Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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The development of fuel cell electric vehicles – A review

M. Muthukumar a,⇑, N. Rengarajan b, B. Velliyangiri a, M.A. Omprakas a, C.B. Rohit a,
U. Kartheek Raja a
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nandha Engineering College, Erode 638052, India
b
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Nandha Engineering College, Erode 638052, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The natural petroleum by-product will come into in-existence and unavailable in future. The emission
Received 11 November 2019 from IC engine vehicles is also a critical problem. So the new technologies depending on electrical pow-
Received in revised form 22 March 2020 ered conveyance are developing. In that way, a fuel cell concept has been introduced for various applica-
Accepted 26 March 2020
tions along with electric vehicles. The various efforts are being taken to implement the fuel cell systems
Available online xxxx
in automobiles. Still there is a technological gap in success of such fuel cell electric vehicles due to the
problem in handling hydrogen, high cost of battery and fuel cell components, water management etc.
Keywords:
In this paper, the type of fuel cell used in automobile, various supporting components and flow diagram
Emission
Electrical powered
of fuel cell systems, the implementation of fuel cell systems in automobiles, the design and development
Fuel cell of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV) by various automobile companies are discussed. Further the related
Automobile issues in FCEV and the methods to improve performance of FCEV are discussed.
FCEV Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Performance Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International
Conference on Advances in Materials Research – 2019.

1. Introduction
The fuel cell is producing the electricity. It consists of anode and
cathode where the chemical reaction takes place. The basic fuels
mainly hydrogen and oxygen are required that produce electric
energy with very less amount of pollution. The current produced
from the fuel cell is Direct Current (DC). If we require Alternate
Current (AC), a conversion device called inverter is required. The
fuel cell electric vehicles are having fuel cell system, DC-DC con-
verter, charging system, energy storage device, motor, drive sys-
tems and control systems. The battery is used to manage the
dynamic response of the vehicle under varying load conditions.
Abbreviations: 4WDEV, four wheel drive electric vehicle; AC, alternate current;
APFCT, Asia Pacific fuel cell technology; BEV, battery electric vehicles; cc, cubic
centimeter; DC, direct current; SVM-DTC, space vector modulation-direct torque
control; EMS, energy management strategy; FC, fuel cell; FCHEV, fuel cell hybrid
electric vehicles; FCE, fuel cell engine; FCEV, fuel cell electric vehicles; FCS, fuel cell
systems; FES, flywheel energy systems; FCV, fuel cell vehicles; IC, internal
combustion; ICE, internal combustion engine; ICEV, internal combustion engine
vehicles; PEM, proton exchange membrane; PEMFC, proton exchange membrane
fuel cell; PFCEV, plug-in fuel cell electric vehicles; MDIBC, multi-device interleaved
boost converter; MHV, Mingdao hydrogen vehicle; UC, ultracapacitor.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: muthupsgtech@gmail.com (M. Muthukumar).
The DC/DC converter is used to convert the output of fuel cell into
required voltage and current to supply to battery/motor. Brushless
DC motor is used to run the vehicles. As there is no moving part in
fuel cells, the noise and heat generations are very less compared to
internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). A Ragone chart (Fig. 1)
is comparing the performance of various energy devices such as
fuel cell, battery, SC etc. The fuel cell is having much higher energy
density than other types of energy storing devices. As the Energy
density of fuel cell is higher than other type energy-storage
devices, the fuel cell can be used for long time applications. Due
to many advantages, the fuel cell electric vehicles are under devel-
opments by various automobile companies and are successfully
tested. Even though many advantages are in the fuel cells, due to
some practical issues, there is a gap in the implementation of the
fuel cells in on-road vehicles.
In this paper, the development of the fuel cell electric systems
and their supporting components for two wheeler and four
wheeler applications by various automobile companies and educa-
tional institutions are reviewed. Further the advantages, issues and
applications of FCEV are discussed.
Working principle of the fuel cells the working principle of the
fuel cell is following electrolysis technique. The fuel cells have two
electrodes where the electrolyte process takes place between

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.03.679
2214-7853/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Advances in Materials Research – 2019.

Please cite this article as: M. Muthukumar, N. Rengarajan, B. Velliyangiri et al., The development of fuel cell electric vehicles – A review, Materials Today:
Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.03.679
2 M. Muthukumar et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 1. Ragone plot [1].
them. There are two electrochemical reactions are carried out
between the two electrodes in anode and cathode. In anode, the
hydrogen is separated into protons and electrons. The protons
move to cathode through a membrane and the electron move
through an external electric circuit. The flow of electrons is known
as current. The oxygen supplied from cathode acts with the pro-
tons and electrons and forms the water. The water is the exhaust
from a fuel cell. Due to high energy density and simple working,
the Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells are majorly used
in automobile applications. PEM fuel cell has electrode, electrolyte
catalyst and gases. Polytetrafluroethylene, graphite NCK 194, Plat-
inum and carbon cloth are the materials used for Membrane, flow
channel plate, catalyst and gas diffusion layer respectively. The fuel
cell performance is affected by many parameters like channels
cross-section, flow field design, and operating parameters [2–8].
It is found that the serpentine flow field with square cross-
section is resulting in higher performance at atmospheric temper-
ature and pressure conditions. The modified serpentine flow filed
is best for better water management. The performance curve or
P-I curve is the curve drawn between Power density and Current
density. The performance curves of serpentine and modified ser-
pentine flow fields are clearly exhibited in [9–11]. Fig. 2 shows
the performance curves and polarization curves of the PEM fuel
cell with different active areas. A single cell can produce a low elec-
tric power which is very low to run vehicle. So many cells are
joined together like batteries and tend to give more power. As
Fig. 2. Performance (P-I) curves and polarization (V-I) curves of PEM fuel cells with
different active areas [9].
Please cite this article as: M. Muthukumar, N. Rengarajan, B. Velliyangiri et al., The development of fuel cell electric vehicles – A review, Materials Today:
Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.03.679
the hydrogen is highly explosive, its storage and handling are very
difficult in automobile. The on-board generation of hydrogen for
fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) reduces the issues of hydrogen
storage and handling.
2. Development of fuel cell and electric systems for automobiles
Kolavennu et al. [12] investigated the design of fuel cell oper-
ated vehicle that used methane for generating hydrogen to run
the fuel cell. When the power demand is high, the system uses bat-
tery power as there is a lag to produce hydrogen. Turkmen et al.
[13] studied the utilization of the software and made the compar-
isons of fuel cell types. In their analysis, the impact of the power of
fuel cell and fuel type were analyzed. ANL 50 is deemed to be the
most succeeded fuel cell type in industry. The other components of
fuel cell which have effects on performance of fuel cell were stabi-
lized for that analysis.
Hegazy et al. [14] investigated a Multi-Device Interleaved Boost
Converter (MDIBC) which is interfaced with the fuel cell and the
power train in hybrid electric vehicles. The effectiveness of MDIBC
converter was much higher than other types of DC/DC converters.
Offer et al. [15] made a comparative study of the hydrogen Fuel
Cell plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (FCHEV), Battery Electric Vehi-
cles (BEV) and hydrogen FCEV and IC engines for the present and
2030 circumstances. For more than 1 lakh mile, the lifecycle cost
of FCHEV is very less than BEV. The FCHEV is the better pathway
for the development of FCEVs in future.
Babir and Gomez [16] analyzed the efficiency of the fuel cell in
different load profiles. They used a 780 cm2 broad active area with
40 cells which has produced 10000 W power at 65 °C and
300000 Pa with the efficiency of 40%. Chan et al. [17] have focused
on developing advanced power trains and efficient energy systems.
They introduced a latest systematic technique which is used to
understand the communication between the various subsystems.
Developments of these vehicles include System architecture,
Energy management and Commercial concerns.
Ahluwalia et al. [18] developed the energy management strat-
egy to improve the fuel economy of hybrid fuel cell vehicles. The
fuel economy of FCV was raised up to 15% by the hybrid of an
energy storage system and the combined cycles of long drive and
city drive. Boettner et al. [19] studied the modeling of PEM fuel cell
with extra attachment of air compressor and auxiliary unit. It was
used as vehicle performance simulation to find the fuel economy. A
fuel cell stack with 300 cells (each 450 cm2 cell active area) was
analyzed. This stack was operated at 353 K and 2 atm. There was
a perfect similarity in performance of the model and actual fuel cell
system. Haddad et al. [20] studied PEM type fuel cell for automo-
tive applications based on electrical and diffusion approaches.
Their simulation model has replied to all levels (low to high) of
power demand. Through this, it is revealed that the efficiency of
the cell is affected by the membrane humidity.
Table 1
Comparison of FCV vs. ICEV [21].
Characteristics of vehicle F CV performance vs. ICEV
Emissions Much better (zero?)
Noise/smoothness Better
Energy efficiency Better/much better
Power: Weight ratio Worse
Driveability Better
Range/refuelling Similar
Running cost Better
Maintenance Better
First cost Worse
 M. Muthukumar et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx 3

McNichol et al. [21] evaluated the problems of the fuel cell vehi-
cles. They reviewed the advantages and disadvantages of IC engine
vehicles, battery vehicles, hybrid vehicles and Fuel cell vehicles.
The various characteristics of ICEV vs. FCV are compared in Table 1.
They concluded that the fuel cell using Hydrogen or Methanol is
the best choice for transport applications. Chen et al. [22] reviewed
the various protocols of durability test for fuel cell powered vehi-
cles of various universities and countries. Because the life time of
fuel cell powered vehicle is the important parameter affecting its
commercialization. For cold start, long time idling in traffic and
dynamic load conditions of PEM fuel cell vehicles, the suitable pro-
tocols were suggested.
Zhang et al. [23] introduced the test cell for automotive PEM
Fuel Cell Engine (FCE). They illustrated the facilities of PEM FCE
and Internal Combustion Engine (ICE). The major differences
between FCE compared to ICE are: Different facilities for fuel treat-
ment, simplified vibration isolation and elimination and the use of
safety devices. To find the outlet thermal flow proportions, the
Monte Carlo Simulation model was used. Gasbaoui et al. [24] ana-
Fig. 3. PIOS vehicle [28].
lyzed a 4WDEV (Four Wheel Drive Electric Vehicle) to find the
behavior of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC). Space
Vector Modulation-Direct Torque Control (SVM-DTC) was used to
control 4WDEV. The SVM-DTC improved the utility 4WDEV auton-
omous in various scenarios. The results obtained are very useful for
the future vehicles designing.
Ettihir et al. [25] designed the energy management strategy
(EMS) for hybrid vehicles (Fuel cell and battery powered). A hys-
teresis and optimal EMS strategies were used and their effective-
ness was also demonstrated separately. The changes in cell
performance were found by SR-UKF method. Hamelin et al. [26] dis-
cussed the performance and behaviour of the PEM fuel cell stack for
rapid load conditions. The response of the FC system was quicker
than 0.15 s for load conditions. They used MK5-E Ballard fuel cell
model with 35 cells in series and active area of 232 cm2 along with
back pressure regulator and Dow membrane. The fuel cell perfor-
mance was affected by noises in the load and transient phenomena.
Fig. 4. Reva Fuel cell range extender 2004 [29].

3. Development of FCV in two-wheeler and four-wheeler

sectors

Kempton et al. [27] analyzed three types of electric vehicles to

determine their grid power capacity. They estimated the cost and
earnings of three electric vehicles for supplying electricity to 3
electric markets. Weigl et al. [28] analyzed the design, production
and testing of the fuel cell vehicles. The fuel cell Motorcycle proto-
type named ‘‘Pios” is shown in Fig. 3. In this, number of hybrid fuel
cell trains was experimented practically. This gave the vital infor-
mation for the design and development of fuel cell systems which
can be worked in fast and varying electrical load conditions.
Pathak et al. [29] developed a prototype of pick up electric vehi-
cle run by a phosphoric acid fuel cell. The vehicle had a motor con-
troller (serpex type), DC motor (1 kW), lead acid batteries (48 V,
200 Ah) and on board charging unit. In 2004, Reva developed the Fig. 5. Fuel cell integration into Reva scheme [29].
first fuel cell vehicle demo model (shown in Fig. 4) which was
the very small fuel cell car in the world. A 1.2 kW fuel cell stack 80 kW supercapacitor for additional requirement. The vehicle was
was used to operate the vehicle. The fuel cell integration into Reva run by an electric motor of 240 kW capacity. As Hyundai-Kia
scheme is shown in Fig. 5. Motors is being one of the world’s biggest manufacturers, they
Ahn and Lim [30] studied the Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCV) develop- have the responsibility to solve the environmental problems due
ment by Hyundai-Kia motors. The first generation FCV and bus to emission. Chao et al. [31] investigated the Taiwan electrical fuel
were introduced by Hyundai-Kia motors in 2000 & 2006 respec- cell powered scooter. A 3.6 kW fuel stack was used to power the
tively as shown in Fig. 6. The developments of FCV by various car vehicle. The vehicle was able to run up to 0.746 km per gram of
manufacturers are given in Fig. 7. A 80 kW power was produced hydrogen. The cost analysis between the gasoline engine and fuel
by the fuel cell stack and 20 kW was stored in battery for future cell vehicle is given in Table 2.
use. The first fuel cell bus was manufactured in 2006 and success- Kim et al. [32] analysed the fuel cell electric hybrid scooter and
fully run in Germany. It had 160 kW power generating fuel cell and its flow diagram is shown in Fig. 8. APFCT (Asia Pacific Fuel Cell

Please cite this article as: M. Muthukumar, N. Rengarajan, B. Velliyangiri et al., The development of fuel cell electric vehicles – A review, Materials Today:
Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.03.679
4 M. Muthukumar et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 6. FCV by Hyundai (a) Santa Fe FCV (2000) & Tucson FCV (2004) SUVs and (b) First generation Fuel cell (2006) [30].

Fig. 7. Development of FCV [30].

Table 2
Cost analysis of Gasoline and Fuel cell powered scooters [31].

Gasoline 50 cc 3.6 kW FC powered

powered scooter scooter
Refueling cost $16.7/GJ (¢65.1/L) $24/GJ (¢0.34/g)
On-vehicle mileage 65 mpg 344 mpg
Cost per distance ¢1.5/km ¢0.65/km
Annual cost $184 $78
Present value of fuel Over 10- $1130 $480
year lifetime

Technology Ltd.) developed the PEMFC hybrid electric scooter

named APFCT’s ZES IV.5 with rated power of 1.3 kW and rated out-
put current of 60 A. The motor, boost converter, battery manager,
ultracapacitor (UC) manager are the important components of
the system. Moriya [33] studied the active development of FCV
by HONDA. FCX (Honda-developed FCV) won the FCV approvals
in US and Japan and was delivered in July 2002. It had 78 kW fuel
cell stack which run 49 kW motor of the vehicle. The various FCV
developed by Honda are shown in Fig. 9.
Hwang et al. [34] integrated the light weight vehicle – Mingdao
hydrogen vehicle (MHV) with the 5 kW PEMFC. The MHV was
demonstrated at Taiwan in 2004. The fuel cell stack gives the driv-
ing force for the vehicle and empowers all subsystems. This stack
was having 70 cells with 150 cm2 active area. The nominal power
of 3.2 kW at 0.7 V and peak power of 5 kW at 0.6 V were obtained.
Cathode humidification, Hydrogen recirculation and water cooling
were some of the advantages of this system. While testing of MHV,
various safety precautions were experimented. The testing of MHV
Fig. 8. Fuel cell Hybrid Vehicle flow diagram [32].
is shown in Fig. 10. Ahluwalia et al. [35] studied the fuel economy
of hydrogen light duty vehicles. The hydrogen light duty vehicles
provided 2.5 and 2.7 times fuel economy for SUV and mid-size
vehicles respectively, when compared to conventional ICEV. Lane
et al. [36] studied a Plug-in fuel cell electric vehicle (PFCEV) which
has the advantages of both battery and fuel cell vehicles. PFCEV is
having a low weight, environmental qualities, driver convenience
and high efficiency due to small size of fuel cell and battery. PFCEV
will appear as the primary in automobile platform.
Das et al. [37] reviewed the research trend and state-of-art fuel
cell technologies applied on vehicles. Fuel cell, battery, Flywheel

Please cite this article as: M. Muthukumar, N. Rengarajan, B. Velliyangiri et al., The development of fuel cell electric vehicles – A review, Materials Today:
Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.03.679
 M. Muthukumar et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx 5

Fig. 9. Development of Honda fuel cell vehicles [33].

Fig. 10. Driving test of MHV [34].

Fig. 12. Fuel cell bus developed by Tsinghua University [40].

Fig. 11. Plug-in fuel cell city bus [38]. Fig.13. India’a First fuel cell bus – TATA STAR BUS.

Energy Systems (FES) and UC are the four main energy sources of
fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles. The control techniques of single
and multi stage hybrid vehicles were also discussed. Li et al. [38]
developed the plug-in fuel cell city bus of mass 80 t as shown in
Fig. 11 in 2015. The bus had 270 cells with 60 kW power stack.
The bus’s power demand was stable with the permanent route.
Soft run strategy was followed by Fuel Cell Systems (FCS) from
the input of battery. They analysed the performance degradation
of FCS. The rise in ohmic polarization was the prime factor in volt-
age decline.
Pei and Chen [39] reviewed the factors affecting the life time of
fuel cell vehicles. The first thing that affects the life time is the load
cycling. The load cycling is different for the fuel cell in stationery
applications and in vehicles. When current density is high the gen-
eration of water is high. Simultaneously when the current density
is low, the fluid generation is also low. The fuel cell life time is also
lowered by flooding and dehydration. Poor dynamic respond may
cause the anode or cathode to gas starvation during loading condi-
tions. Hua et al. [40] analyzed low pressure 5 kW stack (78 cells,
274 cm2 active area, 25 to 60 °C operating temperature) for tran-
sient responses experimentally. In 2004, Tsinghua University
developed the first Chinese fuel cell bus as shown in Fig. 12. When
the load is varying from higher to lower, the cathode flooding is
occurred. They concluded that the controlling of humidification is

Please cite this article as: M. Muthukumar, N. Rengarajan, B. Velliyangiri et al., The development of fuel cell electric vehicles – A review, Materials Today:
Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.03.679
6 M. Muthukumar et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
the dominant tool which improves cell performance. In India, Tata
motors introduced the first fuel cell bus ‘‘TATA STAR BUS” (Fig. 13)
in 2018 in collaboration with ISRO. The four hydrogen cylinders
with each 205 L capacity were mounted on bus roof. This bus has
a hydrogen fuel cell power system that makes 114 hp to carry 30
passengers and gives up to 60% efficiency.
Hou et al. [41] analyzed the factors affecting the efficiency of
fuel cell stack and FCE. Also the efficiency properties of single cell
and stack were analyzed. Both fuel cell stack and FCE were related
with Current, Power, consumption ratio of Hydrogen. These were
applied in the simulation studies of fuel cell vehicles. They con-
cluded that the stack power and efficiency of FCE are two main fac-
tors affecting the efficiency of FCV.
4. Conclusion
The working principle and the performance curves of fuel cells
used for FCEV are discussed. The various components and acces-
sories used in fuel cell systems and electric systems are studied.
The efficiency of a fuel cell is analysed in different load profiles.
The power source required to operate a vehicle is very high. As it
is unable run a vehicle in one single fuel cell, we tend to stack
the fuel cell in series or parallel to get the maximum power pro-
ductivity to operate the vehicle. When there is power demand,
the fuel cell uses battery power. The better water management
of FCS and the use of accessories like EMS and MDIBC can improve
the performance of FCEV. The development of FCEV by various
automobile companies in two wheeler and four-wheeler sectors
are discussed. From the comparison of ICEV and FCV, it is found
that the emissions, maintenance, noise, running cost and efficiency
are much better in FCV. The on-board generation of hydrogen for
FCV reduces the issues of hydrogen storage and handling. On
studying the above circumstances, we can get an idea to design
an efficient, low cost and long lasting fuel cell operated vehicles
for the future alternative. The FCHEV is the better pathway for
the development of FCEVs in future. Fuel cell vehicles are seen
by many as an appropriate solution to the growing problem of pol-
lution in India, especially the large metropolitan cities. This review
gives the great pathway for research and development of fuel cell
vehicles which are highly required to control the environmental
pollution in the world at present. In future, the practical issues in
implementations of FCEV especially in India can be reviewed for
their understanding and implementations. Further, the research
and development on solving the various issues in FCEV with the
support of government, will deploy FCEV in India in future.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
M. Muthukumar: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing -
original draft. N. Rengarajan: Project administration, Funding
acquisition. B. Velliyangiri: Writing - review & editing, Validation.
M.A. Omprakas: Supervision. C.B. Rohit: Investigation, Visualiza-
tion. U. Kartheek Raja: Software.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank AICTE, New Delhi, RPS project
File No.: 8-33/RIFD/RPS/POLICY-1/2016-17 and Nandha Engineer-
ing College, Erode for their support to this work.
Please cite this article as: M. Muthukumar, N. Rengarajan, B. Velliyangiri et al., The development of fuel cell electric vehicles – A review, Materials Today:
Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.03.679
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Please cite this article as: M. Muthukumar, N. Rengarajan, B. Velliyangiri et al., The development of fuel cell electric vehicles – A review, Materials Today:
Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.03.679