is a park and open space. This is known as the famous
maidan area meaning open space in the city of Calcutta. Also spread out throughout the
city, are some wards in the western, southern and eastern parts (46, 57, 63, 90, 94, 109,
122) of the city where the percentage area devoted to parks and open space is more than
40%.
180
Another landuse category that needs mention is the wetland area in ward number 108,
which is to the western part of the city. The wetland area was shown in the 1982 landuse
classification map, but there is no presence of wetland in the 2001 landuse classification
map. Some other urban landuse categories for Calcutta are the areas with hospitals,
burial and cremation grounds, transportation and storage areas, educational areas, and
administrative areas. Most of these landuse categories either exist as clusters in a few
wards or they are spread out throughout the city with less than 1% of its area in some of
the wards.
6.5 Chapter Summary
This chapter maps the three different segments of this study, air pollution, population,
and landuse pattern. The chapter addresses issues related to the spatial (ward-wise)
distribution of air pollution in the city. The chapter also maps the social and economic
index of population over time and shows the different ward-wise landuse categories for
1982 and 2001. The chapter provides the readers a visual representation on the problem
of air pollution, the social and economic index of population, and the ward-wise
distribution of the various landuse categories.
6.6 References
Mittal, M. 2006. Anthropogenic Emissions from Energy Activities in India: Generation
and Source Characterization Program for Computational Research Mechanics,
2006 . Available from www.osc.edu/research/pcrm/emissions/thermal.shtml.
Turner, B. L., Clark, W. C., Kates, R. W., Richards, J. F., et al. 1990. The Earth as
Transformed by Human Action: Global and Regional Changes in the Biosphere
over the Past 300 Years. First Edition ed, Chapter 7: Cambridge University Press.
WBPCB. 1994 - 2001. Parivesh Newsletter. Kolkata: West Bengal Pollution Control
Board.
181
182
7 ASSOCIATING AIR POLLUTION, POPULATION,
AND LANDUSE
7.1 Introduction
The association between air pollution and population and also the association between air
pollution and ward-wise landuse patterns is described in this chapter. First, the chapter
describes the different statistical procedures that have been used for analysis. The
remainder of the chapter is divided into two broad sections; the first section will describe
relationships with vehicular and industrial pollution with the demographic characteristics
in each ward. The second part of the chapter will describe relationships with vehicular
and industrial pollution and the ward-wise landuse categories. One of the primary
research questions of this dissertation, the assessment of environmental equity, will be
answered by associating vehicular and industrial pollution with ward-wise demographic
characteristics. Similarly, by associating vehicular and industrial pollution with the
ward-wise landuse patterns, the other important research question; the apportionment of
pollution based on the various landuse patterns, will be addressed.
7.2 Statistical Methods
There are several ways in which the association of air pollution and population and again
the association between air pollution and landuse could be demonstrated. This
dissertation however uses correlations and regressions to explain such associations. To
explain the association between air pollution (which includes vehicular and industrial
pollution) and the demographic characteristics of a ward, bivariate correlations have been
used. Correlation is a measure of the relation between two or more quantitative variables
(Moore et al., 2002). Correlations do not distinguish explanatory from response variables
and have therefore been considered the best possible choice to determine the association
between air pollution and the different demographic variables. Bivariate correlations
have also been used to test for associations between the various landuse variables.
183
If there are n observations on two independent variables x and y; x and y will be denoted
as (xi, yi), (x2, y2), (xn, y„)
The correlation coefficient, r for x and y computed from n cases is:
(x -x (
1 V y-y
n- 1
I JI ^ J
Here x and sx are the mean and standard deviation of the x observations alone and y and
sy refer to the mean and standard deviation of the y observations. The sum in the
equation runs over all of the cases for which the variables x and y have been measured.
Correlation coefficient (r) measures the strength o f the linear association between the two
quantitative variables and can range from -1.00 to +1.00. A value o f -1.00 represents a
perfect negative correlation while a value o f +1.00 represents a perfect positive
correlation. A value of 0.00 represents a lack of correlation. The most commonly used
correlation coefficient is Pearson, also called linear or product-moment correlation and
has been used to associate air pollution with the demographic variables. SPSS-14 has
been used for the analysis.
To explain the relationship between air pollution (including vehicular and industrial
pollution) and the percentage landuse categories in each ward, a series of statistical
regressions and bivariate correlations are performed. Regression describes a relationship
between a set of independent (percentage landuse categories in each ward) variables and
a dependent (air pollution) variable. Linear Regression is a specific case of regression
where a linear relationship is sought between the independent variables and the
dependent variable. So this kind of statistical measure will indicate whether there is any
straight line (linear) relationship between the landuse categories and air pollution.
Multiple Linear Regression is a case in which the number of independent variables is

larger than one. The incorporation of several independent variables leads to incorporating
the relationship amongst the independent variables and that is why the interpretations
drawn from Multiple Linear Regression is much different than the one that can be drawn
184
from a set of pairwise simple linear regressions. Multiple Linear Regression is more
applicable to the real world situation where most observed (unknown, random) variables
are dependent on a number of independent (known, fixed) variables that might be related
to each other.
A Statistical Model for Multiple Linear Regression for a given statistical population
(Moore et ah, 2002) is
J\ - Po + (3l Xji + p2 Xi2 + ........ + Pp Xip + £ j
where, y is the dependent variable, x j xp are the p independent variables, 8 is a
residual error term, and i is the index of the observation. The population mean of the
dependent variable y for a given set of independent variables x j xp is given by
py = po + pi xi + p2 x2 + ......... + PP xp
Which means that we can estimate the population mean py from the estimates of P’s. The
parameters P’s are estimated by the method of least squares from the given sample data.
The fitted (estimated) straight line can be represented as
y;* = b0 + bi xu + b2 xi2 + ........ + bp xip
The method of least squares minimizes the sum of squares of the residuals (errors), £i(yi—
yi*)2, with respect to the parameters b0 .... bp. The parameters bo .... bpare estimates of
the population parameters Po •• Pp and y,* is a sample estimate of the population mean
by.
To analyze the association between air pollution and ward-wise landuse categories,
stepwise multiple linear regression is done. The procedure combines a forward selection
and a backward elimination method to eliminate one or more redundant predictor
variables. This research works with a multiple linear regression analysis and uses the
backward elimination method. SPSS-14 has been used for the analysis. The backward
elimination is performed as follows:
• The procedure forms two groups for the independent variables, the “included”
variables and the “excluded” variables. The included variables are initialized with
all the independent variables and the excluded group does not contain any variables.
185
• The procedure runs multiple linear regression analysis on both the groups of
variables. The least significant component in the included group of variables is
selected which has the highest P-value (or equivalently the lowest F-statistic). If the
P-value is greater than 0.05 then the component is removed from the included group
and placed in the excluded group.
• If there is a component removed from the included group then the whole procedure
is repeated. The regression analysis ends at a point where no components meet the
P-value requirements to be removed from the included variables group.
Backward elimination has the advantage that all independent variables are included in the
model at the same stage. This addresses a problem of forward selection procedure, where
a variable will never be included if a previously selected variable is strongly correlated to
it. The ward-wise landuse category data that has been used for the analysis has multiple
variables and the fact that all the independent (landuse) variables were incorporated into
the model at the same time provided an added advantage to the model. The disadvantage
of backward elimination is that the full model with all the variables at the beginning can
be time consuming and could become numerically unstable. However, since this research
will only deal with 141 cases (wards) and only twelve landuse variables, the instability of
the model was not much of a concern.
7.3 Variables used for statistical modeling
Not all the population and landuse variables discussed in the dissertation have been
incorporated into the statistical model. The census of India measures several
demographic variables, but for the purpose of associating population to air pollution, only
the vulnerable and the disadvantaged population groups have been taken into
consideration. Similarly, the National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organization
(NATMO) identifies several landuse categories, but for associating landuse pattern to air
pollution, some of the related urban landuse categories like agricultural areas and
parks/open space have been merged to a single category known as green space. The
186
following section lists all the variables that have been incorporated into the statistical
model.
7.3.1 Vehicular pollution variables
Section 4.2.1 explains the procedure for calculating ward-wise vehicular pollution.
Section 6.2.1 maps the ward-wise distribution of vehicular pollution. The total amount of
vehicular pollution in a particular ward estimates the amount of pollutants released by the
different types of vehicles plying in the specific ward. The different types of vehicles
pollution indices used for statistical analysis purposes include, pollutant emissions (PMio
emissions have been used for all statistical analysis) from buses (BusPl), auto-rickshaws
(AutoRickPl), trucks (truckPI), private cars (CarPI), taxicabs (taxicabPl), and
motorcycles {MotorcyclePT). There is also a separate variable (allVehicles), which is a
sum of vehicular pollution indices from all above-mentioned vehicles.
7.3.2 Industrial pollution variables
Section 4.2.2 explains the procedure for calculating ward-wise industrial pollution.
Section 6.2.2 maps the ward-wise distribution of industrial pollution. Industrial pollution
has only one variable that is used in the statistical model; ward-wise industrial pollution
(IndPollIdx) calculated on the basis of fuel consumption by the industries in a ward. Fly
ash emissions have been used for all statistical analysis. Fly ash is also known as
Suspended Particulate Matter.
7.3.3 Population variables
The question is related to what sections of the population share the maximum burden of
pollution. The vulnerable and the disadvantaged population groups are the major
population groups that have been considered for this analysis. Ward-wise census data
(Sen, 2001; Sen, 2001) have been taken for this analysis and has been discussed in detail
in section 5.2 of this dissertation. The vulnerable population groups include child
population (childPop) in the age group of 0 to 6years. The disadvantaged population
187
group includes illiterate population {Illiterates), non-workers (NonWorkers), slum
dwellers (slumPop), the backward population that includes the scheduled caste {SC) and
the scheduled tribe {ST) population and to some extent the industrial laborers
{IndWorkers) because of the assumption that industrial laborers are exposed to a higher
degree of pollutants from the industries. All the population variables, used for statistical
purposes, are normalized by the total population in a ward. Also considered for the
analysis is the ward-wise socio-economic index {SocioEcoIdx) of population. The socio
economic index of population is surrogate for the standard of living of the people in a
particular ward and has been described in detail in section 5.2 of this dissertation.
7.3.4 Landuse variables
The question is related to what landuse categories are associated with air pollution.
Whether industrial clusters are more polluted from vehicle pollution or whether
residential areas share the maximum burden of industrial pollution is a question for
investigation. Ward-wise landuse categories were calculated based on the map provided
by NATMO (Nag, 2001) and have been discussed in section 5.4 of this dissertation. The
main landuse categories included in the statistical model include Education, Industry,
GreenSpace (which includes agricultural areas and park and open spaces), Utility,
Hospital, BurialCremationGround, TransportStorage, Administrative, CmrResid (which
includes purely residential areas and mixed residential areas), and CmrComm (which
includes commercial areas and the mixed commercial areas).
7.4 Associating air pollution with population
One of the main questions of this dissertation is related to investigating the nature of
relationship between air pollution and population in Calcutta. Specifically, the research
investigates whether certain socio-economic groups are exposed to a higher pollution
than others. This leads to an interesting debate on the issue of whether there are any
environmental equity concerns in the city of Calcutta.
188
7.4.1 Vehicular pollution and population
Table 7-1 shows the correlation between all the population variables and vehicular
pollution from all the vehicles. Table 7-1 shows a positive correlation between childPop
and Illiterates (r = .68, p<0.01), childPop and IndWorkers (r = .51, p<0.01), childPop and
NonWorkers (r = .45, p<0.01), and finally childPop and slumPop (r = .46, p<0.01). The
children in the age group of 0 to 6 years are counted as illiterates, would not work in
industries, and also would be non-workers. There is a positive correlation between
children in the age group of 0 to 6 years and slum dwellers, because most slum dwellers
do not have access to birth control measures and proper education and would most likely
give birth to more children. Simultaneously, it has been analyzed that there is a negative
correlation between child population and non-slum population. Socio-economic index is
computed from slumPop, Illiterates, NonWorkers, and backward population and hence
the inverse correlation between SocioEcoIdx versus slumPop and Illiterates is inevitable.
A higher socio-economic index signifies a better standard of living. Therefore an inverse
correlation with socio-economic index and slum population means that greater the socio
economic index (meaning better standard of living) in a ward, lesser is the total number
of slum population in that particular ward. The same logic also holds true for illiterate
population. Table 7-1 also shows a positive correlation (r = .36, p<0.01) between
Illiterates and IndWorkers. It could be concluded that most industrial workers are
engaged in blue-collar jobs, which do not require a higher education level. Hence, the
fact that higher the socio-economic index in a ward lesser is the industrial workers in a
particular ward holds true. It could also be said that people with a higher standard of
living tend to have access to appropriate birth control measures therefore the child
population is inversely related to socio-economic index (r = -.65, p<0.01). There is also a
positive correlation (r = .53, p<0.01) between Illiterates and slumPop and also between
SC and ST population (r = .28, p<0.01).
Table 7-1 Correlation between population and all vehicles
189
Correlations
childPop slum Pop Illiterates IndWorkers NonW orkers SC ST SocioEcoldx allVehicles

childPop P e a rso n Correlation 1 .456** .678** .508** .445** .196* .006 -.647** .011
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .020 .944 .000 .893
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
slum Pop P e a rso n Correlation .456** 1 .532** .175* .213* -.135 -.157 -.948** -.001
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .038 .011 .112 .063 .000 .991
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
Illiterates P e a rso n Correlation .678** .532**1 1 .355** -.120 .038 -.086 -.663** .194*
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .157 .657 .311 .000 .021
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
IndWorkers P e a rso n Correlation .508** .175* .355** 1 .134 -.055 -.209* -.242** -.097
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .038 .000 .113 .516 .013 .004 .250
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
NonW orkers P e a rso n Correlation .445** .213* -.120 .134 1 .122 .079 -.336** -.267**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .011 .157 .113 .149 .349 .000 .001
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
SC P e a rso n Correlation .196* -.135 .038 -.055 .122 1 .279** -.094 .049
Sig. (2-tailed) .020 .112 .657 .516 .149 .001 .268 .561
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
ST P earso n Correlation .006 -.157 -.086 -.209* .079 .279** 1 .080 .452**
Sig. (2-tailed) .944 .063 .311 .013 .349 .001 .348 .000
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
SocioEcoldx P earso n Correlation -.647** -.948** -.663** -.242** -.336** -.094 .080 1 -.013
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .004 .000 .268 .348 .878
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
allVehicles P e a rso n Correlation .011 -.001 .194* -.097 -.267** .049 .452** -.013 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .893 .991 .021 .250 .001 .561 .000 .878
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
**• Correlation is significant a t th e 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*• Correlation is significant at th e 0.0 5 level (2-tailed).
Table 7-2 Correlation between population and the different types of vehicles
P ea rso n Correlation
childPop slu m P o p Illiterates IndW orkers N onW orkers SC ST SocioE coldx

allV ehicles 0.01 0.0 0 0.19 -0.10 -0.27 0.05 0.45 -0.01
BusPI -0.35 -0 .1 3 0 .1 4 -0.11 -0.73 -a 19 -0 .0 4 0.23
AutoRickP -0.23 0 .1 2 -0.03 -0.10 -0.23 -0.22 -0.22 -0.01
Truck Pi 0.01 0.11 0.2»i -0.03 -0.25 -0.22 -0.01 -0.08
CarPI -0.31 -0 .0 8 0.07 -0.09 -0.63 -0 .1 5 -0.09 0 .1 8
TaxicabPI -0.28 -0.01 0.10 -0.11 -0.63 -0.27 -0 .1 5 0.1 4
M otorcycle -0.28 -0.01 0 .1 4 -0.08 -0.63 -0.31 -0.17 0.1 3
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailcd).

Correlation is significant at the M05 level (2-tailed). •••?.
Table 7-2 is a simplified table that shows the association between each of the vehicular
pollution indices and the demographic variables. From Table 7-2 it can be concluded that
there is a positive correlation between allVehicles (which includes a sum of vehicular
emissions from all the vehicles) and ST population (r = .45, p<0.01) and allVehicles and
NonWorkers (r = -.27, p<0.01). A positive correlation between vehicular pollution and
ST population here means that greater the vehicular pollution index in a particular ward,
greater the number o f ST population. An inverse correlation between vehicular pollution
190
and non-workers means that greater the vehicular pollution index in a particular ward,
lesser is the total number of non-workers.
There is an inverse correlation between BusPI (bus pollution index) and childPop (r = -
.35, p<0.01), BusPI and NonWorkers (r = -.73, p<0.01), and BusPI and SocioEcoldx (r =
.23, p<0.01). Meaning, higher the bus pollution index in a particular ward lower is the
number of child population and non-workers in the ward. A positive correlation with bus
pollution index and socio-economic index means that higher the standard of living in a
ward, greater is the bus pollution index.
There is an inverse correlation between AutoRickPI (auto-rickshaw pollution index) and

childPop (r = -.23, p<0.01), NonWorkers (r = -.23, p<0.01), and SC (r = -.22, p<0.01);
meaning that higher the child population, non-workers, and backward population in a
ward lesser is the vehicular auto pollution index in a ward.
There is an inverse correlation between TruckPI (truck pollution index) and NonWorkers
(r = -.25, p<0.01) and again TruckPI and SC (r = .22, p<0.01). This means that higher the
non-worker and backward population in a ward lesser is the vehicular truck index in a
ward. There is also a positive relation between TruckPI and Illiterates (r = .28, p<0.01),
meaning that higher the vehicle truck index in a ward, higher is the illiterate population in
a particular ward.
Table 7-2 also indicates there is an inverse correlation between CarPI (car pollution
index) and Non Workers (r = -.31, p<0.01) and again CarPI and childPop (r = -.63,
p<0.01). Meaning, higher the non-workers and child population in a ward lesser is the
vehicular car index in a ward. There is a negative correlation between TaxicahPI
(taxicab pollution index) and childPop (r = -.28, p<0.01) and again TaxicabPI and
NonWorkers (r = -.63, p<0.01). There is also an inverse correlation between TaxicabPI
and SC. The same is the case for motorcycle pollution index. Higher child population,
non-workers, and backward population in a ward indicate less pollution from taxicabs
and motorcycles.
191
Broadly speaking, there is an inverse association between vehicular pollution and the
vulnerable and disadvantaged population groups. Although the association is statistically
significant, the association between the two variables is not very strong. Figure 7.1 (a)
shows one of the inverse associations between bus pollution index and the non-workers.
However, not all the associations between vehicular pollution and demographic variables
are inverse associations. For most of the cases there is either no associations or there is a
slight negative association between vehicular pollution and the demographic variables.
There are two instances when there is a slight positive association. Figure 7.1(b) shows a
positive association between truck pollution index and the illiterate population. The
reason for a positive association between the two variables is the large number of zero
truck pollution values in many of the wards in Calcutta.
I.00
70.00
cpo
60.00
40.00
°o «4)
1
0
£
o
z
50.0 0 -
20.00
40.00
0.00 100000.00 200000.00 300000.00 400000.00 500000.00 600000.00 0.00 200000.00 400000.00
(a ) (b)
Figure 7.1 Scatter plots showing associations between (a) bus pollution index and non
workers (b) truck pollution index and illiterate population
Since there is no strong positive association between vehicular pollution and the
disadvantaged and vulnerable population groups, this research finds no environmental
equity concerns with respect to vehicular pollution and population.
Based on field experience, the main reason for some of the inverse correlations between
vehicular pollution and demographic variables is based on the fact that disadvantaged and
the vulnerable population groups have less access to the public modes of transportation.
For example, the wards in the extreme western part of Calcutta have a low social and
192
economic index. Figure 6.16, Figure 6.17, Figure 6.18, and make it clear. A lower socio
economic index signifies a lower standard of living. At the same time, Figure 6.1, Figure
6.2, Figure 6.4, Figure 6.5, Figure 6.6 and Figure 6.7 make it clear that there are very few
vehicles that cross these wards. Most of the vehicular pollution in the western wards is
from trucks. A higher number of trucks traverse these wards due to a high concentration
of industries in the western part of Calcutta.
7.4.2 Industrial pollution and population
Table 7-3 shows the association between industrial pollution index (IndPollIdx) and
vulnerable and disadvantaged population. From Table 7-3, there is a correlation between
IndPollIdx and slumPop (r = .23, p<0.01) and IndPollIdx and SocioEcoldx (r = -.24,
p<0.01). A positive correlation between industrial pollution index and slum population
means that greater the industrial pollution in a particular ward, higher is the number of
slum dwellers. An inverse correlation between industrial pollution and socio-economic
index means that greater the industrial pollution in a ward lower is the standard of living
of the people. There is also a positive correlation between industrial pollution and
illiterate population (r = . 17, p<0.05). This means that higher the industrial pollution in a
ward, greater is the number of illiterates in a ward.
Table 7-3 Correlation between population and industrial pollution

childPop slum Pop Illiterates IndWorkers NonWorkers SC ST SocioE coldx
IndPollIdx 0 .1 5 2 8 2 8 0.233447 0.1711 0 .0 1 8 4 4 5 3 7 0 .1 4914683 -0.0 5 8 1 4 5 -0.0 1 2 7 5 8 -0 .2 4 6 0 9 6 3 3
Another way to look at industrial pollution and the slum population would be to consider
only the wards with any amount of industrial pollution. Out of the 141 wards in the city,
only 79 wards have any industrial pollution; the remainder of the 62 wards has no
industrial units. A box and whisker plot is drawn to show the differences in mean slum
population values for wards with industries and wards with no industries in Figure 7.2.
All slum population values are normalized by the total population in a particular ward.
The left box and whisker shows the distribution of slum population in wards with any
industrial pollution. The box and whisker to the right shows the distribution of slum
193
population in wards with no industrial pollution. From the plot it is evident that wards
with industrial pollution have a higher percentage of slum population.
120- I
- — — r ------- — ............... — ---- ------------ — — -------- r —
.
tauniP^iVVfiWP
Figure 7.2 Box and Whisker plot showing percentage slum population in wards with
industrial pollution and percentage slum population in wards with no industrial pollution
Table 7-4 Descriptive Statistics for slum population in wards with industrial pollution and
slum population in wards with no industrial pollution________ . _________________
SlumPopWithIP SlumPopNoIP
N (number of wards) 79 62
Mean slum population in % 36.25 17.38
Standard Deviation 30.12 20.65
Minimum slum population in % 0 0
25 percentile 12.6 0
Median slum population in % 28.99 13.84
75 percentile 55.51 26.99
Maximum slum population in % 99.98 92.15
Mann-Whitney Test p<0.001
T-test p<0.001
Table 7-4 shows there is a statistically significant difference in mean (p<0.001) for slum
population in the wards that have some industrial pollution versus slum population in the
wards where there is no industrial pollution.
Since there is a positive association between industrial pollution and the disadvantaged
population groups, this research concludes that the slum dwellers are exposed to higher
industrial population. The research therefore observes some environmental equity
194
concerns that need to be addressed by the city planners. Also, the industrial workers do
not share the maximum burden of industrial pollution. Also, there is no association
between industrial pollution and child population, industrial pollution and industrial
workers, industrial pollution and non-workers, and industrial pollution and backward
population.
An important question for debate that this research brings forward is related to whether
the slum dwellers by choice settled in and around the industrial clusters; or whether the
industrial units found the slum areas the perfect place for its set up. One side of the
debate that could be argued by the industry owners is that the slum dwellers could
possibly migrate from the rural areas and choose to stay near the industrial units because
o f cheap land values, low housing cost, and with an expectation of finding some blue-
collar work in the nearby industry. The other side of the debate that could be argued by
the non-governmental organizations is that the industrial entrepreneurs could have chosen
the slum areas in the city due to less resistance, with respect to industrial pollution. It is
beyond the scope of this research to investigate the causal relationships; whether the
industrial units were set up prior to the onset of disadvantaged communities or whether
the industries found the perfect location to establish themselves in the poorer
communities due to less resistance from the influential sections of the society. Future
work will address the cause and effect relationships between industrial population and
slum dwellers with the help o f causal models. Causal models or causal diagrams are
graphical models that are used to portray relationships among variables at the aggregate
or group level. These models link the different variables by arrows that represent direct
casual effects of one variable over another (Greenland et al., 1999; Heman et al., 2002).
These diagrams would be most appropriate for determining the cause and effect
relationships between industrial pollution and disadvantaged population groups.
195
7.4.3 Discussions on association between air pollution and population
Although this research unfolds the fact that some of the disadvantaged sections of the
society are exposed to a higher industrial pollution this research at the same time also
discovers that there is in fact an inverse relationship between disadvantaged and
vulnerable population groups and vehicular pollution. The low vehicular pollution in the
disadvantaged and poorer sections of the society would mean that the less advantaged
population groups do not possess an equal share of the public means of transportation
systems. They also lack proper infrastructure in terms of poor roads and fewer public
vehicle routes. This research would therefore argue that there is discrimination based on
the standard o f living of the people. An interesting issue that this dissertation unfolds is
that the aristocratic sections of the society unknowingly acquire a fair share of vehicular
pollution although they most likely choose to live away from highly polluting industries.
On the contrary, the disadvantaged population groups (more specifically the slum
dwellers) who live close to polluting industries are however not exposed to maximum
vehicular pollution.
7.5 Associating air pollution with ward-wise landuse categories
The other main research question is investigating the nature of relationship between air
pollution and landuse pattern in Calcutta. The research investigates the apportionment of
pollution in the different wards of Calcutta based on several urban landuse categories.
Although different landuse categories (e.g. residential, commercial, industrial etc.) are
considered to be nominal level data, this research computes percentage landuse area in
each ward; this is explained in detail in section 5.4 of this dissertation. Therefore both
ward-wise vehicular and industry pollution indices values and the percentage landuse
categories in each ward are continuous data and are appropriate for multiple linear
regression.
196
For research in social sciences, there is a possibility for the occurrence of other
confounding factors15 that influences air pollution, some of which include long-term time
trends, seasonality, climate (Cogliani, 2001), the presence of other pollutants (Lee et al.,
2000), construction activities, or conformance to polices implemented by the pollution
control board. This study describes the seasonal distribution of air pollution in the city in
section 4.3.6 and also studies the spatial distribution of air pollutants from ambient air
quality measurements in section 6.2.3. However, this research is unable to account for
such confounding factors into the same regression model.
7.5.1 Vehicular pollution and ward-wise landuse
This section of the chapter will portray the association between vehicular pollution and
the different landuse categories in a particular ward. First, a bivariate correlation was
done with all the landuse variables. This correlation checks for of multicollinearity16,
meaning if the independent variables (the ward-wise landuse categories) are correlated or
not to one another. Multicollinearity leads to regression parameters with large standard
errors, which do not approach statistical significance. Table 7-5 lists the correlation
matrix for the different landuse variables.
From Table 7-5 it is evident that there is a correlation (r = -.63, p<0.01) between
GreenSpace and CmrResid. However, the model will retain both the landuse categories.
The statistical model will retain the CmrResid (residential areas and mixed residential
areas) because determining pollution in residential clusters is one of the main objectives
of this dissertation. The statistical model will also retain GreenSpace because the
research needs to address the association between air pollution and the greener areas of
the city.
15 By definition confounding factor is a "hidden" variable in a statistical or research model that affects the
variables in question but is not known or acknowledged.
16 A situation when the predictor (independent) variables are highly correlated to one other.
197
Table 7-5 Correlation between the various landuse variables
T ransportSto Administra
Education Industry Utility B urialCrem Gr Hospital rage tive CmrComm CmrResid GreenSpace
Education 1 -0.072597 0.192653 -0.03687892 0.30036514 -0.04018414 0.054481 -0.08927434 -0.006595 -0.09958331
Industry -0.072597 1 0.064858 0.009892773 -0.04880937 0.11391931 -0.070578 -0.1815238 -0.49037 -0.03724775
Utility 0.192653 0.064858 1 -0.00259908 0.10651804 0.17260783 0.231483 0.098470457 -0.276683 -0.06974573
BurialCremGr -0.036879 0.009893 -0.002599 1 0.05549365 -0.03293929 -0.026861 -0.0342723 -0.024511 -0.04866471
Hospital 0.300365 -0.048809 0.106518 0.055493647 1 -0.00754943 0.186844 -0.03877567 -0.084533 -0.06855265
TransportStor; -0.040184 0.113919 0.172608 -0.03293929 -0.00754943 1 -0.040051 -0.09861403 -0.359377 -0.09202065
Administrative 0.054481 -0.070578 0.231483 -0.02686126 0.18684433 -0.04005055 1 0.074116973 -0.146916 -0.04234943
CmrComm -0.089274 -0.181524 0.09847 -0.0342723 -0.03877567 -0.09861403 0.074117 1 0.186257 -0.29283101
CmrResid -0.006595 -0.49037 -0.276683 -0.02451061 -0.08453258 -0.35937682 -0.146916 0.186256992 1 -0.63096412
GreenSpace -0.099583 -0.037248 -0.069746 -0.04866471 -0.06855265 -0.09202065 -0.042349 -0.29283101 -0.630964 1
Next, multiple linear regression with a backward elimination procedure was done to find
the best set of landuse (independent) variables that show associations with vehicular
pollution (dependent variable). Table 7-6 shows the final step of the model with the
ward-wise landuse variables (in the included group of variables) that have an independent
association with allVehicles. The model shows an r2 value of 0.39, which means that
only 39.3% of the variations in vehicular pollution can be explained by the independent
variables (ward-wise landuse pattern). There is a positive association between
allVehicles and CmrComm and a negative association between allVehicles on one hand
and CmrResi, Industry, GreenSpace, and TransportStorage on the other. Therefore it can
be inferred that commercial areas in the city have a high vehicular pollution, whereas
residential areas, industrial clusters, green space, or transport and storage areas are not
heavily polluted from vehicles.
Besides the landuse variables there is another variable included in the model, PopDen
(Population density). Population density is certainly not a landuse variable but has been
included in the model because higher (or lower) population density in a ward could quite
possibly predict vehicular pollution. As mentioned earlier, the multiple linear regression
model used in this study does not take into consideration several confounding factors.
Ward-wise population density is one such confounding factor and incorporating
population density into the model would only address partially the problem of the
confounding factors.
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Table 7-6 Multiple linear regression model with backward elimination procedure;
Dependent variable: allVe licles; Independent variables: ward-wise landuse categorit
S ta n d a rd ized
M odel U n stan d ard ized C o e ffic ien ts C o e ffic ien ts t S ig .
B S td . Error B eta
6 (C o n sta n t) 1 0 4 7 6 7 6 .1 2 1 1 3 8 9 9 7 .5 8 5 7 .5 3 7 .0 0 0
Industry - 8 8 5 0 .1 4 5 2 0 1 0 .8 3 8 -.461 -4.401 .0 0 0
T ra n sp o rtS to ra g e - 7 6 3 9 .5 2 5 2 3 6 7 .1 3 9 -.2 9 5 -3 .2 2 7 .0 0 2
C m rC om m 2 3 8 3 .8 8 9 9 8 4 .0 5 6 .2 1 9 2 .4 2 3 .0 1 7
C m rR esid -9 6 8 3 .6 0 4 1 4 9 3 .8 0 4 -1 .0 3 8 -6 .4 8 3 .0 0 0
G reen S p ace - 7 2 5 3 .9 4 9 1 6 4 8 .9 5 6 -.5 9 3 -4 .3 9 9 .0 0 0
P opD en -2 .5 3 6 .7 4 2 -.3 1 7 -3 .4 1 6 .001
Table 7-7 lists the various landuse variables that have an association with the different
types o f vehicular pollution. Note that besides CmrComm (commercial and mixed
commercial areas), all the other independent variables have an inverse association
between the different vehicular pollution indices. An inverse association means vehicular
pollution is not high in the residential areas of the city or in the industrial areas.
Vehicular pollution is also not high in the green space and in the transport and storage
areas.Table 7-7 also shows the order in which the different urban landuse variables are
associated to the pollution from the different types of vehicles. For most of the vehicles,
residential areas have the strongest inverse association between vehicular pollution and
urban landuse. Commercial areas also portray some of the strongest positive association
between vehicular pollution and urban landuse. Detailed multiple linear regression
model results with a backward elimination procedure have been listed in Appendix 7A.
This research therefore concludes that people in Calcutta mostly use public modes of
transportation to commute to the commercial areas in the city. Commercial areas refer to
public and private offices, markets, and shopping arcades. Figure 6.23 indicate that CBD
(Central Business District) area has the highest concentration of commercial and mixed
commercial areas in the. City planners in Calcutta need to judiciously plan vehicle routes
in the city so that commercial areas in the city are not affected by a high vehicular
pollution.
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Table 7-7 Independent predictors o f different types o f vehicular pollution
Pollution Index R Square Predictors
Constant, (C m rR esid ), (Industry), (G r e e n S p a c e ), C m rC om m ,
BusPI 0 .5 3 2
(T ra n sp o rtS to ra g e)
AutoRickPI 0 .1 7 3 Constant, (G r e e n S p a c e ), (P o p D e n ), (Utility)
TruckPI 0 .2 5 2 Constant, C m rC om m , (C m rR esid )
Constant, (P o p D e n ), (C m rR esid ), (Industry), (G r e e n S p a c e ),
CarPI 0 .3 8 2
(T ra n sp o rtS to ra g e), (E d u cation ), (BurialCrem Gr)
Constant, (C m rR esid ), (G r e e n S p a c e ), (Industry), (P o p D e n ),
TaxiCabPI 0 .3 9 7
(T r a n sp o rtS to ra g e )
Constant, (P o p D e n ), (G r e e n S p a c e ), (C m rR esid ), (T ran sp ortS torage),
MotorcyclePI 0 .4 8 0
C m rC om m , (Industry)
All n e g a tiv e a s s o c ia tio n s a r e sh o w n within (b r a c k e ts)
This research also concludes that pollution from all the different types of vehicles is
inversely associated with residential and mixed residential areas. Vehicle routes are
spread out throughout the city and usually converge at the CBD area. Hence, the
commercial areas in the city are more polluted than the residential clusters. Also greener
space in the city is inversely associated with vehicular pollution. There is no association
between vehicular pollution and the industrial clusters. There is an inverse association
between transportation and storage areas and vehicle pollution.
The calculation of vehicular pollution index is based on the total number of vehicle routes
and road length and does not take into consideration the total road area in the different
urban landuse categories. Future research will address the total road area in the various
landuse categories, which would help city planners plan vehicle routes in several areas of
the city with a higher road area. However, it needs mention that newer vehicle routes
should be avoided in the commercial areas of the city.
7.5.2 Industrial pollution and ward-wise landuse
This section of the chapter will portray the association between industrial pollution and
the different landuse categories. A bivariate correlation was done with all the landuse
variables and the industrial pollution index. Table 7-8, shows a positive relationship
between Indpollldx and TransportStorage (r = .66, p<0.01) and an inverse relationship
between Indpollld and CmrResid (r = -.25, p<0.01).
200
It needs mention that multiple linear regression with a backward elimination procedure
was performed with the ward-wise landuse variables and industrial pollution. The only
predictor of industrial pollution according to the model was TransportStorage (transport
and storage area). The r2 value was 0.44 meaning that transportation and storage areas
can explain only 44% o f the variation in industrial pollution. There is no group of
independent (landuse) variables that associate to industrial pollution. Hence the multiple
linear regression with a backward elimination procedure has not been considered the best
choice for analyzing the relationship between industrial pollution and ward-wise landuse
categories.
E ducation Industry Utility BurialCrerr H ospital T ransports A dm inistra G r e en S p a i CmrComrr C m rR esid

IndPollIdx 0 .0 4 4 9 4 9 0 .0 7 4 5 8 5 0 .1 0 6 6 1 8 -0 .0 1 9 4 0 1 -0 .0 4 6 6 5 6 0 .6 6 0 1 3 -0 .0 3 6 8 2 4 -0 .0 4 9 7 8 7 -0 .0 7 1 3 2 6 0 .2 4 8 0 7 3
One reason for high industrial pollution in transportation and storage areas is related to
the storage requirements by the large industries. Therefore it could be concluded that the
transport and storage areas act as a surrogate measure for the high polluting industries.
For example, the western part of Calcutta has very high polluting industries, including
one of the highly polluting thermal power plants. Most of the transport and storage areas
in the city are concentrated in this western part of the Calcutta. The main step that needs
to be taken by the environmental planners in Calcutta is either to set up storage areas
separately outside the city limits or to discourage residential growth near transportation
and storage areas.
Also, due to restrictions by the city pollution control board, there are fewer polluting
industries in the residential areas. Hence, there is a negative association between
industrial pollution index and residential and mixed residential areas.
This research therefore concludes that industrial clusters in the city are not heavily
polluted from industries. The landuse map published by NATMO shows the industrial
clusters and not specific locations of industries. The ward-wise fuel consumption data on
the other hand lists the total fuel used by each specific industry. An industrial cluster
could comprise of different types of industries ranging from highly polluting industries to
201
non-polluting industries. Therefore the presence of an industrial cluster in a ward does
not necessarily mean high industrial pollution.
This research finds no association between industrial pollution and commercial areas, and
industrial pollution and green space. There is also no relationship between industrial
pollution and hospital areas or industrial pollution and educational areas.
7.5.3 Discussions on association between air pollution and landuse
This research therefore concludes that commercial areas in the city are more polluted
from vehicular pollution. Vehicle routes should be re-routed through other non-polluting
areas rather than the commercial areas of the city. One possible suggestionis to stop
buses and cars from entering the high commercial areas (specifically the CBD area of the
city) and the city plan several non-polluting means of transport like the battery operated
buses or electric trams for commute within the CBD areas. Likewise, vehicle routes
could be planned in other areas of the city other than the commercial areas because other
landuse categories show a negative association with vehicle pollution.
Also, the transport and storage areas in the city have a statistically significant positive
association with industrial pollution. Meaning transport and storage areas either needs to
be moved to areas beyond the city limits; or high-density residential areas should be
discouraged near transportation and storage units.
7.6 Chapter Summary
This chapter combines the three segments of the research; air pollution, population, and
landuse pattern of Calcutta; and answers the questions related to how air pollution is
associated to demographic variables and also how air pollution is associated to the ward-
wise landuse categories. The research concludes that there are no environmental equity
concerns with respect to vehicular pollution. In other words, the disadvantaged and the
vulnerable population do not bear the maximum burden of vehicular pollution. However
the slum populations and the illiterate population groups in Calcutta are exposed to
202
greater pollution from industries. The research also concludes that only the commercial
areas in the city are polluted from vehicles; other urban landuse categories like residential
areas or green space are not as polluted from this source. Transport and storage areas in
Calcutta are more industrially polluted. There is no association between industrial
pollution and other urban landuse categories like residential areas or green space in the
7.7 References
Cogliani, E. 2001. Air Pollution Forecast in Cities by an Air Pollution Index Highly
Correlated with Meteorological Variables. Atmospheric Environment 35 (16):2871- 2877.
Greenland, S., Pearl, J., and Robins, J. M. 1999. Causal Diagrams for Epidemiologic
Research. Epidemiology 10 (1):37 - 47.
Heman, M. A., Hemandez-Diaz, S., Werler, M. W., and Mitchell, A. A. 2002. Causal
Knowledge as a Prerequisite for Confounding Evaluation: An Application to Birth
Defects Epidemiology. Americal Journal o f Epidemiology 155 (2): 176 - 184.
Section A 84:247 - 254.
Moore, D. S., and McCabe, G. P. 2002. Introduction to the Practise o f Statistics. Fourth
ed. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
Census of India.
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8 Conclusion
8.1 Introduction
The concluding chapter of this research will summarize the research problem and the
findings of this study and will relate these findings to the conceptual framework of the
research. Next, the chapter will describe some health impacts of air pollution in Calcutta.
Subsequently, the chapter will discuss some of the current policies regarding air pollution
management in the city and suggest additional feasible measures that could be adopted by
the city planners to control air pollution. Finally, the chapter will summarize the
contributions this research makes to the academic discussions on environmental pollution
on one hand and population explosion and urban landuse on the other, and suggests
avenues of research in each of these areas of inquiry.
8.2 Overview of research
The two mile thick pollution blanket lying over the entire Indian subcontinent, also
referred to as the “Asian Brown Haze” or the “Asian Brown Cloud” is the cause for
hundreds and thousands of deaths a year from respiratory diseases (UNEP, 2001; Bray,
2002; Ramanathan et al., 2002). Burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, industries and power
stations is one of the major contributors to this high pollution blanket (UNEP, 2001). Air
pollution measures from seven metropolitan cities in India, including Calcutta, indicate
very high pollution levels that sometimes reach hazardous levels (Lelieveld et al., 2001).
This research draws on the problem of environmental pollution in Calcutta. Researchers
argue that greater increases in urban population in the recent years leads to more
industrialization, which in turn leads to environmental degradation in the urban area
(Cronshaw et ah, 1997). Researchers also state that unplanned urbanization and
industrialization are some of the major causes for environmental degradation (Sengupta
et al., 1999). Based on the conceptual framework, described in Figure 1.4 of this
dissertation, this research was interested in investigating the association between air
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pollution and population and again the association between air pollution and the landuse
pattern of the metropolitan city of Calcutta.
This research designed a new way to estimate ward-wise vehicular pollution in Calcutta;
as explained in section 4.2.1 o f this dissertation. The research also estimated ward-wise
industrial pollution as explained in section 4.2.2 of this dissertation. Besides describing
the demographic characteristics of population in the different wards (discussed in section
5.2), this research also designed a procedure to determine the socio-economic index of
population, described in 5.3 of this dissertation. The percentage landuse categories in
each of the census wards of the city (explained in section 5.4) have also been calculated
from the paper copy landuse maps of Calcutta. After determining ward-wise air-
pollution, population, and landuse, this research concludes that there are no
environmental equity concerns with respect to vehicular pollution. In other words, the
disadvantaged and the vulnerable population groups do not share the maximum burden of
vehicular pollution. However, the slum populations and illiterate population groups in
Calcutta are exposed to greater pollution from industries. The research also concludes
that only the commercial areas in the city are polluted from vehicles; other urban landuse
categories such as residential areas or green space are not as polluted from the same.
Transport and storage areas in Calcutta are more industrially polluted. Other urban
landuse categories such as residential areas or green space in the city are not heavily
polluted from industries.
8.3 Health effects of air pollution in Calcutta
Although this research does not find any association between vehicular pollution and the
vulnerable population groups, the research does not ignore the fact that there is high
vehicular pollution in the city of Calcutta. At the same time, the research also does not
disregard that all the residents of Calcutta are exposed to high industrial pollution.
Although the slum dwellers in the city are exposed to a higher intensity of industrial
pollution than the other sections of the society, the reality is that all residents of Calcutta
are exposed to above-average pollution from industries. In other words, the people of
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Calcutta are exposed to levels of pollution that are sometimes higher than permissible
limits and the major sources of pollutants in the city are the vehicles and the industries.
The gaseous emission from the vehicles and industries contain a large number of harmful
substances including carbon monoxide, sulphur, nitrogenous oxides, and certain
suspended particulate matters containing highly carcinogenic hydrocarbons. Studies
carried on by the University of Calcutta and the Chaittaranjan National Cancer Institute
(CNCI) from November 1996 to July 2001 surveyed several permanent residents of the
city (Lahiri et al., 2000; Basu et al., 2001; Lahiri et al., 2002). They also surveyed non
residents of Calcutta as a control group population. Their study distributed a detailed
questionnaire inquiring about the respondent’s occupation, age, indoor and outdoor
exposure, smoking and drinking habits, and state of health, especially respiratory
symptoms. Coupled with this, they collected blood and sputum samples. Results
indicated that residents of Calcutta showed a higher prevalence of respiratory symptom
complexes (RSC). A sputum cell count among the urban group was significantly higher
than the control group of population. Exposure to these pollutants leads to the
development o f acute cardiovascular diseases and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Disease (COPD). Also lung cancer and leukemia are some of the severe diseases that air
pollution can lead to. The most common health effects that many people of Calcutta
unknowingly acquire are an increased incidence of allergy, cold, and other respiratory
infections. All the health impact studies are crucial in making the residents of the city
aware of the adverse effects of air pollution.
8.4 Air pollution management in Calcutta
Studies conducted by local authorities such as the CNCI and by international foundations
like the World Health Organization (WHO) have made the governmental authorities and
also the residents o f the city aware of the problem of high air pollution. Presently,
various measures have been taken by the city planners and the government to reduce
pollution from the source emissions - the vehicles and the industries. This research lists
some of the policies regarding air pollution management and would also like to suggest
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some additional measures that need to be adapted by the city planning authorities to
reduce the intensity of air pollution in Calcutta.
8.4.1 Increase in road area
One of the major reasons for traffic congestion in Calcutta has been attributed to a
smaller amount of road area in the city. Keeping this low road area in mind, the Chief
Minister has vowed to transform the city’s traffic scenario into the best in the country
(Reporter, 2005). A major leap has been over the last three years, where a couple of
flyovers were built across some of the busiest road junctions. The three new flyovers at
Gariahat, Park Circus, and Park Street near Esplanade (Figure 1.3) are fully functional
and are taking an immense share of the vehicular load. However, one of the major
criticisms to these flyovers are the lack of “arms and ramps” connecting the flyover to the
other major roads. The government recently has taken up the twin projects of building an
extension to two of the flyovers.
Besides increase in road area in the central and the southern parts of the city, flyovers
need to be constructed to combat traffic congestion in the narrow streets of northern
Calcutta. A fly-over from the northern parts of the city, such as Shyambazar or Sealdah
Railway station to the CBD area, would reduce traffic congestion considerably.
8.4.2 Non-polluting modes of transportation
The underground subway system in Calcutta, known as the metro railway (Figure 1.3),
functions well and provides fast and pollution free travel to more than 200 thousand
commuters daily. Recently, the metro railway in Calcutta is working on an extension on
both the southern and northern sides. In the southern side, construction has already
begun from Tollygunge to New Garia (Figure 1.3), a total distance of 8.5 kilometers. An
extension on the northern side is undergoing preliminary surveys and studies.
Also, there have been a small number of battery-operated buses plying on the Saltlake
area (area B1 in Figure 1.3). Although the numbers of such buses are few, it is an
207
important step towards reduction of vehicular pollution. Moreover non-polluting
vehicles create awareness among the common people. Coupled with the above policies,
the government could also extend operations of the ferry service to the western part of the
city connecting the Garden Reach area in the extreme west to the Howrah station (Figure
1.3) in the northwest. Presently the ferry services connect the city of Howrah station to
the CBD area of the city.
Electric trams have been discouraged from high-density traffic areas of the city due to
traffic congestion. Since trams are non-polluting modes of transportation, this research
would argue that trams should be introduced in certain parts of the city instead of buses.
Also circular railways operate between Dumdum in the north to the western part of the
city near the banks of the Hugli River. The circular railway is mostly underused and
there needs to be immediate planning for extension of circular railway facilities to the
greater Calcutta area.
The CBD area of Calcutta is the most polluted area of the city in terms of vehicular
pollution due to the existence of a number of commercial centers. Multiple offices
complexes at B.B.D.Bag, the high court, writers building (synonymous to state capitol),
the main city post office, Calcutta stock exchange, the Reserve Bank of India are some of
the important commercial areas located in the CBD area of Calcutta. Some of the
commercial buildings are shown in Figure 8.1.
208
Suggested Loop Area
Central Business District
I
~h~~
High Court
A / Suggested Loop Area
1 B .B .D . B ag
N
Jg River Hooghly ^ Writers B uilding
/ \ / Main Roads © General Post O ffice
0.2 0 0.2 0.4 Kilometers
Figure 8.1 Suggested Loop area in the Central Business District of Calcutta
One o f the major steps that the government could initiate is the total restriction of buses
from the CBD area and the introduction of trams and battery-operated buses in the CBD
area. Highly polluting buses need to be rerouted outside the suggested loop area. This
research suggests a loop area (Figure 8.1) within the CBD area of the city that would
encompass the major hub of the Calcutta and include most of the commercial sites.
Highly polluting vehicles such as the buses can travel outside the suggested loop area.
209
8.4.3 Greener fuels
The government is trying its best to introduce LPG (more commonly known as propane)
operated vehicles in the city. “Market forces - not government policy - are prompting
vehicle owners to switch from petrol to greener fuel” (Basu, 2005). Steered by the
spiraling price of gasoline, that costs approximately 40% more than LPG, private vehicles
and auto-rickshaws are starting to switch to LPG. However, the costs for conversion of
older vehicles, specifically vehicles manufactured prior to 2000, are quite high. The
government should provide some incentive to taxicab and auto-rickshaw owners to
convert to such greener technology.
8.4.4 One-way routes
Further, traffic jams, which in turn cause idling of vehicles, are a major contributor
towards vehicular pollution. The Calcutta police department also tackles this problem by
enforcing one-way routes for vehicles during rush hours and also implementing a no
parking policy on many major roadways.
Coupled with the introduction of one-way routes, metered parking ramps needs to be
constructed in several locations in the city. This would provide a solution to the no
parking policy on major roadways and would also reduce traffic-jams at major road
intersections.
8.4.5 Balancing vehicle circulation between weekdays and weekends
Another characteristic o f Calcutta is that the imbalance of vehicle circulation between

weekdays and weekends. Vehicle population in the city is very high from Monday to
Friday, fairly high on Saturday, and Sunday, being a holiday, has a moderate amount of
traffic on the roads. However, if the holidays are staggered and each organization
chooses a different day for a holiday, the traffic burden on the city roads would be
equally distributed on all seven days of the week.
210
Shopping malls also tend to follow the trend of Sunday closures, except during the festive
season. However, if shopping malls are open during Sunday and the hours of shopping
are extended, the burden of vehicular pressure from the roads could be diminished.
Recently, the government has urged the retailer’s association to keep large shops (with
more than 1,000 sq ft o f space) operating for 24 hours a day, seven days a week, while
shops with less than 1,000 sq ft could be kept open from 5 am to 1 am (Sengupta, 2005).
8.4.6 Car-pooling and ride sharing
Driving to work is not a common characteristic of the population in Calcutta. However, a

small percentage of people drive to work and car-pooling needs to be encouraged by the
employers.
Similarly, all schools have operating school buses, but many parents prefer to drop off
and pick up their kids from school in their own personal vehicles. If school buses are
made mandatory for students, the large volume of car, taxicab, and motorcycle load in
front of schools during rush hours could be substantially reduced.
Similar to school buses, offices should encourage chartered buses to and from work. All
offices in the same area could have their employees use a chartered bus; this would
benefit both the employee and the employer.
8.4.7 Reduction in pedestrian movement
Many o f the traffic jams in Calcutta are a result of unsynchronized pedestrian movement.
The traffic police in Calcutta are trained to deal with problems of unsynchronized traffic
movement on a day-to-day basis. However, in a city of 4.5 million people, pedestrian
movement is inevitable. In many cases, a person prefers to walk for a short distance even
though there is a bus or auto-rickshaw route. In Calcutta, the transit system fare is
dependent on the total distance traveled by a passenger. A passenger traveling in a single
vehicle for a distance o f 15 kilometers pays more than a passenger traveling in the same
vehicle for a distance o f 10 kilometers. However, if the passenger needs to change two
211
vehicles and travel for a distance of 10 kilometers, he/she pays more than the passenger
traveling for 15 kilometers in a single vehicle. This means that a single ticket in a vehicle
is valid only for that particular means of transportation. New tickets need to be
purchased even for different vehicles traveling in the same route. A new policy that
could be implemented in Calcutta is the introduction of a single ticket, valid for a certain
amount of time, for travel anywhere within the city. This system would encourage
people to avail the modes of transportation and would decrease pedestrian movement
substantially. Along with the introduction of uniform ticketing system, pedestrian
movement within the city should be disciplined by enforcing stricter rules by the police
department.
8.4.8 Industrial pollution control and “Cleaner Technologies of Production”
Forty eight percent of the air pollution in Calcutta is from the industrial units. The city
pollution control board enforces strict norms to prevent air, water, and soil pollution
arising from the industrial processes. Industrial licensing procedures are required to be
followed by the entrepreneurs before setting up an industry by obtaining clearance from
the state pollution control board. Also, a particular industry needs to follow the
stipulations and conform to certain quality standards related to pollutants released. All
industries are also required to take “consent to operate” from the state pollution control
board annually for keeping its liquid, gaseous, and solid discharges within the notified
permissible limit (WBPCB, 2002). Based on their emissions and the norms, sometimes,
polluting industries that violate permissible standards are asked to close down or are
served with a notice for relocation outside the residential areas. Industries are also
categorized based on their total industrial pollution. Details of the categorization of
industrial units have been described in section 4.2.2.1.
“Cleaner Technologies o f Production” is a new dimension that is emerging rapidly in the

metropolitan cities of India (CPCB, 1996). The basic idea of a cleaner production
process is to “increase production efficiency while at the same time eliminate or at least
minimize wastes and emissions at their source rather than treat them at the end of pipe
212
after they have been generated” (CPCB, 1996). The pollution control board sponsored a
project to the National Environment and Engineering Research Institute (NEERI, India)
to develop a database on cleaner technologies. The document will combine research on
cleaner technologies and will have comprehensive case studies for different types of
industrial units. The pollution control board plans industry wide seminars and workshops
for the adoption of cleaner technologies. The concept of cleaner technologies is still at its
initial stages and entrepreneurs are often reluctant to provide a detailed inventory of
pollutants to an agency like NEERI, which is related to the government. Therefore,
compulsion should be enforced for industrial units to adopt “Cleaner Technologies of
Production”.
8.4.9 Parks, open spaces, and wetlands
Calcutta is in desperate need for some parks and open spaces. The famous Calcutta
maidan (Figure 1.3), referred to as ward number 0 in this dissertation, is a huge open
space in the western part of the city. Also, the relatively new Saltlake area (Figure 1.3) in
Calcutta made it a rule to have abundant open spaces. The city planning authorities in
Calcutta should make it a rule to have a small amount of area designated as a green space
in every newly built residential complexes and commercial areas within the city limits.
Due to the dire necessity of urban space, wetlands in the eastern part o f the city have been
filled up to built office complexes, sophisticated residential quarters, and shopping malls.
Landfills should be strongly discouraged and wetlands should be reclaimed to maintain
an ecological balance in the city. However, to deal with the problem of the ever-
increasing population in Calcutta, urban development along the city fringes could be
encouraged with appropriate environment impact studies. One such study conducted by
Sikdar et al (Sikdar et al., 2002) has concluded that the “The frequency of adverse
impacts is greater then beneficial impacts”. However, the adverse impacts are “short
term, reversible, and are of low magnitude” and appropriate measures will ameliorate the
adverse impacts. Some of the urban development along the city fringes includes the
Saltlake city and the Baishnabghata-Patuli Township in the eastern part of Calcutta (Rao
213
et al., 1999; Sikdar et al., 2002). Also, the government has begun the construction of
another planned expansion; the “New Town” located at Rajarhat (15 kilometers east of
Calcutta city). The western side of the city is planning the development of a well planned
modem city, the “West Calcutta International Township”. Yet another huge new
township is in the proposal state in Dankuni, to the northern part of the city
(Bhattacharyya, 2005).
8.4.10 Public participation in the planning process
Similar to the Public Participation process prevalent in the United States, the city of
Calcutta has initiated the Community Environmental Management Strategy (CEMS)
(WBPCB, 1997). CEMS is a means towards enabling the disadvantaged and vulnerable
communities to have greater involvement and control over the management of their living
environment at the household and community levels. According to the CEMS
committee, “low-income and poor communities bear only the costs of a degraded
environment”. The fundamental objectives of the CEMS are to “achieve a greater degree
of environmental justice for the citizens of Calcutta, especially those who are the most
vulnerable” and also to create conditions that will enhance an environmental
improvement program and urban development.
8.5 Future Work
One important issue that this research does not address is the causal nature of relationship
between air pollution and population and again air pollution and landuse pattern. Causal
models are one such way of looking at the cause and effect relationships between the
variables and would efficiently answer questions like does population growth influence
an increase in vehicular pollution. Also questions related to whether the slum dwellers
by choice settled in and around the industrial clusters; or whether the industrial units
found the slum areas the perfect place for its set up could be very conveniently answered
with the help of casual models.
214
Also, an alternate way to look at vehicle flow and surrounding landuse patterns is the use
of landuse regression modeling. The method uses least-squares regression modeling and
predicts pollution surfaces based on air quality measurements at various locations and
numerous independent variables like traffic volume, landuse type, and topography.
Future work with pollution control board data will look at landuse regression modeling as
an alternate to spatial interpolation of air quality measurements.
Vehicular pollution model is a static model, meaning that the vehicular pollution indices
are derived from source emissions. The model does not consider the dispersion of the
pollutants based on wind direction, air temperature, and terrain. Future work will address
these meteorological factors and determine the dispersion of the pollutants after it is
released into the atmosphere.
8.6 Contributions and significance of research
This dissertation makes a practical contribution to the study of air pollution in the city of
Calcutta as well as conceptual contributions in the study of association between air
pollution and demography and again the study of association between air pollution and
the landuse pattern of the city. This research suggests some future avenues for research
in each of the following areas of inquiry.
First, this research designs a model for estimating vehicular pollution in any given census
geography. The vehicular pollution model accommodates for the changes in vehicle
routes, number of vehicles, and also a change in the emission factor of the fuels used for
each of the different types o f polluting vehicles. Based on changes in vehicle routes and
improvement to cleaner and greener fuels in Calcutta, vehicle pollution indices can be
easily estimated for answering questions related to vehicle movement, introduction of
new vehicle routes, or feasible transport routes keeping in mind environmental
considerations. The model can also estimate vehicular pollution for any other
metropolitan city provided there are digital road maps and data on vehicle routes and
emission factors of the respective vehicles.
215
Second, based on the vehicular and the industrial pollution indices, the pollution control
board in the city can plan their environmental monitoring program in areas of high
pollution. This research mostly addresses pollution from source pollutants, the vehicles
and the industries. This research also brings up an important question related to the
judicious positioning of air quality monitoring instruments in different parts of the city.
Third, although this research identifies areas of high and low pollution from source
pollutants and also specifies the population group that is most affected from industrial or
vehicular pollution, the research does not investigate the human exposure to
environmental pollution during travel from home to work. This research opens up an
important area o f investigation related to exposure to vehicular and industrial pollution
during daily travel.
Fourth, this research opens up important discussions on environmental equity studies in

Calcutta. The term environmental equity or which population groups share the maximum
burden of pollution has not been questioned in Calcutta to the best of my knowledge.
Non-governmental organizations and the CEMS planning strategy strive to attain a
greater “environmental justice” to the disadvantaged sections of the society based on the
standard of living of the people. However, these organizations have not yet related
vehicular or industrial pollution to the disadvantaged sections of society.
Lastly and most importantly, this research creates a digital information system of the
major roads, railways, water bodies, ward boundaries, landuse categories, and industrial
locations of Calcutta. Usually this information is available in Calcutta in the form of
paper copy maps scattered in various places. This research provides a digital information
system that can be used by emergency planners to determine the shortest route between
two locations, by demographers to study ward-wise population change, by city planning
authorities to identify the different landuse categories and change in landuse pattern
through time, and most importantly by researchers to conduct research in any area of
enquiry that would require digital boundary files.
216
8.7 References
Basu, C., Ray, M. R., and Lahiri, T. 2001. Traffic-Related Air Pollution in Calcutta
Associated with Increased Respiratory Symptoms and Impared Alveolar
MacroPhage Activity. Journal o f Environmental and Pollution 8 (2): 187 - 195.
Basu, J. 2005. ABC of LPG. The Telegraph, 05.29.2005.
Bhattacharyya, D. 2005. High and Rising. The Telegraph, 07.24.2005.
www.cnn.com.
CPCB. 1996. Cleaner technologies: Issues and options. New Delhi: Central Pollution
Control Board.
Lahiri, T., Ray, M. R., Mukherjee, S., Basu, C., et al. 2000. Marked Increase in Sputum
Alveolar Macrophages in Residents of Calcutta: Possible Exposure Effect of
Severe Air Pollution. Current Science 78 (4):399 - 404.
1036.
Reporter, Staff. 2005. Buddha waves traffic wand. The Telegraph, 08.04.2005.
Sengupta, Staff. 2005. Shopping for 24x7 mall hours. The Telegraph, 08.02.2005.
Sengupta, Staff, Patil, R. S., and Venkatachalam, P. 1999. Assessment of Population
199.
WBPCB. 1997. Calcutta Environmental Management Strategy and Action Plan
(CEMSAP). Calcutta: West Bengal Pollution Control Board.
217
Appendix 3A
Ward boundaries of Kolkata (Calcutta)
Metadata:
• Identification Information
• Data Quality Information
• Spatial Data Organization Information
• Spatial Reference Information
• Entity and Attribute Information
• Distribution Information
• Metadata Reference Information
Identification_Information:
Citation:
Citation_Information:
Originator: Sula Sarkar
PublicationJDate: 2001
Publication_Time: Unknown
Title: Ward boundaries of Kolkata (Calcutta)
Geospatial_Data_Presentation_Form: vector digital data
Online Linkage: \\BARIRCOMPAQ\C\sula\shapefile\cwards.shp
Description:
Abstract:
Census ward boundaries for 2001 census, as deliniated by the Directorate of
Census Operations, India
Purpose:
Census wards are the lowest geographical subdivision for which any geographic
or demographic data is enumerated. Also policy implications and resource
allocation is done for each census ward. Ward boundaries were digitized to
calculate the air pollution index for each ward
Time_Period_of Content:
Time_Period_Information:
Range_of_Dates/Times:
Beginning_Date: March, 2001
EndingJDate: January, 2011
Currentness Reference: correct as of March 2001
Status:
Progress: Complete
Maintenance_and_Update_Frequency: Decadal basis
SpatialDomain:
Bounding Coordinates:
218
West_Bounding_Coordinate: 88.248
East_Bounding_Coordinate: 88.456
North_Bounding_Coordinate: 22.63 3
South JBounding_Coordinate: 22.431
Keywords:
Theme:
Theme_Keyword_Thesaurus: census
Theme_Keyword: wards
Place:
PlaceJKeyword: Calcutta, India
Stratum:
Stratum_Keyword_Thesaurus: deltaic
Stratum Keyword: alluvium, sedimentary
Temporal:
Temporal_Keyword_Thesaurus: census
TemporalJdeyword: decadal
AccessjConstraints:
None. However, ward boundaries could change from one census to another. This
boundary is based on the 2001 census and should be verified before using it for
analysis purposes for any other censuses
UseJConstraints: None
Point_of_Contact:
ContactJnformation:
Contact_Person_Primary:
Contact Person: Sula Sarkar
Contact Organization: University of Minnesota
Contact Position: Graduate Student
Native_Data_Set_Environment:
Microsoft Windows XP Version 5.1 (Build 2600) Service Pack 2; ESRI
ArcCatalog 9.1.0.722
Data Quality Information:

Attribute_Accuracy:
Attribute_Accuracy_Report:
Accuracy is based on the paper copy map obtained from the Directorate of Census
Operations, India
LogicaljConsistency_Report:
Paper copy ward maps have been digitized using Arc/Info 8.3. Map topology
(polygon) was established. The digitized ward map was appended together with
the water body layer, such that all the map layers were logically consistent,
meaning that if a stream was considered the boundary between two wards, the
ward boundary overlaid exactly on the stream layer.
Completeness Report:
219
The Directorate of Census Operations in India identifies 141 census wards for the
census year 2001. This map file is complete and has all the 141 ward boundaries
Positional_Accuracy:
Horizontal_Positional_Accuracy:
Horizontal_Positional_Accuracy_Report: Not Applicable
VerticalJPositional_Accuracy:
Lineage:
Sourceinformation:
Source_Citation:
Citation_Information:
Originator: Directorate of Census Operations, India
Publication Date: 2001
Title:
Census of India 2001 Series-20 West Bengal; Population Totals. Calcutta: Census
of India
Publicationinformation:
Publication Place: Calcutta, India
Publisher: Government of India
Source Scale Denominator: Map Not to Scale
Type o f SourceM edia: paper
Source_Time_Period_of_Content:
Range_of_Dates/Times:
Beginning_Date: March, 2001
Ending Date: January, 2011
Source Citation_Abbreviation: Directorate of Census Operations, India
Source Contribution: Published map from the Directorate of Census Operations,
India
Process_Step:
Process^Description:
Heads up digitizing of the census ward boundaries from the paper copy map
Process Date: December, 2001
Process^Contact:
Contact Information:
Contact_Person_Primary:
Contact_Person: Sula Sarkar
CloudjCover: Not Applicable
Spatial_Data_Organization_Information:
Direct_Spatial_Reference_Method: Vector
Point_and_VectorjObject_Information:
SD TSTerms Description:
220
SDTS_Point_and_Vector_Object_Type: G-polygon
Point_and_Vector_Object_Count: 142
Spatial_Reference_Information:
HorizontaljCoordinate_System_Definition:
Geographic:
Latitude_Resolution: 22 degree 23 minute 47seconds
Longitude Resolution: 88 degree 23 minute34 seconds
Geographic_Coordinate_Units: Degrees, minutes, and decimal seconds
Geodetic_Model:
Horizontal_Datum_Name: North American Datum of 1983; UTM (zome 45)
Ellipsoid Jdame: Clarke 1866
Entity_and^Attributeinformation:
DetailedDescription:
EntityJType:
Entity_Type_Label: Wards
Entity_Type_Definition: Census wards
Entity_Type_Definition_Source: Directorate of Census Operations, India
Attribute:
Attribute Label: FID
AttributeJDefinition: Internal feature number.
Attribute_Definition_Source: ESRI
A ttribute_Domain_ Values:
Unrepresentable Domain:
Sequential unique whole numbers that are automatically generated.
Attribute:
Attribute_Label: Shape
Attribute Definition: Feature geometry.
Attribute Definition Source: ESRI
Attribute DomainJValues:
Unrepresentable Domain: Coordinates defining the features.
Attribute:
Attribute_Label: AREA
Attribute:
Attribute Label: PERIMETER
Attribute:
Attribute Label: WARDS_
Attribute:
Attribute Label: W ARDSID
Attribute:
AttributeJLabel: WDNUMB
Attribute:
Attribute Label: NORMALIZED
221
Overview Des crip tion:
Entity_and_Attribute_Overview:
Ward-wise data on any demographic variables could be joined with the ward
number from this map file. WARDNUMB states the number of the ward
Distribution_Information:
Resource Description: Downloadable Data
Standard Order Process:
Digital_Form:
Digital_Transfer_Information:
Transfer_Size: 0.140
Fees: None
Available_Time_Period:
Range_of'Dates/Times:
Beginning Date: March, 2001
Ending_Date: January, 2011
Metadata_Reference_Information:
MetadataJDate: 20060330
Metadata_Future_Review_Date: 20110320
Metadata Contact:
Contactinform ation:
Contact_Person Primary:
Contact_Person: Sula Sarkar
ContactAddr ess:
City: Minneapolis
State_or_Province: MN
Postal Code: 55414
Country: USA
Contact_Voice_Telephone: Not Available
Metadata_Standard_Name: FGDC Content Standards for Digital Geospatial
Metadata
Metadata_Standard_Version: FGDC-STD-001 -1998
Metadata_Time_Convention: local time
Metadata_Securityinformation:
Metadata Security_Classification: Unclassified
Metadata_Extensions:
Online_Linkage: <http://www.esri.com/metadata/esriprof80.html>
Profile_Name: ESRI Metadata Profile
Generated by mp version 2.8.6 on Thu Mar 30 17:35:45 2006
222
Appendix 4A
Industrial categories in each ward and Ward-wise coal usage
SOURCE: Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA)
“RED” “ORANGE” “GREEN” Coal (Kg)

Category Category Category TOTAL
Ward Number Industry Industry Industry Industries
1 59 20 75 154 2418.92
2 27 23 51 101 38110
3 16 3 20 39 3160
4 21 11 31 63 90688.5
5 21 2 29 52 8516.7
6 166 28 163 357 8267.5
7 12 20 50 82 1380
8 23 5 68 96 0
9 12 12 121 145 61600
10 7 4 46 57 3223
11 8 1 24 33 0
12 26 16 40 82 127541
13 39 14 234 287 100350
14 68 20 261 349 254110
15 33 46 57 136 23020
16 20 7 7 34 450
17 10 4 221 235 590
18 5 5 212 222 4000
19 6 6 76 88 1500
20 68 16 209 293 1370
21 189 2 29 220 0
22 4 1 104 109 35
23 0 2 303 305 300
24 10 2 27 39 0
25 4 3 418 425 196
26 0 2 46 48 200
27 4 4 36 44 0
28 14 11 70 95 115.25
29 19 28 82 129 1780.50
30 4 17 24 45 7
31 34 12 75 121 247891
32 19 16 52 87 25730
33 64 32 245 341 59074
34 37 13 136 186 18215
35 20 20 57 97 3600
36 3 6 3 12 8000
223
37 10 7 359 376 57
38 6 7 43 56 0
39 2 0 0 2 0
40 1 1 45 47 60
41 5 1 44 50 0
42 1 0 30 31 200
43 23 2 5 30 0
44 48 33 70 151 2763
45 0 0 0 0 0
46 0 0 0 0 0
47 2 2 17 21 0
48 7 6 262 275 665
49 2 0 91 93 0
50 1 3 88 92 20
51 3 9 52 64 0
52 0 0 0 0 0
53 0 0 0 0 0
54 0 0 0 0 0
55 0 0 0 0 0
56 0 0 2 2 4000
57 53 22 119 194 411640
58 23 48 148 219 645862
59 17 94 136 247 86315
60 0 0 0 0 0
61 0 0 0 0 0
62 0 0 0 0 0
63 0 0 0 0 0
64 0 0 0 0 50
65 0 0 0 0 0
66 42 53 197 292 435104
67 25 75 153 253 136672
68 3 1 29 33 786311
69 0 0 1 1 50
70 2 5 21 28 12906
71 2 1 10 13 1145
72 0 0 0 0 0
73 0 2 5 7 0
74 0 0 0 0 0
75 0 0 0 0 0
76 0 0 0 0 0
77 0 0 0 0 0
78 0 0 0 0 0
79 11 2 1 14 16324
80 30 26 27 83 2448199.50
224
81 17 9 17 43 201560
82 0 1 2 3 0
83 0 0 0 0 0
84 0 0 0 0 0
85 0 0 0 0 0
86 0 1 11 12 1144
87 0 0 0 0 0
88 3 2 1 6 8307
89 6 3 2 11 22531
90 0 0 0 0 0
91 10 12 28 50 27956
92 0 0 0 0 0
93 0 0 0 0 0
94 1 6 1 8 11274
95 0 0 0 0 0
96 0 0 0 0 0
97 0 0 0 0 0
98 3 12 12 27 12302
99 0 0 0 0 0
100 0 1 1 2 900
101 0 0 0 0 0
102 0 0 0 0 0
103 0 0 0 0 0
104 0 0 0 0 0
105 1 3 7 11 4057
106 5 14 4 23 7968
107 18 47 108 173 62152.57
108 21 6 72 99 44655
109 0 3 8 11 955
110 0 0 0 0 0
111 0 0 0 0 0
112 6 12 11 29 8441
113 0 0 0 0 0
114 0 0 0 0 0
115 0 0 0 0 0
116 59 60 46 165 246239
117 30 23 29 82 180121
118 36 20 30 86 127504
119 0 0 0 0 0
120 0 0 0 0 0
121 15 4 8 27 34469
122 0 0 0 0 0
123 0 0 0 0 0
124 0 0 0 0 0
225
125 0 0 0 0 0
126 0 0 0 0 0
127 0 0 0 0 0
128 0 0 0 0 0
129 0 0 0 0 0
130 0 0 0 0 0
131 0 0 0 0 0
132 0 0 0 0 0
133 0 4 0 4 0
134 0 0 1 1 1991000
135 3 4 1 8 4695
136 1 2 2 5 1621
137 5 2 0 7 1210
138 0 0 0 0 0
139 1 0 0 1 60
140 0 0 4 4 427
141 19 1 32 52 155000
Note that a few of the industrial units did not provide a comprehensive list of fuel usage.
So, the total numbers for ward-wise coal usage could change based on a complete
inventory by the Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority.
Appendix 4B
APPENDIX 4F AIR QUALITY DATABASE FROM WEST BENGAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD (March 2000 to April 2001)
RESPIRATORY PARTICULATE MATTER (RPM or PM10)
Station Mar-00 Apr-00 May-00 Jun-00 Jul-00 Aug-00 Sep-00 Oct-OO Nov-00 Dec-00 Jan-01 Feb-01 Mar-01 Apr-01
Baishnabghata 61.9 43.6 51.4 32.7 22.7 28.3 46.7 41.6 115.8 225.9 242 188 106 50
Behala 159 63.23 58.91 46.54 56.76 44.08 59.7 71.92 134.09 238.93 101 67
Chowrasta 271 211
Belaghata 132 84 86.7 56.6 47.4 45.8 58.3 82.2 171.4 237.7 256 200 118 68
Bondel gate 144 88.7 70.8 55.9 48.9 49.8 54.4 75.6 150.5 242.3 231 203 120 72
College Street 103 56.4 70.5 31.1 32.9 33.1 42.4 56.7 104.7 202.3 220 166 106 56
Cossipore NA NA NA 146.3 126.6 188.8 213.9 158.7 212.7 338.7 NA NA 168 102
Dunlop bridge 147 56.1 60.7 47.1 41.4 49.2 82.6 79.5 187.3 216.5 311 268 97 67
Paribesh 51.2 54.2 39.9 41.6 29.7 59.4 77.8 177.7 221 100 65
Bhavan NA 236 194
Garia 114 66.2 59.1 54.1 44.7 26.6 44.7 81.6 141.9 255.6 248 201 97 52
Hazra 92 49 49.7 43.4 49.1 43.8 49.8 54.9 143.2 213.1 NA NA NA NA
Howrah bridge 151 75.6 88.8 76 56 84 107.3 111.8 177.5 327 356 296 156 85
Hyde Road 147 75.2 57.6 49.1 36.7 39.4 51.5 64.6 149.5 221.5 253 213 134 69
Jadavpur 116 74.69 49.1 43.97 30.17 43.48 44.33 51.54 136.77 241.07 265 192 106 51
Kasba NA NA NA 57.8 26.9 57.8 121.5 75.8 144.3 338.7 NA NA 166 77
Lalbazar NA NA NA 94.6 64.3 105.5 127.4 108.7 135.1 266.4 NA NA 121 69
Minto Park 192 48.8 41.5 30.3 34.1 37.5 37.5 52 132.5 214.3 165 161 95 42
Mominpur 119 76.2 51 43 41.3 43.5 44.6 71.7 139.5 230.4 198 179 88 57
Moulali 128 61.3 63.3 47.7 34.6 46.6 58.8 79.3 151.1 239.8 277 184 110 58
Rajbhaban 47.9 50.1 47.7 41 52.9 63.7 81.5 110.3 184 250 180 110 61
Saltlake 98 44.7 38.5 28.6 25 32.7 39.9 47.4 86.9 190.2 166 172 110 57
Shyam bazar 109 54.8 57.2 34.6 35 36 44.1 56.7 165.8 225.8 200 231 126 54
Tapsia 126 75.1 64.6 55.2 33.6 52.4 60.5 62.5 150.8 236.9 271 212 100 63
Taratala 137 85.6 69.3 60.3 60.1 55.4 55.1 78.5 165 281.7 254 196 117 66
Tollygunge 108 49.1 43.8 39.1 38.1 42.2 57.6 66.4 138.4 252.9 286 221 85 51
Ultadanga 140 87.6 72.9 54.3 55.1 49.6 68 95.2 176.8 265.7 259 201 136 90
227
Appendix 4C
SPATIAL INTERPOLATION RESULTS
Ward-wise seasonal air pollution indices for PM10 (March 2000 to February 2001)
Ward Winter Monsoon Summer
Number 2000-01 2000 2000
1 200.511 118.844 103.674
2 200.808 115.051 103.132
3 198.096 97.3532 95.582
4 199.177 105.658 98.93
5 197.243 95.8361 94.2041
6 198.437 107.091 98.3726
7 196.435 97.7553 93.6659
8 195.545 94.8261 91.8322
9 194.784 93.4163 90.7026
10 195.317 90.9404 90.6411
11 194.997 87.7172 89.4691
12 195.824 90.5317 91.1835
13 195.786 86.5592 90.1386
14 194.259 79.0502 86.3939
15 194.074 81.0633 86.6852
16 193.865 82.3983 86.7524
17 193.996 85.406 87.6347
18 193.922 87.0713 87.9188
19 193.866 91.9665 89.7874
20 193.096 89.511 88.6204
21 191.443 87.0034 87.292
22 189.955 81.8365 84.5954
23 191.854 79.6715 83.4467
24 192.898 84.336 85.9172
25 192.364 79.5033 84.1028
26 193.05 82.1274 85.6241
27 192.914 78.2033 84.5209
28 192.314 73.0042 82.4769
29 190.63 68.6902 80.4864
30 190.897 66.9656 80.1825
31 193.153 66.4858 81.794
32 194.14 75.0362 85.1039
33 187.246 55.8901 73.6946
34 184.368 55.7737 74.5769
35 184.309 57.8737 74.8154
36 184.602 60.7026 75.3015
37 187.282 65.5019 77.3959
38 191.886 73.8352 82.1369
39 191.498 74.8428 81.8647
40 187.644 67.3189 77.834
41 191.715 77.6497 82.8024
228
42 189.882 76.4462 81.8933
43 189.247 72.1684 79.6847
44 186.457 67.4139 77.1661
45 181.381 66.9334 74.7519
46 179.666 62.3321 73.3658
47 181.873 62.6644 74.4376
48 183.484 62.6166 74.7824
49 183.681 61.4882 74.8095
50 182.834 61.386 74.5768
51 181.795 61.9041 74.4094
52 179.013 60.8504 73.4775
53 179.489 61.0199 73.5633
54 180.199 58.8866 73.4644
55 182.483 59.0574 74.341
56 182.674 57.3174 74.3406
57 186.573 58.0257 72.6622
58 189.007 58.8381 69.2275
59 183.206 57.1131 70.4839
60 178.667 56.4882 72.4985
61 178.371 57.5048 72.4889
62 178.62 59.916 73.0281
63 179.999 58.9506 74.6001
64 179.159 55.5155 71.1286
65 181.938 55.0842 70.409
66 185.406 55.8172 69.2832
67 188.657 52.4677 67.171
68 187.691 52.8474 70.1273
69 180.704 54.4267 71,9291
70 178.036 55.5323 72.3121
71 178.512 56.3703 72.1217
72 178.781 53.8702 71.19
73 178.88 54.8272 71.6599
74 177.877 53.8797 72.8107
75 178.598 58.275 75.1056
76 179.572 56.7077 74.8695
77 180.254 56.0328 74.6587
78 177.706 54.54 73.88
79 178.935 53.9582 74.5918
80 179.112 54.8727 76.2982
81 181.2 51.8061 72.0616
82 178.949 52.3703 72.4808
83 180.641 53.4022 72.4036
84 182.272 52.8578 71.5034
85 184.228 52.7199 69.4964
86 186.114 51.5787 68.9532
87 187.242 51.238 70.2523
88 180.898 51.7361 70.6673
229
89 187.115 50.8239 70.5484
90 188.494 50.8461 68.7349
91 188.362 51.4777 67.6941
92 188.789 50.3845 67.6012
93 187.94 50.3516 68.8943
94 187.55 50.2565 69.8723
95 187.993 49.7561 69.1101
96 188.61 49.462 67.8336
97 187.414 50.1868 70.4459
98 188.381 49.051 68.5163
99 188.982 48.7522 67.2406
100 189.122 48.143 67.0756
101 189.684 48.4165 65.8701
102 189.185 49.2932 66.7335
103 189.565 49.5561 66.0417
104 189.396 50.1532 66.0305
105 189.286 50.8747 67.0776
106 189.046 51.8224 65.6383
107 188.822 53.1772 66.4273
108 190.183 57.6926 66.2261
109 189.987 50.1756 63.9581
110 190.098 47.8846 65.0816
111 189.297 47.2408 66.8952
112 188.678 48.1917 68.1646
113 188.201 48.7489 69.292
114 187.686 49.6201 70.3903
115 187.001 50.7909 71.5625
116 184.649 51.9458 72.2247
117 182.955 51.7063 72.0798
118 178.371 52.4831 73.339
119 178.237 52.9777 74.1988
120 180.891 53.53 73.984
121 183.238 53.3972 73.2728
122 185.071 52.2917 72.4247
123 183.17 54.5758 73.7017
124 183.32 55.4749 73.9225
125 183.175 56.8387 75.4692
126 183.01 57.4532 76.3707
127 181.349 56.8099 78.2523
128 181.493 56.0126 76.9054
129 178.809 54.7239 77.1033
130 179.904 54.2435 75.3389
131 178.631 52.5693 75.4142
132 178.783 52.8438 74.929
133 179.108 56.8328 79.8887
134 179.001 58.1412 79.2908
135 178.986 58.405 80.7199
230
136 179.062 57.4805 81.7136
137 178.93 59.4032 82.9265
138 178.98 58.8024 84.6857
139 179.103 57.2439 83.8852
140 179.005 58.7327 86.1719
141 178.957 59.6061 86.4856
Ward-wise weekly air pollution indices for PM10 (December 1st to 30th 2000)
wards dec1-5 dec 6-10 dec10-15 dec16-20 dec 21-26 dec 27-30
0 230.373 255.445 258.527 233.417 245.745 214.315
1 272.042 255.445 260.5 233.417 246.167 204.5
2 270.051 255.445 259.369 233.417 246.167 204.5
3 262.792 255.445 261.214 236.112 246.068 205.738
4 266.586 255.445 258.652 233.417 246.167 204.5
5 262.366 255.441 259.851 234.277 246.104 205.276
6 267.527 255.445 260.5 233.417 246.167 204.5
7 263.309 255.444 260.5 233.417 246.167 204.5
8 261.714 255.444 260.5 233.417 246.167 204.5
9 260.69 255.444 260.5 233.417 246.167 204.5
10 259.867 255.444 260.5 233.417 246.167 204.5
11 258.25 255.444 258.31 233.417 246.167 204.5
12 259.795 254.98 258.417 233.996 246.167 204.5
13 257.832 255.509 260.75 235.385 245.952 207.179
14 253.884 255.445 259.809 236.355 245.834 208.667
15 254.739 255.444 258.083 233.417 246.119 206.599
16 255.253 255.444 258.083 233.417 246.167 204.5
17 256.722 255.444 260.246 233.417 246.167 204.5
18 257.423 255.444 260.5 233.417 246.167 204.5
19 259.486 255.444 260.5 233.417 246.167 204.5
20 257.944 255.444 260.5 233.417 246.167 204.5
21 255.855 255.444 260.434 233.417 246.167 204.5
22 252.684 255.444 259.696 234.495 246.167 204.5
23 252.493 255.444 260.5 233.417 246.167 204.5
24 255.449 255.444 260.5 233.417 246.167 204.5
25 252.895 255.444 260.097 233.417 246.167 204.5
26 254.614 255.444 260.164 233.417 246.167 204.5
27 252.727 255.444 258.083 233.417 246.411 206.359
28 250.123 255.444 258.083 233.417 246.058 209.554
29 248.67 255.444 258.083 235.104 245.833 208.667
30 247.979 255.444 264.428 238.583 245.833 208.667
31 247.045 255.445 274.084 238.583 245.833 208.667
32 251.908 255.561 272.067 238.584 245.834 208.667
33 241.426 255.445 274.083 238.584 245.834 208.667
34 241.063 255.324 270.822 238.583 245.833 208.667
35 244.525 255.439 265.38 238.467 245.833 208.667
36 244.513 255.445 257.382 233.896 245.833 208.667
37 247.072 255.444 258.083 233.417 247.483 215.192
38 250.004 255.444 258.083 233.417 247.16 212.193
231
39 250.05 255.432 259.292 233.411 246.167 204.5
40 247.083 254.613 258.083 233.028 247.626 215.608
41 251.491 255.444 260.5 233.417 246.167 204.5
42 249.917 255.444 260.233 233.425 246.167 204.5
43 248.581 255.444 259.216 233.417 246.167 204.5
44 246.832 255.022 256.317 233.219 246.696 208.529
45 244.026 255.445 251.905 233.417 245.965 204.945
46 238.019 255.445 250.274 233.416 246.982 212.369
47 242.998 255.444 249.583 233.417 247.667 215.917
48 244.121 255.444 251.545 233.417 247.667 215.917
49 244.464 255.444 255.427 233.417 247.552 215.464
50 241.488 255.444 249.583 233.415 247.667 215.917
51 241.473 255.444 249.583 233.417 247.667 215.917
52 237.085 255.444 249.583 233.417 247.667 215.917
53 239.062 255.444 249.583 233.417 247.667 215.917
54 233.151 255.444 252.514 233.408 245.923 209.02
55 238.613 255.445 253.593 234.018 245.869 208.809
56 237.536 255.444 263.269 238.583 245.833 208.667
57 237.135 255.445 263.14 239.216 247.197 208.567
58 227.433 255.442 260.97 240.772 248.157 209.974
59 224.937 255.445 265.867 239.806 247.234 214.681
60 227.135 255.444 263.092 233.417 246.812 213.721
61 227.171 255.444 260.939 233.417 247.999 219.506
62 229.17 255.444 249.583 233.417 247.667 215.917
63 226.944 255.479 257.629 233.399 246.983 222.3
64 225.334 255.445 263.333 235.053 247.14 226.239
65 224.513 255.444 258.997 241.221 245.665 224.605
66 222.227 255.43 261.009 241.308 247.323 216.626
67 220.598 255.422 258.042 241.333 244.83 220.701
68 219.39 255.445 260.569 235.676 243.098 223.904
69 222.908 255.458 257.045 231.9 245.335 226.025
70 226.108 255.468 254.226 233.404 246.833 226.917
71 222.71 255.445 258.49 233.417 246.875 225.697
72 220.341 255.064 253.761 229.521 240.765 226.859
73 217.919 255.363 252.093 230.307 239.559 226.002
74 218.615 255.479 255.394 230.898 240.162 225.783
75 228.096 255.445 259.756 233.417 246.974 224.711
76 225.157 255.444 259.006 233.417 246.833 228.417
77 222.832 255.488 260.877 233.417 246.833 228.417
78 219.99 255.491 257.961 232.444 247.392 233.041
79 218.544 255.452 256.82 231.093 246.293 232.227
80 220.759 255.501 257.443 231.736 247.381 232.163
81 211.406 255.55 256.497 229.584 245.878 233.697
82 212.822 255.445 254.262 229.583 242.753 230.955
83 213.891 255.411 260.168 229.578 240.467 227.913
84 210.983 255.016 263.804 229.514 240.92 229.397
85 212.354 255.444 262.338 229.583 242.775 229.777
232
86 214.592 255.445 261.537 229.584 245.565 231.281
87 213.148 255.445 261.676 229.583 248.969 236.171
88 212.55 255.444 260.85 229.583 245.782 234.022
89 212.473 255.444 258.835 229.583 250.25 236.917
90 215.251 255.445 259.993 229.943 250.231 233.962
91 219.095 255.445 257.115 238.422 250.584 231.25
92 214.893 255.445 258.934 229.606 250.392 234.503
93 213.04 255.445 258.768 229.588 250.25 236.917
94 212.175 255.445 258.75 229.589 250.25 236.917
95 212.004 255.445 258.75 229.584 250.25 236.916
96 214.041 255.445 258.75 229.592 250.25 236.916
97 211.055 255.445 258.75 229.585 250.199 236.964
98 212.752 255.445 258.75 229.584 250.25 236.916
99 215.157 255.445 258.75 229.583 250.25 236.917
100 215.509 255.445 258.75 229.584 250.25 236.916
101 217.848 255.445 258.75 229.583 250.25 236.917
102 216.254 255.445 258.75 229.615 250.25 236.917
103 217.628 255.445 258.836 229.583 250.268 236.618
104 217.356 255.445 259.709 233.118 250.415 234.106
105 217.99 255.444 258.848 236.395 250.583 231.25
106 220.745 255.445 259.427 241.273 250.583 231.25
107 221.525 255.445 257.889 241.333 247.305 219.268
108 222.602 255.442 258.448 241.332 248.929 219.022
109 221.428 255.444 261.268 238.507 250.446 233.959
110 219.336 255.445 258.75 229.672 250.25 236.917
111 216.071 255.445 258.75 229.583 250.25 236.917
112 213.656 255.445 258.75 229.584 250.25 236.916
113 212.191 255.445 258.75 229.583 250.25 236.917
114 210.878 255.445 258.75 229.583 249.807 237.328
115 209.631 255.445 258.75 229.583 249.096 237.989
116 209.684 255.445 254.386 229.584 249.264 237.833
117 210.303 255.444 253.77 229.583 248.758 237.168
118 209.473 255.455 251.873 229.584 245.578 234.372
119 209.282 256.153 252.793 229.583 244.64 233.401
120 208.317 255.444 249.333 229.583 249.083 238
121 208.391 255.445 251.118 229.574 249.083 238
122 208.693 255.445 254.392 229.583 249.083 238
123 207.674 255.445 249.934 229.572 249.083 238
124 207.604 255.445 249.333 229.583 249.083 238
125 207.135 255.445 249.333 229.583 249.083 238
126 206.98 255.445 249.334 229.583 249.084 238
127 207.551 255.445 249.413 229.583 249.012 237.927
128 207.397 255.445 249.333 229.57 249.083 238
129 208.135 255.445 250.092 229.583 247.844 236.717
130 207.87 255.445 249.487 229.583 248.841 237.749
131 210.204 255.445 253.717 229.583 246.002 234.539
132 210.562 255.445 254.204 229.583 245.204 233.828
233
133 225.261 255.445 258.75 233.416 246.834 228.416
134 228.026 255.445 258.75 233.417 246.833 228.417
135 228.907 255.444 258.75 233.301 246.833 228.417
136 227.176 255.445 258.75 233.324 246.834 228.416
137 231.456 255.445 258.75 233.417 246.833 228.417
138 230.777 255.444 258.75 233.417 246.833 228.417
139 227.324 255.445 258.75 233.417 246.833 228.417
140 231.048 255.445 258.75 233.416 246.405 227.818
141 232.682 255.445 258.75 233.416 243.637 223.951
234
Appendix 5A
ERROR ESTIMATION IN WARD-WISE LANDUSE CATEGORIZATION : 2001
DIGITIZED EACH WARD SEPARATELY FOR ERROR ESTIMATION

Wards park and commercial- residential utilities commercial industrial transport agriculture educational TOTAL
open space residential and
storage
11 53.2715665 38.443331 8.28510216 100
16 8.65910606 76.068044 7.61678397 7.656066 100
36 3.509799 7.66878401 23.50433 8.714996 11.92796 44.67414 100
51 9.114617 22.6873792 68.198004 100
57 42.15694 4.44142754 35.405772 3.044261 2.73567029 12.21593 100
129 21.82602 66.881029 1.681354 0.24147781 0.147703 8.91634693 0.306072951 100
131 10.49521 83.806849 1.0711316 2.229085 1.11294412 1.284777478 100
133 4.680977 4.42111277 88.476587 0.663881 1.75744195
DIGITIZATION FROM PAPER COPY LANDUSE MAP

11 56.25 34.375 9.375 100
16 0 87.5 6.25 6.25 100
36 1.03093 5.15464 23.7113 6.18557 1.03093 15.4639 47.4227 99.99997
51 8.82353 23.5294 67.6471 100
57 42.6877 5.5336 28.8538 1.58103 3.95257 17.3913 0 0 0 100
129 26.6304 0 60.3261 2.17391 0 0.543478 0 10.3261 0 99.99999
131 10.2857 0 82.2857 0 0.571429 5.14286 0 1.14286 0.571429 99.99998
133 0 0 0 6.45161 8.06452 64.5161 20.9677 0 0 99.99993
235
Appendix 6A
WARD-WISE VEHICULAR POLLUTION INDEX (NITROUS OXIDES) IN KG/Sq.KM per DAY
Ward Motorcycle Cars Trucks TaxiCabs Auto-Rickshaw Buses SumOfAIIVe
Num hides
ber
0 431.08964 7885.893 340809.8 2638.106 1.688883589 79439.59 986158.7733
1 106.21503 6989.127 21827.71 918.8894 558.2240771 58321.15 132756.3226
2 112.86529 6429.427 17157.37 960.3683 372.9663385 46317.09 132869.5757
3 211.74868 5928.009 90172.56 1599.32 74.4054031 50044.1 209925.7606
4 209.59579 8301.086 23892.16 1987.66 520.9824091 63262.8 98718.83326
5 357.65704 6777.261 56569.08 2565.091 676.3767973 72377.48 196232.0064
6 221.17083 8094.053 25556.52 1363.076 650.9667761 70811.04 171654.5961
7 647.80496 11181.6 242004.6 3301.026 546.8090817 49636.24 182572.7483
8 479.08839 7034.679 179387.7 1743.17 506.8200124 49705.71 115698.6724
9 596.77734 5916.025 198027.6 1782.851 4161.745253 22075.14 104557.0179
10 599.66403 8919.511 69284.92 3089.028 3281.201252 125461.3 96172.81524
11 768.3839 11694.91 2931.938 4354.888 9114.219561 270693 96807.65445
12 1031.2139 14079.41 61180.14 5815.154 5945.935604 248967.4 193315.3187
13 762.00983 11455.68 31444.64 4853.379 5480.660494 58389.63 94577.68868
14 470.89469 9599.152 0 3122.397 2226.614597 20500.12 36617.40459
15 812.16041 12160.45 1098.781 4738.522 5848.581776 145322.5 100123.5484
16 340.46166 5989.632 960.9854 2267.469 4340.129069 100461.7 38485.56293
17 456.48805 7096.013 42204.3 2214.637 4711.097482 77046.75 50632.74143
18 1365.5058 9011.17 153455 3110.445 7612.835298 68836.43 58491.28712
19 1069.1496 5980.626 317781.2 1737.752 9901.432012 48662.33 126216.7448
20 1286.7913 10157.34 291222.3 3518.242 11205.35606 62889.26 131257.349
21 552.07343 9338.447 244315.8 3181.693 2733.898811 50495 113904.7136
22 614.31439 12143.12 381271.4 3646.773 1019.301143 357810.3 345701.413
23 955.22968 12971.01 20436.36 4588.295 4191.412785 87778.53 18949.7945
24 1233.686 8799.205 13808.14 4003.983 3779.03255 66120.8 20894.03392
25 1021.7713 15095.96 71030.03 4801.759 4915.492886 137362.5 96184.91764
26 888.65876 12351.48 66370.17 4216.502 4261.673483 92984.21 67205.76088
27 882.61627 16212.63 22841.31 4803.026 4963.903445 271185 138866.4589
28 902.51838 13226.13 666.2887 4832.975 3819.916519 150365.9 84507.46214
29 651.35533 9526.266 0 3972.403 3266.12585 40355.77 29283.46286
30 550.61438 7627.629 3254.049 3555.348 3389.120127 66202.66 51034.52707
31 448.54058 8045.065 50525.41 2785.782 3947.881083 63811.59 133072.5224
32 1450.8934 19220.79 104302.7 6961.641 6395.304888 133301.1 328412.9447
33 419.45055 9135.652 44130.33 2889.6 3381.475545 62192.88 155172.2969
34 495.86082 9575.171 1392.98 4001.977 3696.575397 84782.42 97676.60019
35 367.34125 5979.05 0 2578.401 1926.550015 31909.39 30093.72263
36 680.06737 10712.02 966.143 4381.306 3254.700592 210720 226785.6799
37 546.34345 10326.74 46119.63 3077.749 1455.168593 226351.9 92243.80615
38 576.0342 11029.06 0 3096.742 819.8720322 148423.4 82543.53829
39 1027.0802 18403.28 155209.4 5695.44 1374.49143 243537.5 88865.34938
236
40 836.8274 14742.96 127544.1 3371.986 1510.773187 276670.1 159165.4358
41 694.1687 10791.47 57819.4 3503.237 0 99872.6 29029.85843
42 1409.6383 23943.84 213892.9 7696.613 1878.2587 388775.3 178961.2124
43 1101.0362 19312.47 136260.1 5233.625 1006.229231 165850.4 101514.8747
44 753.22869 13816.97 128342.9 5324.96 1086.553759 223635.3 195358.6889
45 802.54394 17079.42 344527 6750.059 150.8840102 513672 1591467.985
46 1112.7195 22100.05 80613.12 9734.657 1351.580955 375847 647049.3761
47 978.07554 17650.73 106395.8 7981.896 1188.58341 280955.3 178943.4344
48 699.49687 12279.7 113694.5 5395.171 0 217030.1 91400.69738
49 828.47171 14726.9 146966.5 4576.992 2139.198932 373683.6 169616.6962
50 901.17459 16643.15 28807.39 7569.14 652.8265805 314621.3 122035.255
51 733.54395 13875.77 8447.509 6450.824 238.4767475 226306.8 86529.72808
52 1092.3711 28722.16 0 11768.49 6154.819894 233513.1 66439.09183
53 665.7174 17379.57 0 7174.788 541.0674213 165084.1 66349.90932
54 517.7675 11667.2 0 6280.569 90.78156628 93747 44915.67548
55 492.55844 8809.395 977.1373 4268.209 3044.597585 180400.3 191751.01
56 283.22474 5635.003 0 2166.758 1656.080432 46617.26 38916.80143
57 308.93795 5866.119 28713.23 1779.514 919.0293299 20244.08 179416.042
58 158.72784 3715.525 14128.54 1548.47 354.9514817 8982.078 215088.1614
59 275.93304 6936.022 0 2291.158 2294.106642 23272.22 72580.32304
60 382.92865 8653.833 0 4157.06 372.7553304 68930.62 46855.51486
61 742.61773 63.84544 0 8145.871 3703.312962 83682.35 67965.03565
62 666.18551 66.89882 0 7491.215 4071.000208 39599.54 20974.31821
63 656.83345 51.83268 109659.9 6113.78 1348.355422 152746.9 1032069.366
64 748.2332 66.92187 0 9355.468 7218.766238 121001.1 124532.3833
65 507.10426 37.61424 0 4000.626 3341.492467 49843.32 78943.67987
66 270.27496 23.09982 24502.94 1747.162 1207.483672 26105.04 188211.9328
67 304.10978 27.59885 0 2466.792 2986.448445 22126.52 53199.67709
68 524.29871 45.20827 0 4601.342 5146.244004 97001.02 94657.34615
69 579.00685 40.23663 0 5093.531 991.7885643 81171.56 184891.6656
70 535.91782 38.9065 0 3641.62 187.2387632 115755.8 102373.2523
71 714.58964 50.62099 109170.6 5074.18 30.9890507 129341.1 251061.4466
72 431.19146 35.13726 3735.048 3982.99 989.6922235 90514.39 61577.18308
73 642.28236 56.1475 97911.65 5375.065 1291.881053 112165.7 113548.5549
74 498.77748 25.30086 115258.1 2350.271 1719.374564 75054.87 662564.7856
75 460.74483 19.16338 413375 2172.55 160.9145275 53229.65 452391.2497
76 227.50004 1734.069 239397.6 1284.775 170.4755091 27740.33 187105.4364
77 391.04621 3352.526 309894.8 2071.143 687.3909202 69240.07 204354.9471
78 589.01283 4390.246 50043.68 2442.942 696.8267587 43638.24 70700.19107
79 190.33896 1996.381 110504.5 771.9957 471.6328033 36721.93 449420.3979
80 223.36491 1145.211 167548.1 506.1877 777.6015353 21554.84 1897861.815
81 734.38541 10600.67 23474.24 2840.018 6660.431275 99857.59 179139.0372
82 596.57652 8523.81 9284.119 2326.694 6198.311163 30508.53 50875.26332
83 849.15358 18764.75 58441.76 6431.369 7272.226382 110567.1 95065.82829
84 701.12775 15929.74 15278.14 5846.018 4828.479716 145928.1 88779.70934
85 677.9079 16258.5 0 5427.673 5453.258794 71530.99 74035.87479
86 536.96675 13086.43 0 5046.571 5817.343306 112674.4 163907.126
87 653.22468 12886.63 10347.85 4611.325 4712.235052 97417.75 108515.5702
237
88 583.22427 10877.86 15499.65 3385.4 4424.713693 99944.87 62612.82367
89 266.7386 5559.43 5358.849 1653.236 3322.525724 77546.75 68369.98654
90 254.86676 6436.312 0 2444.381 2340.190491 68338.69 75219.732
91 172.42974 5208.45 0 1811.138 1428.725044 9537.847 20526.69615
92 322.813 6393.776 0 1913.402 2842.534584 59597.02 115198.6792
93 345.95682 7178.518 0 2409.5 2213.291405 52843.02 124286.625
94 335.21018 5609.681 0 1670.343 2036.885244 29965.59 71805.55823
95 389.00719 5497.565 0 1436.935 822.4129495 13021.88 19864.49384
96 362.15731 4221.37 0 1077.775 2355.586966 35886.24 52203.53014
97 401.44626 7347.854 0 1943.255 1665.556707 47645.56 123956.9356
98 346.10599 6549.607 0 1484.627 614.9118721 25448.11 43178.40245
99 217.17953 3093.882 0 818.8958 1401.952853 26982.58 31724.82492
100 275.66092 4913.313 0 1083.547 2529.172008 39261.1 67467.80352
101 217.15026 4657.996 31376.14 812.0586 1278.983853 19972.71 92241.80576
102 333.34339 5294.382 0 1210.859 3107.381585 46202.42 56624.72521
103 146.51754 2202.794 0 641.2341 0 12458.25 14900.99788
104 176.32406 3708.065 0 925.789 30.38556444 15812.58 24800.62436
105 162.38773 3138.405 0 763.0149 446.0574251 3642.751 5970.26958
106 225.81615 4903.644 14260.14 803.7421 212.099608 4426.467 49012.75366
107 288.97793 7804.677 40255.86 1765.757 1154.29263 28598.7 216591.5941
108 81.638506 1643.265 15405.13 436.1498 31.62168479 5249.411 211989.1426
109 125.56277 3217.894 34179.15 547.8773 0 10756.72 283721.9257
110 193.78791 5908.517 51554.22 891.2346 621.51037 23531.8 167332.0566
111 62.424136 2033.443 0 564.7764 152.8680653 3848.885 17978.29509
112 34.767866 1320.392 0 506.9541 60.01227845 2451.518 6104.230105
113 31.653529 894.1615 0 319.6062 16.8222605 591.897 3021.746704
114 48.420098 1125.299 0 267.1502 62.04123554 537.1877 4785.509427
115 348.84243 6839.314 0 1018.457 372.8620856 16828.47 25374.08299
116 160.31411 2972.081 0 907.0351 89.77409593 5650.843 11891.49847
117 234.96023 3577.773 0 1206.545 1897.852857 29535.32 27751.94314
118 225.84595 3404.666 0 989.9138 2475.433587 21797.49 33493.02294
119 590.44981 7845.207 85908.25 2182.953 8070.084178 95291.28 115827.7503
120 368.7906 5483.984 41575.28 1314.573 2431.586725 50994.65 73255.99224
121 285.95643 5021.323 22273.94 1315.705 455.1649183 29967.53 91894.50385
122 165.50677 3391.225 0 603.2674 98.02714126 3292.641 15673.9585
123 225.8153 3492.015 20984.92 897.7994 384.2853252 21082.93 84883.49382
124 199.87876 2830.937 20083.84 562.3133 46.78264256 12572.69 101426.4288
125 71.42672 925.7712 26406.99 241.1086 0 12612.31 93024.26603
126 100.84709 1658.652 21079.72 587.3742 23.77234728 24556.51 82948.87885
127 52.751339 1210.709 0 496.5648 0 6150.909 20793.52197
128 76.131755 1408.9 16226.4 559.4958 0 26239.33 59105.20846
129 23.53477 500.4586 0 204.1399 0 0 1334.440306
130 189.40034 2535.615 41387.45 815.3342 900.05624 54502.43 96589.10121
131 109.78822 1260.093 28666.13 435.3945 1238.876191 19451.26 88984.94387
132 132.6374 1407.998 27337.19 428.5809 1806.262091 38005.7 62225.17292
133 176.65163 814.4259 57059.89 332.6956 567.5597343 3142.79 38269.56641
134 72.639251 334.0225 143398.3 135.8569 315.5134628 10979.69 54446.55913
135 224.58163 1044.119 239815 423.3703 1570.316636 18463.58 274657.0911
238
136 201.2156 929.3024 19158.4 377.9349 2105.634494 6764.175 30964.96444
137 187.24587 871.8338 209623.1 351.2338 558.137058 4827.219 275749.4137
138 181.96906 840.9124 79965.6 342.5643 1313.30827 1996.249 53467.90468
139 86.927695 400.0151 0 161.3912 487.6800488 8909.491 17208.51806
140 287.42128 1323.843 14900.74 540.2103 286.5000077 154.0673 23647.87873
141 200.93072 931.3545 29757.78 376.8659 224.8987465 0 63981.31063
WARD-WISE VEHICULAR POLLUTION INDEX (PARTICULATE MATTER) IN KG/Sq.KM

per DAY
WardNumber Motorcycle Cars Trucks TaxiCabs Auto-Rickshaw Buses Sum OfAll
Vehicles
0 524.56 1,013.07 55,811.14 3,275.75 2.02 13,016.11 73,642.64
1 128.94 894.79 3,592.93 1,136.54 679.78 9,560.78 15,993.76
2 138.30 820.61 2,799.66 1,195.12 451.08 7,590.02 12,994.80
3 259.42 752.04 14,664.51 1,978.84 89.77 8,120.03 25,864.61
4 255.98 1,062.37 3,889.79 2,457.95 633.28 10,234.44 18,533.82
5 438.48 864.52 9,221.42 3,193.85 818.35 11,822.09 26,358.72
6 272.13 1,029.87 4,178.06 1,689.54 792.25 11,526.16 19,488.01
7 790.89 1,434.10 39,679.95 4,115.19 667.15 8,104.26 54,791.53
8 586.15 902.48 29,156.98 2,164.37 617.33 8,146.48 41,573.79
9 726.82 757.42 32,329.46 2,203.61 5,056.76 3,599.61 44,673.69
10 732.90 1,133.96 11,384.26 3,844.69 3,977.55 20,276.78 41,350.14
11 945.75 1,497.31 482.01 5,402.92 11,132.30 44,113.03 63,573.33
12 1,260.43 1,813.11 9,993.74 7,253.43 7,236.93 40,514.10 68,071.73
13 934.62 1,454.02 5,137.61 6,019.41 6,663.37 9,491.20 29,700.25
14 572.00 1,228.80 0.00 3,893.35 2,729.95 3,349.04 11,773.14
15 995.44 1,553.61 179.35 5,855.51 7,172.30 23,659.38 39,415.59
16 415.96 769.41 157.55 2,804.72 5,286.20 16,478.45 25,912.29
17 560.50 911.08 6,908.60 2,756.90 5,736.52 12,575.53 29,449.13
18 1,666.36 1,149.47 25,026.76 3,847.26 9,245.30 11,322.92 52,258.06
19 1,306.15 759.25 52,090.23 2,147.68 12,034.88 8,007.96 76,346.15
20 1,577.36 1,298.86 47,363.29 4,380.36 13,685.25 10,346.05 78,651.18
21 675.52 1,194.40 39,976.78 3,962.19 3,317.96 8,347.64 57,474.48
22 749.52 1,546.06 62,052.57 4,524.02 1,246.35 57,802.75 127,921.2
8
23 1,167.93 1,645.48 3,341.63 5,699.98 5,122.07 14,329.79 31,306.88
24 1,509.19 1,128.24 2,259.97 4,974.62 4,589.95 10,856.17 25,318.15
25 1,244.99 1,919.23 11,574.42 5,984.03 5,988.32 22,363.69 49,074.69
26 1,083.08 1,586.66 10,850.34 5,245.61 5,207.71 15,140.57 39,113.97
27 1,082.69 2,068.86 3,752.35 5,953.29 6,071.02 43,999.92 62,928.13
28 1,100.14 1,695.68 109.63 5,987.42 4,678.01 24,269.26 37,840.14
29 793.40 1,214.37 0.00 4,913.37 3,988.72 6,618.29 17,528.14
30 678.33 981.16 530.93 4,406.02 4,150.69 10,763.01 21,510.14
31 547.97 1,025.50 8,316.55 3,437.15 4,844.18 10,357.45 28,528.80
32 1,769.16 2,448.10 16,981.53 8,658.33 7,800.63 21,850.14 59,507.89
239
33 512.87 1,157.95 7,226.90 3,589.93 4,112.79 10,053.74 26,654.18
34 607.66 1,222.30 227.07 4,955.46 4,516.58 13,988.27 25,517.34
35 448.45 765.66 0.00 3,212.46 2,361.76 5,244.93 12,033.26
36 831.32 1,373.08 157.43 5,394.50 3,970.77 34,185.38 45,912.49
37 666.40 1,319.99 7,578.83 3,798.25 1,762.28 36,758.31 51,884.06
38 708.46 1,412.77 0.00 3,848.87 983.15 24,159.14 31,112.39
39 1,262.59 2,342.96 25,060.93 7,039.31 1,659.48 39,722.48 77,087.76
40 1,022.91 1,890.87 21,085.64 4,191.33 1,826.45 45,109.95 75,127.14
41 847.79 1,381.15 9,480.11 4,336.57 0.00 16,357.85 32,403.47
42 1,718.10 3,060.25 34,681.29 9,528.52 2,277.59 63,492.60 114,758.3
4
43 1,352.54 2,466.34 22,053.22 6,485.71 1,211.62 27,317.21 60,886.64
44 921.72 1,757.65 20,790.09 6,574.77 1,309.95 36,622.83 67,977.01
45 972.24 2,193.00 56,437.09 8,405.78 183.65 84,132.19 152,323.9
5
46 1,358.97 2,809.91 13,170.42 12,118.73 1,643.10 61,325.70 92,426.84
47 1,196.27 2,255.34 17,394.60 9,934.91 1,442.07 45,970.91 78,194.10
48 851.65 1,571.29 18,519.88 6,674.58 0.00 35,397.85 63,015.25
49 1,017.39 1,870.17 24,005.68 5,676.45 2,581.79 61,604.46 96,755.94
50 1,106.73 2,124.61 4,730.79 9,394.89 789.66 51,137.80 69,284.47
51 898.62 1,778.86 1,387.98 7,982.82 288.52 37,271.53 49,608.33
52 1,337.28 3,679.54 0.00 14,674.94 7,522.19 38,129.16 65,343.11
53 816.33 2,225.43 0.00 8,948.27 655.13 26,950.52 39,595.69
54 632.73 1,486.69 0.00 7,818.19 110.84 15,247.20 25,295.65
55 605.98 1,127.63 159.92 5,306.40 3,740.10 29,312.53 40,252.56
56 346.80 718.94 0.00 2,703.53 2,028.68 7,627.93 13,425.89
57 377.40 754.06 4,722.28 2,217.30 1,118.49 3,289.34 12,478.88
58 194.86 474.27 2,298.05 1,921.23 431.64 1,468.38 6,788.44
59 335.17 891.99 0.00 2,852.66 2,772.77 3,821.83 10,674.42
60 465.83 1,110.98 0.00 5,158.05 456.81 11,178.13 18,369.80
61 909.07 2,274.65 0.00 10,117.18 4,519.95 13,589.34 31,410.20
62 818.55 2,391.48 0.00 9,337.79 4,975.63 6,469.24 23,992.70
63 806.13 1,844.47 17,828.40 7,598.35 1,650.42 24,976.05 54,703.81
64 914.50 2,400.05 0.00 11,664.73 8,841.46 19,688.87 43,509.60
65 619.24 1,339.44 0.00 4,958.81 4,049.25 8,096.02 19,062.76
66 329.71 824.54 4,031.69 2,172.69 1,473.62 4,267.32 13,099.57
67 371.38 972.59 0.00 3,042.99 3,642.96 3,616.79 11,646.70
68 641.10 1,604.03 0.00 5,732.26 6,242.06 15,760.37 29,979.81
69 710.27 1,432.99 0.00 6,331.91 1,209.71 13,277.74 22,962.61
70 652.24 1,379.34 0.00 4,498.67 227.19 18,842.67 25,600.12
71 879.12 1,794.83 17,769.78 6,300.64 37.56 20,951.70 47,733.63
72 525.64 1,251.34 600.29 4,894.55 1,194.10 14,824.60 23,290.53
73 787.28 2,010.25 15,996.52 6,679.57 1,569.72 18,321.62 45,364.95
74 613.80 901.92 18,821.30 2,915.40 2,092.48 12,321.45 37,666.35
75 565.99 680.84 67,326.08 2,697.96 194.52 8,651.75 80,117.13
76 277.12 220.99 39,010.36 1,588.84 206.97 4,562.32 45,866.59
77 478.02 428.24 50,642.44 2,571.99 837.17 11,266.81 66,224.69
78 717.63 564.79 8,123.27 3,022.63 848.90 7,095.14 20,372.35
240
79 233.20 252.74 18,014.65 959.42 571.89 6,006.94 26,038.84
80 272.22 147.51 27,536.41 622.97 951.49 3,493.62 33,024.22
81 900.81 1,348.60 3,810.82 3,529.09 8,111.02 16,286.95 33,987.29
82 727.80 1,080.85 1,523.19 2,912.92 7,559.34 4,965.26 18,769.36
83 1,039.52 2,398.36 9,569.42 7,968.64 8,860.23 18,289.97 48,126.14
84 853.90 2,037.43 2,505.92 7,259.00 5,903.02 23,927.80 42,487.06
85 837.70 2,076.05 0.00 6,732.10 6,642.38 11,757.21 28,045.45
86 653.39 1,668.86 0.00 6,275.72 7,097.79 18,373.19 34,068.95
87 801.75 1,665.17 1,691.41 5,736.54 5,742.81 15,787.98 31,425.67
88 716.61 1,393.55 2,547.77 4,192.11 5,399.51 16,273.98 30,523.53
89 326.48 710.28 882.68 2,065.21 4,062.46 12,642.09 20,689.20
90 311.80 823.33 0.00 3,027.33 2,860.43 11,149.90 18,172.79
91 209.25 667.88 0.00 2,257.76 1,732.28 1,556.01 6,423.18
92 394.76 815.89 0.00 2,373.47 3,480.47 9,755.10 16,819.69
93 423.34 923.34 0.00 2,991.81 2,705.30 8,543.41 15,587.21
94 409.49 715.39 0.00 2,074.53 2,487.82 4,857.18 10,544.42
95 475.49 705.86 0.00 1,780.14 989.49 2,129.42 6,080.39
96 442.83 543.60 0.00 1,322.17 2,875.34 5,877.05 11,060.98
97 489.88 940.88 0.00 2,419.64 2,043.64 7,828.74 13,722.77
98 423.31 835.19 0.00 1,834.42 736.93 4,184.65 8,014.50
99 264.74 394.61 0.00 1,013.08 1,714.24 4,452.66 7,839.33
100 336.34 627.59 0.00 1,346.38 3,075.94 6,446.14 11,832.39
101 265.03 598.94 5,096.01 1,003.02 1,558.98 3,289.31 11,811.29
102 405.50 669.43 0.00 1,502.76 3,774.48 7,539.23 13,891.41
103 179.35 283.58 0.00 791.89 0.00 2,056.39 3,311.20
104 215.16 478.64 0.00 1,144.56 36.59 2,585.51 4,460.46
105 200.64 398.59 0.00 945.83 536.80 593.85 2,675.72
106 276.28 627.48 2,330.68 988.19 256.85 723.51 5,202.99
107 350.80 994.91 6,557.38 2,190.36 1,401.97 4,661.80 16,157.22
108 99.80 209.17 2,504.61 539.76 38.43 858.32 4,250.09
109 152.73 414.00 5,577.31 678.18 0.00 1,751.16 8,573.39
110 234.96 760.27 8,426.45 1,094.36 755.46 3,881.76 15,153.25
111 75.47 262.55 0.00 695.36 185.25 634.27 1,852.90
112 41.69 169.01 0.00 628.43 72.39 400.21 1,311.73
113 38.41 114.85 0.00 394.64 20.29 96.17 664.36
114 58.62 143.45 0.00 329.49 75.58 88.16 695.30
115 429.47 876.82 0.00 1,262.18 453.58 2,760.96 5,783.00
116 197.74 378.61 0.00 1,122.78 109.64 924.53 2,733.31
117 286.05 459.34 0.00 1,485.70 2,323.86 4,892.47 9,447.41
118 276.35 432.65 0.00 1,229.65 3,013.67 3,528.18 8,480.50
119 719.03 1,000.75 14,069.47 2,705.13 9,799.97 15,513.79 43,808.15
120 452.12 700.76 6,793.23 1,631.68 2,959.08 8,257.28 20,794.15
121 349.26 646.39 3,684.91 1,634.18 549.50 4,921.78 11,786.02
122 202.47 430.08 0.00 743.07 119.47 534.92 2,030.01
123 277.01 450.33 3,444.87 1,115.14 471.19 3,441.43 9,199.97
124 243.80 358.98 3,270.73 692.24 56.77 2,076.39 6,698.91
125 88.07 118.08 4,320.76 298.42 0.00 2,073.48 6,898.82
126 122.43 211.32 3,452.23 722.20 28.58 4,025.87 8,562.62
241
127 64.39 155.88 0.00 604.79 0.00 1,016.00 1,841.07
128 92.79 180.12 2,656.81 684.61 0.00 4,261.92 7,876.24
129 28.37 64.16 0.00 245.08 0.00 0.00 337.61
130 231.65 324.70 6,736.42 1,006.23 1,096.94 8,861.14 18,257.08
131 133.97 161.46 4,666.71 532.41 1,508.30 3,166.06 10,168.91
132 161.05 178.65 4,489.72 518.54 2,193.64 6,249.95 13,791.56
133 216.29 104.55 9,341.18 402.23 689.34 518.11 11,271.70
134 89.07 43.17 23,350.15 161.64 378.91 1,811.11 25,834.06
135 273.78 133.38 39,587.82 512.04 1,918.47 3,038.67 45,464.16
136 246.02 119.27 3,128.24 459.98 2,545.60 1,092.73 7,591.86
137 228.95 111.78 34,311.30 424.80 680.05 788.86 36,545.74
138 221.85 108.11 13,042.63 417.91 1,588.14 325.15 15,703.79
139 106.88 52.13 0.00 193.06 590.06 1,470.28 2,412.41
140 351.22 170.50 2,424.45 646.68 349.23 25.25 3,967.32
141 245.22 119.46 4,854.78 457.18 271.16 0.00 5,947.80
Appendix 6B
INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION INDEX IN grams/day/ km2
WardNumb FyAsh qram/km2 Soot_gram/km2 S02_gram/km2
1 331.698 6.848 808.595
2 2791.979 57.514 6798.512
3 268.797 5.547 653.946
4 10875.790 224.768 26479.330
5 1144.262 23.616 2789.446
6 865.847 17.867 2107.256
7 647.055 13.315 1572.611
8 0.000 0.000 0.000
9 17364.167 358.328 42271.639
10 852.130 17.567 2074.716
11 0.000 0.000 0.000
12 26783.923 552.171 65225.757
13 15374.493 317.037 37403.854
14 34808.344 717.236 84604.045
15 11331.464 233.480 27567.034
16 161.182 3.329 392.566
17 188.111 3.874 457.690
18 2013.943 41.534 4902.863
19 1650.564 34.046 4018.914
20 479.699 9.900 1166.939
21 0.000 0.000 0.000
22 9.298 0.192 22.677
23 271.399 5.596 659.676
24 0.000 0.000 0.000
25 57.620 1.188 140.020
26 65.055 1.344 158.439
27 0.000 0.000 0.000
28 28.565 0.589 69.580
29 707.158 14.576 1721.886
30 50.906 1.050 123.805
31 31625.656 651.723 76857.100
32 3854.949 79.476 9377.987
33 6010.030 124.127 14637.011
34 2857.640 59.049 6966.975
35 496.462 10.221 1207.305
36 981.245 20.227 2389.252
37 21.470 0.443 52.202
38 0.000 0.000 0.000
39 2343.071 48.267 5697.678
40 19.323 0.399 47.034
41 0.000 0.000 0.000
42 83.999 1.734 204.129
243
43 0.000 0.000 0.000
44 635.613 13.096 1549.523
45 0.000 0.000 0.000
46 0.000 0.000 0.000
47 587.325 12.101 1427.777
48 306.681 6.321 746.748
49 0.000 0.000 0.000
50 7.297 0.150 17.759
51 4640.447 95.882 11298.690
52 0.000 0.000 0.000
53 0.000 0.000 0.000
54 0.000 0.000 0.000
55 0.000 0.000 0.000
56 685.515 14.150 1670.367
57 20068.273 413.228 48846.202
58 9621.845 198.686 23392.577
59 5470.986 112.916 13328.364
60 0.000 0.000 0.000
61 0.000 0.000 0.000
62 0.000 0.000 0.000
63 0.000 0.000 0.000
64 6.698 6.696 6.700
65 0.000 0.000 0.000
66 16958.794 16953.368 16966.640
67 10131.032 10131.886 10127.069
68 113736.763 113840.062 113816.338
69 2.896 2.896 2.895
70 1787.764 1787.601 1789.113
71 123.525 123.470 123.519
72 0.000 0.000 0.000
73 0.000 0.000 0.000
74 0.000 0.000 0.000
75 0.000 0.000 0.000
76 0.000 0.000 0.000
77 0.000 0.000 0,000
78 0.000 0.000 0.000
79 714.133 714.046 714.087
80 34218.240 34194.471 34224.610
81 22734.156 22725.060 22706.418
82 3.371 3.370 3.371
83 0.000 0.000 0.000
84 0.000 0.000 0.000
85 0.000 0.000 0.000
86 113.358 113.253 113.267
87 0.000 0.000 0.000
88 2156.434 2155.388 2155.407
89 8325.749 8337.448 8328.372
244
90 0.000 0.000 0.000
91 2984.311 61.613 7258.254
92 0.000 0.000 0.000
93 0.000 0.000 0.000
94 871.087 17.946 2119.729
95 0.000 0.000 0.000
96 0.000 0.000 0.000
97 0.000 0.000 0.000
98 1082.361 22.262 2632.125
99 0.000 0.000 0.000
100 77.352 1.593 188.062
101 0.000 0.000 0.000
102 0.000 0.000 0.000
103 0.000 0.000 0.000
104 0.000 0.000 0.000
105 668.692 13.783 1626.928
106 487.304 10.045 1187.199
107 2767.902 57.075 6737.927
108 606.533 12.513 1476.283
109 19.825 0.409 48.254
110 0.000 0.000 0.000
111 0.000 0.000 0.000
112 734.587 15.069 1777.953
113 0.000 0.000 0.000
114 0.000 0.000 0.000
115 0.000 0.000 0.000
116 25050.038 515.805 60674.215
117 29884.612 612.519 72329.457
118 11928.091 244.715 28836.955
119 0.000 0.000 0.000
120 0.000 0.000 0.000
121 2715.788 55.739 6579.500
122 0.000 0.000 0.000
123 0.000 0.000 0.000
124 0.000 0.000 0.000
125 0.000 0.000 0.000
126 0.000 0.000 0.000
127 0.000 0.000 0.000
128 0.000 0.000 0.000
129 0.000 0.000 0.000
130 0.000 0.000 0.000
131 0.000 0.000 0.000
132 0.000 0.000 0.000
133 0.000 0.000 0.000
134 309917.735 6366.183 750982.435
135 1364.133 28.052 3301.919
136 150.383 3.081 363.770
245
137 1168.421 23.908 2828.935
138 0.000 0.000 0.000
139 70.320 1.444 170.304
140 43.293 0.888 104.847
141 16368.175 335.989 39637.148
Appendix 6C
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC INDEX OF POPULATION : 2001
Ward TotalPop SlmPop Liter Work BakPo N_SlmPop 1- NJJter N_Work N_BackPop 1- SUM INDEX
P N SlmPop N BackPop
1 49018 26728 37034 17045 3013 0.545269 0.4547309 0.75552 0.3477 0.061467216 0.938532784 2.496511 0.624128
2 47327 12366 40510 17672 1690 0.261288 0.7387115 0.85596 0.3734 0.035709003 0.964290997 2.932364 0.733091
3 53299 32869 41208 17324 1955 0.616691 0.3833093 0.77315 0.325 0.036679863 0.963320137 2.444811 0.611203
4 40121 17363 32558 16744 1673 0.432766 0.5672341 0.8115 0.4173 0.041698861 0.958301139 2.754368 0.688592
5 26117 8473 21217 8686 952 0.324425 0.6755753 0.81238 0.3326 0.036451354 0.963548646 2.784087 0.696022
6 48096 38910 31748 17131 3906 0.809007 0.190993 0.6601 0.3562 0.081212575 0.918787425 2.12606 0.531515
7 20226 7289 15860 8136 944 0.360378 0.6396223 0.78414 0.4023 0.0466726 0.9533274 2.779343 0.694836
8 21071 0 17440 8229 354 0 1 0.82768 0.3905 0.016800342 0.983199658 3.201414 0.800354
9 20374 8681 16224 8679 871 0.426082 0.5739177 0.79631 0.426 0.042750564 0.957249436 2.75346 0.688365
10 33807 4894 27577 14400 625 0.144763 0.8552371 0.81572 0.4259 0.018487296 0.981512704 3.078416 0.769604
11 26190 7586 20175 11308 3339 0.289653 0.7103475 0.77033 0.4318 0.127491409 0.872508591 2.784956 0.696239
12 28912 7572 21254 12729 1708 0.261898 0.7381018 0.73513 0.4403 0.059075816 0.940924184 2.85442 0.713605
13 31118 18845 22761 12679 799 0.605598 0.394402 0.73144 0.4074 0.025676457 0.974323543 2.507616 0.626904
14 49698 42464 39653 19459 936 0.854441 0.1455592 0.79788 0.3915 0.018833756 0.981166244 2.31615 0.579037
15 26709 14010 19144 11104 2435 0.524542 0.4754577 0.71676 0.4157 0.091167771 0.908832229 2.516792 0.629198
16 26665 7729 21933 10805 372 0.289856 0.7101444 0.82254 0.4052 0.013950872 0.986049128 2.923945 0.730986
17 24016 3928 20346 9217 203 0.163558 0.8364424 0.84719 0.3838 0.008452698 0.991547302 3.058961 0.76474
18 25508 3471 15783 9067 132 0.136075 0.863925 0.61875 0.3555 0.005174847 0.994825153 2.832954 0.708239
19 24479 12645 18829 10727 750 0.516565 0.4834348 0.76919 0.4382 0.030638506 0.969361494 2.660199 0.66505
20 20481 2668 14735 8425 403 0.130267 0.8697329 0.71945 0.4114 0.019676774 0.980323226 2.98086 0.745215
21 24629 7283 16672 13104 398 0.295708 0.7042917 0.67693 0.5321 0.016159812 0.983840188 2.897113 0.724278
22 20569 867 14898 8324 64 0.042151 0.9578492 0.72429 0.4047 0.003111478 0.996888522 3.083718 0.77093
23 21775 1164 17240 8962 706 0.053456 0.9465442 0.79173 0.4116 0.032422503 0.967577497 3.117428 0.779357
24 19520 5943 15092 8567 181 0.304457 0.695543 0.77316 0.4389 0.009272541 0.990727459 2.898309 0.724577
25 39160 3589 30654 16130 1399 0.09165 0.9083504 0.78279 0.4119 0.03572523 0.96427477 3.067314 0.766828
247
26 31400 6619 21915 13571 2127 0.210796 0.7892038 0.69793 0.4322 0.067738854 0.932261146 2.851592 0.712898
27 23089 5599 19387 8696 1092 0.242496 0.7575036 0.83966 0.3766 0.047295249 0.952704751 2.926502 0.731625
28 41775 25411 27743 16846 2065 0.608282 0.3917175 0.66411 0.4033 0.049431478 0.950568522 2.409647 0.602412
29 46887 46251 26673 16740 2276 0.986435 0.0135645 0.56888 0.357 0.04854224 0.95145776 1.890929 0.472732
30 28278 15962 22865 10281 2094 0.564467 0.4355329 0.80858 0.3636 0.074050499 0.925949501 2.53363 0.633408
31 36456 19627 28162 13758 2722 0.538375 0.461625 0.77249 0.3774 0.07466535 0.92533465 2.536839 0.63421
32 46081 17113 33741 17230 2019 0.371368 0.6286322 0.73221 0.3739 0.043814153 0.956185847 2.690936 0.672734
33 44230 19082 34972 15292 4608 0.431427 0.5685734 0.79069 0.3457 0.104182681 0.895817319 2.600814 0.650203
34 27808 15318 23580 9567 1558 0.550849 0.4491513 0.84796 0.344 0.056027043 0.943972957 2.585119 0.64628
35 31320 17385 25702 10624 1477 0.555077 0.4449234 0.82063 0.3392 0.047158365 0.952841635 2.557599 0.6394
36 22851 14527 11383 11772 804 0.635727 0.3642729 0.49814 0.5152 0.035184456 0.964815544 2.342392 0.585598
37 24004 8143 14623 11831 2825 0.339235 0.6607649 0.60919 0.4929 0.117688719 0.882311281 2.645142 0.661286
38 28083 8238 21314 12741 2699 0.293345 0.7066553 0.75896 0.4537 0.096107966 0.903892034 2.823203 0.705801
39 28255 13838 16066 11202 761 0.489754 0.510246 0.56861 0.3965 0.026933286 0.973066714 2.448381 0.612095
40 24384 3639 17975 11198 567 0.149237 0.8507628 0.73716 0.4592 0.023252953 0.976747047 3.023909 0.755977
41 25486 5022 15676 13102 123 0.197049 0.8029506 0.61508 0.5141 0.004826179 0.995173821 2.927293 0.731823
42 26077 0 20299 13356 1035 0 1 0.77843 0.5122 0.039690148 0.960309852 3.250911 0.812728
43 29647 4292 17023 16210 203 0.14477 0.8552299 0.57419 0.5468 0.006847236 0.993152764 2.969339 0.742335
44 33652 10464 21722 15091 289 0.310947 0.6890527 0.64549 0.4484 0.0085879 0.9914121 2.774397 0.693599
45 15360 0 9953 9125 511 0 1 0.64798 0.5941 0.033268229 0.966731771 3.208789 0.802197
46 22959 5308 16961 12191 1274 0.231195 0.7688053 0.73875 0.531 0.055490222 0.944509778 2.983057 0.745764
47 21218 0 14916 10305 1687 0 1 0.70299 0.4857 0.079507965 0.920492035 3.109153 0.777288
48 21856 5727 16478 8937 624 0.262033 0.7379667 0.75393 0.4089 0.028550512 0.971449488 2.872255 0.718064
49 20671 2867 11777 12916 1303 0.138697 0.8613033 0.56974 0.6248 0.06303517 0.93696483 2.99284 0.74821
50 18365 0 14863 7645 750 0 1 0.80931 0.4163 0.040838552 0.959161448 3.184754 0.796188
51 16272 3217 13790 6719 1028 0.197702 0.8022984 0.84747 0.4129 0.063176008 0.936823992 2.999508 0.749877
52 24672 6457 18294 12963 1384 0.261714 0.7382863 0.74149 0.5254 0.056095979 0.943904021 2.949092 0.737273
53 28910 3995 22172 12724 552 0.138187 0.8618125 0.76693 0.4401 0.019093739 0.980906261 3.049775 0.762444
54 40299 989 26740 13240 487 0.024542 0.9754584 0.66354 0.3285 0.012084667 0.987915333 2.955458 0.738864
55 35955 8786 25753 13770 3191 0.244361 0.755639 0.71626 0.383 0.088749826 0.911250174 2.766124 0.691531
56 43304 35851 27271 14495 1084 0.827891 0.1721088 0.62976 0.3347 0.02503233 0.97496767 2.11156 0.52789
57 45206 38756 29382 16212 5930 0.85732 0.1426802 0.64996 0.3586 0.131177277 0.868822723 2.020086 0.505021
248
58 86487 86605 47753 30823 23187 1.001364 -0.001364 0.55214 0.3564 0.268098096 0.731901904 1.639067 0.409767
59 66690 54922 40505 21957 948 0.823542 0.1764582 0.60736 0.3292 0.014215025 0.985784975 2.098845 0.524711
60 42585 10044 28262 14297 614 0.235858 0.7641423 0.66366 0.3357 0.014418222 0.985581778 2.749114 0.687278
61 34128 8295 24757 13905 721 0.243056 0.7569444 0.72542 0.4074 0.021126348 0.978873652 2.868671 0.717168
62 46640 8136 32120 19436 158 0.174443 0.8255575 0.68868 0.4167 0.00338765 0.99661235 2.927573 0.731893
63 32123 4182 25454 15058 616 0.130187 0.8698129 0.79239 0.4688 0.019176291 0.980823709 3.111789 0.777947
64 26891 14572 19503 9055 292 0.541891 0.4581087 0.72526 0.3367 0.010858652 0.989141348 2.509241 0.62731
65 80098 73810 52199 28471 4575 0.921496 0.0785038 0.65169 0.3555 0.057117531 0.942882469 2.028528 0.507132
66 70179 51377 44554 23189 3344 0.732085 0.2679149 0.63486 0.3304 0.047649582 0.952350418 2.185554 0.546389
67 54380 44065 41603 19531 5085 0.810316 0.1896837 0.76504 0.3592 0.093508643 0.906491357 2.220375 0.555094
68 24181 2940 19656 9931 540 0.121583 0.8784169 0.81287 0.4107 0.022331583 0.977668417 3.079649 0.769912
69 43358 5305 33050 17359 1372 0.122353 0.8776466 0.76226 0.4004 0.031643526 0.968356474 3.008626 0.752156
70 31774 645 24585 12886 1218 0.0203 0.9797004 0.77375 0.4056 0.038333228 0.961666772 3.120665 0.780166
71 33199 5083 27359 12275 2180 0.153107 0.846893 0.82409 0.3697 0.065664628 0.934335372 2.975059 0.743765
72 24487 3102 20104 10255 1064 0.126679 0.8733205 0.82101 0.4188 0.043451627 0.956548373 3.06967 0.767417
73 24416 5985 19693 9937 823 0.245126 0.7548739 0.80656 0.407 0.033707405 0.966292595 2.934715 0.733679
74 37119 18410 27534 14866 1499 0.495972 0.5040276 0.74178 0.4005 0.040383631 0.959616369 2.605916 0.651479
75 24392 16402 15803 9370 1010 0.672434 0.3275664 0.64788 0.3841 0.041407019 0.958592981 2.318178 0.579545
76 24248 10661 19026 9086 498 0.439665 0.5603349 0.78464 0.3747 0.020537776 0.979462224 2.69915 0.674788
77 44071 17104 32045 14530 137 0.388101 0.611899 0.72712 0.3297 0.00310862 0.99689138 2.665608 0.666402
78 58930 33636 40866 18657 2588 0.570779 0.4292211 0.69347 0.3166 0.043916511 0.956083489 2.395367 0.598842
79 42229 30106 28903 13900 3429 0.712922 0.2870776 0.68443 0.3292 0.081200123 0.918799877 2.21947 0.554868
80 38587 3710 25484 14389 4890 0.096146 0.9038536 0.66043 0.3729 0.126726618 0.873273382 2.810454 0.702614
81 47258 18246 36091 17568 1130 0.386093 0.6139066 0.7637 0.3717 0.023911295 0.976088705 2.725443 0.681361
82 43347 12438 33251 17917 2399 0.28694 0.7130597 0.76709 0.4133 0.055344084 0.944655916 2.838143 0.709536
83 24381 6574 18654 9853 293 0.269636 0.7303638 0.7651 0.4041 0.012017555 0.987982445 2.887576 0.721894
84 23400 4217 18203 9720 1163 0.180214 0.8197863 0.77791 0.4154 0.049700855 0.950299145 2.963376 0.740844
85 31231 11001 24897 12432 1114 0.352246 0.6477538 0.79719 0.3981 0.035669687 0.964330313 2.807339 0.701835
86 25148 3930 18858 10630 1908 0.156275 0.8437251 0.74988 0.4227 0.075870845 0.924129155 2.940433 0.735108
87 13324 0 11561 5504 108 0 1 0.86768 0.4131 0.008105674 0.991894326 3.272666 0.818166
88 27050 12442 19940 10719 398 0.459963 0.540037 0.73715 0.3963 0.014713494 0.985286506 2.658743 0.664686
89 26781 5426 20923 9326 1224 0.202606 0.7973937 0.78126 0.3482 0.045704044 0.954295956 2.881184 0.720296
249
90 22145 6678 16639 9423 748 0.301558 0.6984421 0.75137 0.4255 0.033777376 0.966222624 2.841544 0.710386
91 36453 7708 29455 13264 3158 0.21145 0.7885496 0.80803 0.3639 0.086632102 0.913367898 2.87381 0.718453
92 35916 5671 30121 13161 2343 0.157896 0.8421038 0.83865 0.3664 0.06523555 0.93476445 2.981958 0.745489
93 56029 15170 43213 19801 2600 0.270753 0.7292474 0.77126 0.3534 0.046404541 0.953595459 2.80751 0.701878
94 29570 6412 22908 10381 1278 0.216841 0.7831586 0.7747 0.3511 0.043219479 0.956780521 2.865708 0.716427
95 28500 0 24538 10563 942 0 1 0.86098 0.3706 0.033052632 0.966947368 3.198561 0.79964
96 28990 0 25847 10275 863 0 1 0.89158 0.3544 0.029768886 0.970231114 3.216247 0.804062
97 37404 3404 31849 13444 2124 0.091006 0.9089937 0.85149 0.3594 0.056785371 0.943214629 3.063122 0.76578
98 30514 1037 26555 10637 782 0.033984 0.9660156 0.87026 0.3486 0.025627581 0.974372419 3.159238 0.78981
99 19855 0 17083 6686 1414 0 1 0.86039 0.3367 0.071216318 0.928783682 3.125913 0.781478
100 29665 2277 25524 10673 791 0.076757 0.9232429 0.86041 0.3598 0.026664419 0.973335581 3.116771 0.779193
101 37634 0 31813 13849 3796 0 1 0.84533 0.368 0.100866238 0.899133762 3.112452 0.778113
102 20646 0 16556 7282 2678 0 1 0.8019 0.3527 0.129710356 0.870289644 3.024896 0.756224
103 25528 0 21629 9010 3638 0 1 0.84727 0.3529 0.142510185 0.857489815 3.057701 0.764425
104 29459 0 25575 10375 2199 0 1 0.86816 0.3522 0.074646118 0.925353882 3.145694 0.786424
105 20980 0 17600 6925 3576 0 1 0.83889 0.3301 0.170448046 0.829551954 2.998522 0.749631
106 30500 0 23973 10438 8747 0 1 0.786 0.3422 0.286786885 0.713213115 2.841443 0.710361
107 39730 0 29575 14363 7573 0 1 0.7444 0.3615 0.190611628 0.809388372 2.915303 0.728826
108 38338 2616 23015 14258 13099 0.068235 0.9317648 0.60032 0.3719 0.341671449 0.658328551 2.562314 0.640579
109 37610 0 24182 13755 12857 0 1 0.64297 0.3657 0.341850572 0.658149428 2.666844 0.666711
110 22765 0 17668 8720 3859 0 1 0.7761 0.383 0.169514606 0.830485394 2.989633 0.747408
111 32149 0 26735 11520 1222 0 1 0.8316 0.3583 0.038010514 0.961989486 3.151918 0.787979
112 25497 0 20472 9016 1952 0 1 0.80292 0.3536 0.076558026 0.923441974 3.07997 0.769993
113 30933 0 24759 10652 2119 0 1 0.80041 0.3444 0.068502893 0.931497107 3.076262 0.769065
114 31416 0 25195 10790 3761 0 1 0.80198 0.3435 0.119716068 0.880283932 3.025719 0.75643
115 30616 0 26214 10622 1300 0 1 0.85622 0.3469 0.042461458 0.957538542 3.1607 0.790175
116 28473 0 20799 10855 896 0 1 0.73048 0.3812 0.031468409 0.968531591 3.080251 0.770063
117 25276 2910 17846 8719 674 0.115129 0.884871 0.70605 0.345 0.026665612 0.973334388 2.909202 0.727301
118 25922 3578 20847 9084 965 0.138029 0.8619705 0.80422 0.3504 0.037227066 0.962772934 2.9794 0.74485
119 19410 0 16024 6709 438 0 1 0.82555 0.3456 0.022565688 0.977434312 3.148635 0.787159
120 21900 4280 17860 8202 604 0.195434 0.8045662 0.81553 0.3745 0.027579909 0.972420091 2.967032 0.741758
121 29970 0 24135 9971 1117 0 1 0.80531 0.3327 0.037270604 0.962729396 3.100734 0.775184
250
122 34957 0 28455 11904 1253 0 1 0.814 0.3405 0.035844037 0.964155963 3.118689 0.779672
123 30569 1708 25377 10558 2803 0.055874 0.9441264 0.83015 0.3454 0.0916942 0.9083058 3.02797 0.756992
124 34295 0 26292 10415 8268 0 1 0.76664 0.3037 0.241084706 0.758915294 2.829246 0.707312
125 42245 0 34388 14443 3978 0 1 0.81401 0.3419 0.09416499 0.90583501 3.061735 0.765434
126 27234 0 23433 9040 2063 0 1 0.86043 0.3319 0.0757509 0.9242491 3.116619 0.779155
127 36584 0 29882 12289 5212 0 1 0.81681 0.3359 0.142466652 0.857533348 3.01025 0.752563
128 31864 0 26708 10967 2297 0 1 0.83819 0.3442 0.072087622 0.927912378 3.110281 0.77757
129 38967 0 32048 13190 1940 0 1 0.82244 0.3385 0.049785716 0.950214284 3.111145 0.777786
130 26630 0 21960 8880 500 0 1 0.82463 0.3335 0.018775817 0.981224183 3.139317 0.784829
131 30136 661 25749 10265 1395 0.021934 0.9780661 0.85443 0.3406 0.046290151 0.953709849 3.126825 0.781706
132 28089 4227 21724 10147 1269 0.150486 0.849514 0.7734 0.3612 0.045177828 0.954822172 2.93898 0.734745
133 23881 17663 17592 6072 191 0.739626 0.2603744 0.73665 0.2543 0.00799799 0.99200201 2.24329 0.560822
134 36687 35836 20451 9715 646 0.976804 0.0231962 0.55745 0.2648 0.017608417 0.982391583 1.827841 0.45696
135 31743 28654 18526 8717 254 0.902687 0.0973128 0.58362 0.2746 0.008001764 0.991998236 1.947547 0.486887
136 21810 19764 15941 6552 1040 0.90619 0.0938102 0.7309 0.3004 0.047684548 0.952315452 2.077442 0.51936
137 20036 19710 11164 5329 98 0.983729 0.0162707 0.5572 0.266 0.004891196 0.995108804 1.834548 0.458637
138 34724 18778 16385 9985 107 0.540779 0.4592213 0.47186 0.2876 0.003081442 0.996918558 2.215557 0.553889
139 45006 16207 27127 15271 9 0.360108 0.6398925 0.60274 0.3393 0.000199973 0.999800027 2.581745 0.645436
140 29636 5651 19169 8794 1570 0.19068 0.8093197 0.64681 0.2967 0.05297611 0.94702389 2.699892 0.674973
141 31183 11020 20616 9943 4157 0.353398 0.6466023 0.66113 0.3189 0.133309816 0.866690184 2.493282 0.62332
KEY
TotalPop: Total Population BakPop: Total Backward Population
SlmPop: Slum Population N_SlmPop: Slum Population/ Total Population
Liter: Total Literates 1-N_SlmPop: 1-Slum Population/Total Population
Work: Total Workers NJJter: Total Literates/ Total Population
251
Appendix 6D
WARD-WISE LANDUSE PATTERN : 2001
Ward Educati Industrial Commerci Park and Utility Burial & Hospital Transpor Administr Agricultu Residen Mixed TOTAL
on al Open Cremati tation & ative re tial Commercial
Space on Storage and
Ground Residential
s
0* 0 0 0 99.1266 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 99.1266
1 4.9999 11.3333 12.999999 0 1.333 0 0.66667 0 2.66667 0 66 0 99.99996
98
2 1.9752 3.76344 5.37634 6.45161 11.99 0 0 1.6129 0 0 68.2796 0 99.44716
7
3 0 3.62319 2.17391 0 0 0 13.0435 8.6957 0 0 71.7391 0 99.27535
4 0 0.98039 3.92157 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 95.098 0 99.99996
5 0.6896 0.68966 0 15.8621 4.138 0 2.76897 39.31 0 0 35.8621 0 99.32071
55
6 0 25.9086 27.5432 0 0 0 0 1.2346 1.63457 0 43.5926 0 99.91354
7 0 0 0 1.78571 0 0 0 0 0 0 75 23.2143 100
8 0 20.4082 8.16327 2.04082 0 0 0 0 0 0 48.9796 20.4082 100.0001
9 0 4.44444 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 58.7778 36.5556 99.77784
10 0 0 21.7391 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 60.8696 17.3913 100
11 0 0 9.375 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 34.375 56.25 100
12 0 12.069 12.069 18.9655 0 0 0 0 0 0 51.7241 5.17241 100
13 0 41.6667 0 2,38095 1.19 0 0 1.1905 0 0 47.619 5.95238 99.99999
14 0 7.84314 31.3726 3.92157 0 0 0 0 0 0 56.8627 0 100
15 0 46.6667 10 1.66667 5 0 0 0 0 0 36.6667 0 100.0001
16 0 6.25 6.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 87.5 0 100
17 0 0 7.89474 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 92.1053 0 100
18 0 0 8.33333 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 91.6667 0 100
19 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 72.7273 27.2727 100
20 0 0 5.71429 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 69.5714 23.8571 99.14279
252
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
O
00
LO
LO
CM
2 6 .9 9 1 2 .5 6 4 5 4 .2 8 2 1 9 9 .6 5 7 7
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
2 0 .8 7 9 5 6 4 .9 8 4 4 4 6 2 .2 2 2 2 9 9 .1 9 7 3
T—
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
O
O
CM CO
CM CM CM
100
T—
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
CM
o 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
in
h-
O)
CO
■M-
2 .3 8 0 9 5 2 .3 8 0 9 5 7 6 .1 9 0 5 100
o
o
o
o
LO
CO
2 .7 7 7 7 8 8 .3 3 3 3 3 2 .7 7 7 7 8 7 2 .2 2 2 2 8 .3 3 3 3 3 9 9 .9 9 9 9 8
o
o
o
o
o
o
LO LO
LO CO
6 .9 7 6 7 4 1 1 .6 2 7 9 4 .6 5 1 1 6 1 6 0 .4 6 5 1 1 1 .6 2 7 9 9 9 .9 9 9 9 6
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
O
O
O
O
CM
CO
CO
CM
CM
CM
CM
7 5 .5 1 0 2 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
O
2 4 .4 8 9 8 8 .1 6 3 2 7 8 .1 6 3 3 5 9 .1 8 3 7 100
CO N - CO CT> o
o
o
o
o
o
o
O
00
CO
CO
CM
■M-
8 .6 2 0 6 9 8 .6 2 0 6 9 1 .7 2 4 1 4 7 7 .5 8 6 2 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
00
05
CM CM CM CM CM CO CO
CD
LO
CO
CO
T—
CM
5 .9 4 0 5 9 1 .9 8 0 2 5 4 .4 5 5 4 9 9 .0 0 9 8 9
o
o
o
o
o
O
00
00
LO
LO
LO
CO
CM
CO
CO
CM
CM
CM
1 2 .6 0 5 1 4 .2 8 5 7 1 .6 8 0 6 7 2 .5 2 1 0 1 9 9 .1 5 9 6 1
CT>
o
o
o
o
1 .5 7 4 8 7 .8 7 4 0 2 2 .3 6 2 2 2 3 .6 2 2 0 .7 8 7 3 .9 3 7 0 1 5 9 .0 5 5 1 0 .7 8 7 4 0 2 9 9 .9 9 9 9 3
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o>
o>
x—
CM
1 5 .5 8 4 4 5 .1 9 4 8 1 7 4 .0 2 6 3 .8 9 6 1 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
6 .7 4 1 5 7 1 .1 2 3 6 1 9 .1 0 1 7 1 .9 1 0 1 1 .1 2 3 6 9 9 .9 9 9 9 7
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
CM CO ■M- LO CD
CO CO c o CO CO
CD
CD
CO
CO
CO
1 5 .4 6 3 9 1 .0 3 0 9 3 4 7 .4 2 3 2 3 .7 1 1 3 5 .1 5 4 6 4 9 9 .9 9 9 9 7
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
co
h-
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
CD
CD
CD
CO
CD
CO
CO
CO
CO
2 6 .6 6 6 7 100
o
o
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o
o
o
o
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h - 00
CO
LO
CD
CO
CO
CM
1 .9 6 0 7 7 6 .4 7 0 6 9 9 .9 9 9 9 8
8
o
o
o
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o
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CO
O)
9 .0 9 0 9 1 9 .0 9 0 9 1 4 5 .4 5 4 5 2 7 .2 7 2 7 9 9 .9 9 9 9 3
G) o
o
o
o
<J> o
o
o
o
o
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LO
T— LO
1 3 .5 1 3 5 4 0 .5 4 0 5 4 0 .5 4 0 5 9 9 .9 9 9 9 1
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
5 7 .1 4 2 9 4 2 .8 5 7 1 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
3 7 .9 3 1 2 0 .6 8 9 7 4 1 .3 7 9 3 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
CM CO
O)
csi
2 .9 4 1 1 8 2 9 .4 1 1 8 6 4 .7 0 5 9 1 0 0 .0 0 0 1
o
o
o
o
o
O
O
O)
CD
O)
CM
1 1 .7 6 4
CO
CO
CO
CM
■M-
1 .9 6 0 7 8
CT>
4 5 .0 9 8 9 9 .9 9 9 9 8
7
O
o
o
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o
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96886
to
LO
00
LO
CO
LO
■M-
CD
CO
CM
2 0 .9 9 4 5 9 .9 4 5 1 8 .2 3 2 1 .6 5 7 4 6
o
o
O
O
O
O
O
O
CD
00
N-
CD
CD
4 3 .5 1 1 5 4 1 .9 8 4 7
T—
6 .8 7 0 2 3 100
•n—
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
N-
CM LO
2 5 .5 8 1 4 2 .3 2 5 5 8
h - T—
1 8 .6 0 4 7 4 8 .8 3 7 2 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
CO
CD
CO
LO CD CO
3 .8 4 6 1 5 3 8 .4 6 1 5 5 3 .8 4 6 2 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
O
LO
00
N-
CM
■M-
LO
LO
CD
CM
3 .1 2 5 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
LO
8 .8 2 3 5 3 5 2 .9 4 1 2 3 8 .2 3 5 3 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
LO
N-
CD
CD
8 .8 2 3 5 3 2 3 .5 2 9 4
T—
CO
CM
vo
T—
9 9 .7 7 6 3 9
9 9 .9 9 9 9 4
9 9 .9 9 9 9 4
9 9 .8 8 0 9 3
9 9 .9 9 9 9 7
9 9 .9 9 9 9 8
9 9 .9 9 9 9 7
9 9 .9 9 9 9 7
9 9 .9 9 9 9 5
9 9 .9 9 9 9 7
9 9 .9 9 9 9 9
o o o o o
o o o o o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o o o o o o o
d d d d o T—
o o o o o
Is- CO CO -s f
CM 0 0 CO 00
o CO
CM Is-
CO
CO Is- o o 00 Is- co CM Is-
CO o CO CO o LO h-
05 CM 05 05 LO 05 co
o LO CO o o o CO T— o o o Is - o CM o CM CO o 05
LO r- 00 CO Is-
05 05 0 5 LO
CO CO
CO
CM
LO CM cd
CO T— T— CO CD CO id cd d
o
CO oo CO CO CO LO LO CO CO CO 0 0 CO Is- CM CO ^ r CM Is- CO
CM 00 CO h- o CM T— CO CD 's l' r- CO 05 05 CO
00 T" LO o LO LO LO LO LO CO CO CO CO 00 o 05 CO o
h- o Is- CO CO q Is- CO Is- CO LO 0 0 CO CO oo o LO r - Is- co
"sj- 05 CO 1^ 0 0 LO LO LO co CO 0 5 CO id CO CO cd cd d 00 T—
CO Is- CO CM t— 5 CO LO r- Is- 0 5 CO Is- LO 05 CO CO CM
LO CO
O CO
05
o o o o o o o o o o o o o s o o o o o o o o o
Is- id
Is- 00 CO
00
LO o LO
CO 05
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o CO o CM LO o
CO Is- q
CM
05
CO
"s f
O o o o o o o o LO o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
LO
Is- Is - Is- CO Is-

co 00 X— 05 00 CO
CO 05 CO CO LO LO
O o o CO o o o CO o o o Is- o o o o o o h- CM o co o
254
CO CO q CM CM
LO T— T— cd T—
-3- 05 05 CO
o CM oo
o LO
o o o o o o ?0 0 LO o o CM o o o o o o o o o o o o
CO N-
d CM
CM 05 CM Is- T— CO CO 00 CM CO
Is- Is- CO
00 CO 00 LO CO r— LO CO LO 05 Is-
o 00 Tt 00 00 LO CO 05 CM o o o o o CO o o 1^ o
t— CM LO CO
LO CM LO CM o Is- CM
LO Is- LO IO LO CM 05 CO Is- 00 LO LO 05 05
CO Is- o 00 LO CO CO CO co LO co 00 05 00 05
CM 00 05 05 o o o LO CO Is- 00
o o O CO o CO CO LO o LO o 05 o CO CM CO Is- o 5 o T“ o
00 T— CO c\i LO CM Is- d co 05
cd
CM LO LO d
LO to LO LO d cd 1^ CM
Is- CM h - Is- LO
05 oo CO CO Is- Is- LO CO
O LO LO
T_ 05 LO co CM CO o
CO 0 5 T— CM O00 co o o CO CM CO
o Is- CO CM o LO CO o T" Is- CM CO LO o o CO o CO o o CM o o
05 05
CM CO LO 05 o q CO q
CM CO CO oo CM CM id ■f—
d
LO Is- CO CM CM CO Is- Is- Is- CO LO CO 05

LO Is- LO CO CM Is— Is- LO Is- CM r—
05 CM 00 05 Is- 05 LO CO 0 5 •M- 05 5 CO o
o o T— CO CM CO o Is - o o Is- LO o CO o o o o 05 Is-
c\i co 1^ LO
d LO q d oo CO CM CO CO CM co
T— CO t— co CM c\i — T d cd o cd
Is- 05 05 00 05 o Tt o 00
LO o LO Is- 05 CO
o SC 00 o o 00 T- o o o 05 T - o o CO CO CM r - o o o r - co CM T— o o CM CO o
05
csi d 05 CM S 00 LO q
CM T— CM CO oo l-i cd T— d
CM CO LO CO Is— 0 0 05 o CM CO LO CO Is- 00 05 o CM CO LO
LO LO LO LO LO LO LO LO CO s CO CO CO CO CO co CO CO Is- r - Is - Is- Is-
o
o
o
o
d
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
CD
CO
76
CO
CO
2 .2 7 2 7 3 2 .2 7 3 8 1 .8 1 8 2
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
O
00
CD
co
■sf
CM
CM
77 1 .9 2 3 6 9 .2 3 0 8
T—
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
LO
78 5 .9 7 0 1 5 2 .9 8 5 0 7 3 5 .8 2 0 9 4 4 .7 7 6 1 100
o
o
d
o
o
o
N-
csi
CO
CO
79 CO 100
CO
CO
2 6 .8 2 1 2 1 3 .9 0 7 3 1 .3 2 4 5 3 3 .7 7 5 2 1 .5 2 3 2 T—
o
o
08
LO
co
■'3'
CM
CM
9 9 .4 3 1 1 7
CO
0 .3 4 1 2 2 4 .1 1 8 3 2 1 .5 0 1 7 2 .5 0 3 0 .4 5 5 0 6 1 4 .3 3 5 2 5 .4 8 3 5 2 .1 6 1 5 5
97
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
00
N-
co
1 2 .9 0 3 2 2 .4 1 9 6 6 .1 2 9 1 3 .7 0 9 7 9 9 .9 9 9 9 6
o
o
o
o
CO o
o
o
oo 00
co
CM
oo
4 .5 9 7 7 8 9 .6 5 5 2 2 .2 9 8 8 5 100
o
o
o
o
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o
o
o
00
00
00
CO
CO
CO
CO
CD
2 .2 2 2 2 2 2 .2 2 2 2 2 8 6 .6 6 6 7 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
84 4 .3 4 7 8 3 4 .3 4 7 8 3 4 .3 4 7 8 3 8 4 .7 8 2 6 2 .1 7 3 9 1 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
00
LO
3 .9 4 7 3 7 5 .2 6 3 1 6 1 .3 1 6 8 6 .8 4 2 1 2 .6 3 1 5 8 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
CO
CD
0 .8 1 3 0 9 .7 5 6 1 8 0 .4 8 7 8 8 .9 4 3 0 9 100
08
o
o
o
d
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
O
O
87 1 .2 3 4 5 7 3 5 .8 0 2 5 5 5 .5 5 5 6 7 .4 0 7 4 1
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
00
co
c\i
00
CM
1 9 5 .9 1 8 4 2 .0 4 0 8 2 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
68
O
LO
CO
CM
CM
4 .2 2 5 3 5 1 2 .6 7 6 1 1 .4 0 8 4 5 7 3 .2 3 9 4 100
T—
o
q
o
d
o
o
o
o
o
o
06
O
CD
M"
CO
CM
CM
CO
CO
9 9 .9 9 9 9 8
T—
50
o
d
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
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5>
00
o>
CD
CO
9 9 .1 1 5 9 9 .9 9 9 9 6
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
O
92 1 2 .9 6 3 5 .5 5 5 5 6 5 .5 5 6 7 5 .9 2 5 9 100
o
o
o
o
o
93 3 .1 5 7 8 1 .5 7 8 9 5 1 .5 7 8 9 5 2 .1 0 5 1 .0 5 2 6 7 7 .8 9 4 7 2 .6 3 1 5 8 9 9 .9 9 9 9 6
9
o
o
o
o
o
o
os
O
CD
CD
94 4 4 .5 6 5 2 1 .0 8 7
CO
1 .0 8 6 9 6 9 9 .9 9 9 9 8
o
o
CO o
o
CO o
o
o
o
o
S80S
LO
LO
CO
CO
95 2 .5 4 2 3 7 3 .3 8 9 8 3 8 .4 7 4 5 8 100
o
o
d
o
o
o
o
96
00
LO
00
00
r-.
■M-
h*-
CD
0 .8 4 7 4
■M"
1 .6 9 5 0 .8 4 7 4 6 7 9 .6 6 1 1 5 .2 5 4 2 9 9 .9 9 9 9 5
i
58 i i
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
LO
•SI
97 1 .6 3 9 3 4
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
8 .1 9 7 1 .6 3 9 3 '5 4 . 6 4 4 8 9 9 .9 9 9 9 5
o
o
o
o
86
o
o
d
O
O
00
CO LO
LO
CO
00
CD
CD
CD CO
CM
0 .7 1 9 4 2
oo
CO
2 .1 5 8 2 7 1 .4 3 8 8 5 9 9 .9 9 9 9 6
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
66
6 .8 9 6 5 5 2 .2 9 9 9 0 .8 0 4 6 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
O
O
00
CD
CM
00
CM
CD
100
CM
0 .7 1 4 2 8 6 1 8 5 .7 1 4 3 100
T__
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
0 .6 0 9 7 6 9 8 .7 8 0 5 0 .6 0 9 7 5 6 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
102 3 .9 2 1 5 7 9 3 .1 3 7 3 2 .9 4 1 1 8 1 0 0 .0 0 0 1
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
103 100 100
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
T—
104 100
255
o
LO
1 .4 4 9 2 8 9 8 .5 5 0 7 9 9 .9 9 9 9 8
T—
O
o
o o
00
LO
CO
h*.
100
CM
106 0 .5 0 7 6 1 4 7 4 .1 1 1 7
o o o
o o o
o o o
107 1 6 .6 6 6 7 0 .7 2 4 6 8 2 .6 0 8 7 100
00
LO
o
00
CO
CO
CO
9 9 .0 9 3 0 2
CO
4 1 .6 1
T
108 5 .1 0 2 0 4
h-
co
co
co
oo
—
o o
o o o
109 6 5 .4 6 3 9 0 .3 4 3 6 4 3 4 .1 9 2 4 9 9 .9 9 9 9 4
o o
o o o o o o
110 1 .0 5 2 6 3 3 6 .3 1 5 8 1 .0 5 2 6 6 1 .5 7 8 9 9 9 .9 9 9 9 6
o o o
0 .3 6 7 6 9 .9 2 6 4 7 8 2 .3 5 2 9 9 9 .9 9 9 9 6
T
0 .3 6 7 6 4 7 6 .2 5 0 .7 3 5
—
o
112 8 .6 9 5 6 5 0 .7 2 4 6 3 8 4 .3 4 7 8 3 0 .7 2 5 8 5 .5 0 7 2 9 9 .9 9 9 9 6
o
113 3 .7 5 4 .3 7 5 2 6 .8 7 5 6 4 .3 7 5 9 9 .3 7 5
o o
o
9 9 .5 9 1 8 2
CO
CO
CM
114 2 2 .4 4 9 6 7 .3 4 6 9
T
8 .1 6 3 2 7 0 .8 1 6
C
C
O
O
—
T
5 .2 6 3 1 6 4 9 .4 7 3 7 100
C
115 1 1 .5 7 8 9 3 .1 5 7 8 9 2 8 .4 2 1 1
CM 0
CM o
OCO
—CM
LO CM
o
116 3 3 .3 3 3 3 3 0 .0 8 1 3 3 3 .3 3 3 3 9 9 .9 9 9 9 3
0
iz o r z
o O o o o o o o o o o LO o
117 3 3 .7 8 3 8 1 7 .5 6 7 6 4 5 .9 4 5 9 100
00
00
CM
118 5 .5 1 7 2 4 1 7 .2 4 1 4 6 6 .8 9 6 6 6 .8 9 6 5 5 1 0 0 .0 0 0 1
00
o
o
o
119 9 3 .5 4 8 4 6 .4 5 1 6 1 100
LO
o o o o o
00
LO
CM
CM
120 1 .4 2 8 5 7 5 .7 1 4 2 9 8 7 .1 4 2 9 100
h-
-
co
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o O
N
o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
CM
1 .3 0 7 1 2 .6 1 4 3 8 7 .8 4 3 1 4 2 2 .2 2 2 2 1 .3 0 7 1 9 6 3 .3 9 8 7 1 .3 0 7 1 9 9 9 .9 9 9 9 9
9
o
122 1 1 .3 7 2 5 2 .7 4 5 1 5 2 .5 4 9 1 1 .3 7 2 5 2 0 .7 8 4 3 9 8 .8 2 3 4
o o
o
LO
CO
CO
CO
123 2 .6 5 9 5 7 3 .1 9 1 4 9 1 4 .8 9 3 6 4 3 .0 8 5 1 9 9 .4 6 8 0 6
C
oo
O
00
o
d
o o 0
00
o o o
o o o
o o o
o o o
"3-
CO
CM
CO
124 0 .4 4 8 4 3 2 .2 8 7 0 .4 4 8 4 3 1 9 .7 3 0 9 4 4 .3 9 4 6 9 9 .9 9 9 9 4
-
-
)
N
O
N
0
31
CO
CO
CO
CM
■St
CO
125 1 .2 9 8 7 3 .4 6 3 2 0 .4 3 2 9 6 6 . 6 6 6 7 12 4 . 2 4 2 4 100
o
Oo
CM
1 0 0 .0 0 0 1
C
0 .8 8 4 9 6 7 4 .3 3 6 3 2 4 .7 7 8 8
o O
O
o o
o o o
o o
o o o
o o o
CO
127 2 .5 9 2 5 9 2 .5 9 2 5 9 5 8 .5 1 8 5 3 1 .4 8 1 5 0 .3 7 0 3 7 9 8 .5 1 8 5 1
T—
co
o
128 1 4 .9 7 3 3 1 7 .1 1 2 3 1 6 .5 7 7 5 1 .0 6 9 5 2 100
o o
CM CO
CM
T—
129 0 .5 4 3 4 8 2 6 .6 3 0 4 2 .1 7 4 1 0 .3 2 6 1 9 9 .9 9 9 9 9
LO C
h- C
O
O
o o S 10 o o o
o
o o o
o
o
CO
CM
''sj-
130 8 .1 6 3 2 7 8 6 .7 3 4 7 100
C
O
T—
O
o o
o Oo
CO
o o o o
o o CO o
o o Oo
o o Oo
CO
CO
CM
0 .5 7 1 4 5 .1 4 2 8 6 0 .5 7 1 4 2 9 1 0 .2 8 5 7 8 2 .2 8 5 7 9 9 .9 9 9 9 8
29
o
o
CO
CM
T—
CO
4 .4 9 4 3 8 6 .7 4 1 5 7 9 9 .9 9 9 9 5
C
C
O
co
o o
o
’sf
o
CM o
Oo
Oo
o o
o o
o o
LO
CM
133 6 4 .5 1 6 1 6 .4 5 2 2 0 .9 6 8 9 9 .9 9 9 9 3
o ■C
cd
O
256
134 0 1.23457 3.7037 3.9037 7.807 0 0 82.716 0 0 0 0 99.36538

135 0 45.0704 5.6338 8.4507 12.68 0 0 2.8169 0 0 19.7183 4.92535 99.29155
136 0 0.76336 0.763359 10.687 0 0 0 0 0 0 83.2061 3.81679 99.23661
137 0 76.875 1.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15.625 5 98.75
138 0 9.375 0 20.3125 0 0 0 0 0 1.5625 46.875 21.875 100
139 0 11.0714 0.714286 17.5 0 0 0 0 0 2.5 54.6429 13.5714 99.99999
140 0 28.5714 0 15.1261 0 0 0 0 0 51.2605 5.04202 0 100
141 0 40.9891 0 19.8034 0 0 0 0 0 11.1111 18.3846 9.40171 99.6899
* Ward 0 refers to the open space (maidan) in the western part of Calcutta
257
Appendix 7A
Coefficients(a)
U n stan d ard ized S ta n d a rd ized

C o e ffic ien ts C o efficien ts
M odel B S td . Error B e ta t S ig.

6 (C o n sta n t) 1 0 4 7 6 7 6 .1 1 3 8 9 9 7 .5 8
7 .5 3 7 .0 0 0
21 5
Industry -8 8 5 0 .1 4 5 2 0 1 0 .8 3 8 -.461 -4 .4 0 1 .0 0 0
T r an sp ortS torage -7 6 3 9 .5 2 5 2 3 6 7 .1 3 9 -.2 9 5 -3 .2 2 7 .0 0 2
C m rC om m 2 3 8 3 .8 8 9 9 8 4 .0 5 6 .2 1 9 2 .4 2 3 .0 1 7
C m rR esid -9 6 8 3 .6 0 4 1 4 9 3 .8 0 4 -1 .0 3 8 -6 .4 8 3 .0 0 0
G reen S p ace -7 2 5 3 .9 4 9 1 6 4 8 .9 5 6 -.5 9 3 -4 .3 9 9 .0 0 0
P opD en -2 .5 3 6 .7 4 2 -.3 1 7 -3 .4 1 6 .001
a D e p e n d e n t V ariable: V eh iP o llln d ex

C o e ffic ien ts C o e ffic ien ts
M odel B S td . Error B eta t S ig .

7 (C o n sta n t) 3 7 2 8 6 6 .4 3
4 6 9 2 6 .2 9 6 7 .9 4 6 .0 0 0
4
Industry -4 3 3 8 .1 6 9 6 7 6 .5 1 2 -.5 8 6 -6 .4 1 3 .0 0 0
T r a n sp o rtS to ra g e -3 6 1 8 .3 9 4 7 9 6 .6 6 1 -.3 6 2 -4 .5 4 2 .0 0 0
C m rC om m 1 7 2 0 .9 5 4 2 7 9 .7 0 8 .4 1 0 6 .1 5 3 .0 0 0
C m rR esid -3 4 2 1 .3 5 1 4 9 3 .0 6 4 -.951 -6 .9 3 9 .0 0 0
G reen S p ace -3 5 3 2 .5 4 5 5 5 5 .9 6 1 -.7 4 9 -6 .3 5 4 .0 0 0
a D e p e n d e n t V ariable: BusPI

C o e ffic ien ts C o efficien ts
M odel B S td . Error B eta t S ig.

9 (C o n sta n t) 2 0 5 7 .7 1 1 4 2 5 .1 5 5 4 .8 4 0 .0 0 0
Utility -8 9 .5 2 6 5 2 .1 6 5 -.1 3 3 -1 .7 1 6 .0 8 8
G reen S p ace -2 9 .7 2 1 1 0 .2 5 8 -.2 5 5 -2 .8 9 7 .0 0 4
P opD en .0 1 6 .0 0 7 .2 1 2 2 .4 1 3 .0 1 7
a D e p e n d e n t Variable: AutoRickPI

C o efficien ts C o e ffic ien ts

10 (C on stan t) 7 5 3 7 0 .8 7 0 1 8 3 7 3 .4 8 7 4 .1 0 2 .0 0 0
C m rC om m 1 9 7 4 .3 2 0 2 9 7 .6 8 7 .4 9 5 6 .6 3 2 .0 0 0
C m rR esid -7 4 5 .5 2 6 2 5 5 .1 1 0 -.2 1 8 -2 .9 2 2 .0 0 4
258
a Dependent Variable: TruckPI


5 (C o n sta n t) 2 0 6 7 0 .5 1 0 3 4 1 4 .3 0 1 6 .0 5 4 .0 0 0
E du cation - 4 7 1 .0 8 9 1 8 0 .8 3 2 -.1 8 7 -2 .6 0 5 .0 1 0
Industry - 2 3 1 .4 8 4 4 8 .1 1 7 -.5 0 0 -4 .8 1 1 .0 0 0
BurialC rem G r - 4 2 3 .9 2 7 2 0 0 .6 8 1 - .1 4 6 -2 .1 1 2 .0 3 7
T ra n sp o rtS to ra g e - 2 2 4 .9 8 9 5 7 .3 6 1 -.3 5 9 -3 .9 2 2 .0 0 0
C m rR esid - 1 7 6 .9 7 5 3 5 .6 6 4 - .7 8 6 -4 .9 6 2 000
G reen Sp ace - 1 8 6 .5 5 6 4 0 .4 7 4 -.6 3 2 -4 .6 0 9 .0 0 0
P opD en .0 8 0 .0 1 5 .4 1 4 5 .2 0 2 .0 0 0
a D e p e n d e n t V ariable: CarPI

M odel B Std . Error B eta t S ig .

7 (C o n sta n t) 8 7 6 3 .9 6 6 1 2 3 1 .4 2 7 7 .1 1 7 .0 0 0
Industry -9 6 .5 5 7 1 7 .9 8 4 -.5 2 4 -5 .3 6 9 .0 0 0
T ra n sp o rtS to ra g e -9 7 .8 9 4 2 1 .6 1 8 -.3 9 3 -4 .5 2 8 .0 0 0
C m rR esid -7 7 .3 3 5 1 3 .1 8 7 -.8 6 3 -5 .8 6 5 .0 0 0
G reen Sp ace -7 9 .4 1 0 1 4 .8 2 4 -.6 7 6 -5 .3 5 7 .0 0 0
P opD en .031 .0 0 6 .4 0 8 5 .2 4 7 .0 0 0
a D e p e n d e n t V ariable: T axiC abP I


6 (C o n sta n t) 7 2 3 .1 6 5 1 7 1 .5 5 3 4 .2 1 5 .0 0 0
Industry -6 .4 1 7 2 .4 8 2 -.2 5 1 -2 .5 8 6 .011
T r a n sp o rtS to ra g e -7 .6 7 7 2 .9 2 2 -.2 2 2 -2 .6 2 8 .0 1 0
C m rC om m 3 .0 9 6 1 .2 1 5 .2 1 3 2 .5 4 9 .0 1 2
C m rR esid -5 .2 4 2 1 .8 4 4 -.4 2 1 -2 .8 4 3 .0 0 5
G reen S p ace -5 .8 9 3 2 .0 3 5 -.3 6 1 -2 .8 9 6 .0 0 4
P opD en .0 0 5 .001 .4 4 0 5 .1 1 3 .0 0 0
a D e p e n d e n t Variable: M otorcyclePI
259

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Investigating the relationship between air pollution, population,

and landuse patterns in the city of Kolkata

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

Professor Robert B McMaster, Advisor

All rights reserved.

ProQuest Information and Learning Company

This is to certify that I have examined this copy of a doctoral thesis by

and have found that it is complete and satisfactory in all respects,

35%^/ 7? A/s M ’asScr

Signature o f Facility Adviser(s)

4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY- I: ESTIMATING ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 75

5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY-II: POPULATION AND LANDUSE PATTERN................... 126

6 MAPPING AIR POLLUTION, POPULATION, AND LANDUSE................................................144

7 ASSOCIATING AIR POLLUTION, POPULATION, AND LANDUSE..................................... 183

100 0 100 200 Miles

Figure 1.1 Location of Calcutta Metropolitan Area

1.2 The Problem

1.3 The Genesis of the city of Calcutta

f^ j Quorti«rs indi«n« /In d ia n

Figure 1.2 Four stages of growth of Calcutta (Munshi, 1990)

Eastern M etropolitan By-Pass

Figure 1.3 The city of Calcutta

1.4 Physical and cultural aspects of the city

Table 1-1 Population growth rate

1.4.4 Landuse pattern

1.4.5 Industries, Trade, and Commerce

1.4.6 Pollution problems

1.5 Conceptual framework

Figure 1.4 Conceptual Framework of the research

1.6 Specific research questions

1 Ward is the lowest enumeration unit identified by the Census of India.

Chapter seven investigates the nature of relationship between environmental pollution

2.2 Chronic and Acute pollution events

Typically, investigations on environmental pollution focus on two major aspects, acute

2.3 Air pollution in urban metropolitan areas

2.4 Air pollution from source emissions

2.4.1 Vehicular pollution

According to Bachman (Bachman, 2002), modeling emissions from mobile sources

2.4.1.2 The Emission Factor

2.4.1.3 Vehicular pollution studies in India

2.4.1.4 Vehicular pollution studies in Calcutta

This research analyzes vehicular pollution by estimating separate vehicular pollution

2.4.2 Industrial pollution

Industrial production processes account for a considerable share of the overall

2.4.2.1 Modeling air pollution from industries

2.4.2.3 Pollutants from industries and the “right-to-know”

Industries emit a wide variety of process-specific pollutants including gaseous organic

2.4.2.4 Industrial Pollution in Calcutta

According to a study by the University o f Calcutta, industrial pollution contributes 48%

In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) maintains a

2.5 Air pollution from air quality measurements

2.5.1 Pollution Control Boards in India

Source: (WBPCB, 2002)

Source: (WBPCB, 2002)

2.5.1.1 Status and seasonal trends of air quality in Calcutta

2.6 Air pollution and population

2.6.1 Health effects of Air pollution

An ever-increasing body of literature links air pollution to short-term and long-term

2.6.2 Air pollution and health studies in Calcutta

2.6.3 Environmental justice concerns

While studying the impact of pollution on population, certain environmental justice

2.6.4 Studies relating air pollution and population in Calcutta

2.7 Air pollution and landuse patterns