Particulate Science and Technology

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Hydraulic transportation of coal combustion

products for mine fill

Radha Rani & Manish Kumar Jain

To cite this article: Radha Rani & Manish Kumar Jain (2019) Hydraulic transportation of coal
combustion products for mine fill, Particulate Science and Technology, 37:1, 123-129, DOI:
10.1080/02726351.2017.1352634

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02726351.2017.1352634

Published online: 27 Dec 2017.

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PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
2019, VOL. 37, NO. 1, 123–129
https://doi.org/10.1080/02726351.2017.1352634

none defined

Hydraulic transportation of coal combustion products for mine fill

Radha Rani and Manish Kumar Jain
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Centre of Mining Environment, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Coal combustion product (CCP) is generated after combustion of coal in thermal power plants. Coal combustion product;
Generation of CCP depends on the combustion efficiency and properties of coal. Developing countries hydraulic transportation;
are producing large quantity of CCP due to the high ash content of coal. Utilization of CCP is a major mine filling; utilization
challenge to the technical and scientific community. In recent years, researches are trying to solve this
problem using of CCP in mine fill. Hydraulic transportation of CCP is a major concern for this type of
utilization. Present paper tries to compile various types of CCP along with studies related to hydraulic
transportation.

1. Introduction
Coal fired power plants for electrical generation in numerous
countries present ongoing challenges (Ram and Masto 2010).
Coal is used broadly as energy source in thermal power plants
for power generation. But the coal, which is used in thermal
power plant, creates a lot numbers of problems due to low
calorific value and very high ash content with an average value
of about 35–40% (Mishra 2004). So the thermal power plant
generates vast amount of ash.
Coal combustion product (CCP) contains fly ash, bottom
ash, boiler slag, flue gas desulfurization (FGD) materials, and
viscous gases (Kalyoncu 2000). In India, the percentage of
fly ash is higher (about 160 Mt per annum) as compare to
other CCP in thermal power plant (Behera and Mishra
2011). It is projected to be about 300 Mt per year by 2017
and 1000 Mt per year by 2032 (Kumar 2010). In India, at
the current time, only 50% of total fly ash is being profitably
utilized (Sahay 2010). The rest part is discarded in ash pond
and engages vast land area. The bulk consumption of
unexploited ash is a serious issue for thermal power plant,
authorities at present time (Mishra and Das 2010). The
difficulty will be harsh with growing coal-fired thermal power
plants. Underground mine voids have the potential to
accommodate huge fly ash. Pipelines are used for carrying
of fly ash in underground mines, but transportation is
challenging due to the rapid settling character of fly ash
particles because fly ash has superior specific gravity compares
to water. This review emphasizes the different combination of
fly ash and bottom ash at different solid to liquid ratio and
their advantages on the hydraulic transportation of fly ash.
present in the coal (Ram and Masto 2010). The description
of different types of CCP is given below.
2.1. Fly ash
Fly ash is a lighter portion, carried by flue gases into the
chimney and collected by electrostatic precipitators (Ram
and Masto 2010). In other words, it is the hugest fraction of
CCP, and fine inorganic particulate matter which collected
through fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators from the
flue gas produced by burning of pulverized coal (Neupane
and Donahoe 2013). It is a heterogeneous material primarily
consisting of amorphous aluminosilicate spheres with minute
amounts of unburned carbon, some iron-rich spheres, and
little bit crystalline phases (Kilaots, Hurt, and Suuberg 2004;
Tishmack and Burns 2004; Kutchko and Kim 2006;
Jegadeesan, Al-Abed, and Pinto 2008). Fly ash holds fine
particles along with SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, Mn2O3, TiO2, CaO
joined in phases such as aluminosilicate glass, quartz, mullite,
hematite, magnetite, ferrite, rutile together with a little
unburned carbon (Mallik and Chaudhuri 1999).
Fly ash is classified in two classes: class C and class F (Manz
1999).
According to ASTM standards (ASTM C618), lignite
produces class C fly ash while bituminous and subbituminous
coal produces class F ash (www.flyashindia.com, assessed on
May 23, 2009). Fly ash classification has also been based on
the amount of SiO2, Fe2O3, CaO, and Mg2O3 (Dewey, Sutter,
and Sandell 1996). The classification of fly ash is given in the
Table 1.

2. Types of CCP 2.1.1. Generation of fly ash

The CCP is inorganic and remains derived from the burning Fly ash is generated after burning of pulverized coal in the
of coal and also represents the noncombustible impurities boiler furnace and carried by flue gas, first flue gas is passed

CONTACT Radha Rani radhaenviro@gmail.com Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Centre of Mining Environment, Indian School of Mines,
Dhanbad, Jharkhand 826004, India.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/upst.
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
124 R. RANI AND M. K. JAIN

Table 1. Differences between class F and class C fly ash.

Class F
Class F fly ash produce after burning of harder
anthracite and bituminous coal
Class F fly ash contains less than 20% of lime
Alkali and sulfate contents are generally lower in
class F comparatively to class C fly ash
The oxides of Si, Fe, and K are higher in Class F
The quantities of CaO, MgO, SO3, and Na2O
are lower in Class F
This fly ash is rarely cementitious when mixed
with water
Class C References
Class C fly ash produce after burning of younger lignite or sub Page, Elseewi, and Straughan (1979)
bituminous coal
Class C fly ash contains more than 20% of lime Obla (2008)
Alkali and sulfate contents are higher in class C Page, Elseewi, and Straughan (1979)
The oxides of Si, Fe and K are lower in Class C Murty and NarasimhaRao (1999)
While the quantities of CaO, MgO, SO3, and Na2O are Murty and NarasimhaRao (1999)
higher in Class C
Class C fly ash usually cementitious properties Shetty (2005)

in super heater, then it goes to the reheater, from there it goes
to economizer, and then air preheater. Finally, it enters into
electrostatic precipitator. The pathway followed by flue gas is
given in Figure 1.
2.2. Bottom ash
Bottom ash is only 20% of the total ash. It is the heavy, coarse
fraction (>100 µm) which accumulates at the bottom of the
furnace (Ram and Masto 2010). Its particles are angular and
irregular in shape consisting of a rough surface texture and
generally dark gray to blackish in color. Due to its bigger size,
particles have not cementitious properties (Jain and Das 2014).
It contains agglomerated ash particles that are too large to be
carried in the flue gases and go down through open grates to
an ash hopper at the bottom of boiler (ADAA 2009).
2.3. Pond ash
A combination of both fly ash and bottom ash commonly
referred to as the pond ash, which is disposed of as slurry
through pipelines to ash pond (Ram and Masto 2010). Its
particles are coarser in size, porous in nature, very much
irregular in shape than fly ash. The irregular shaped particles
in the pond ash samples are crushed bottom ash. The ratio
of bottom ash and fly ash in pond ash is 80:20 (Senapati
et al. 2015). Transportation of 1 ton of ash needs approxi-
mately 20–40 m3 water (Jain and Das 2014).
2.4. Boiler slag
Boiler slag is the molten ash, which is collected at the bottom
of the cyclone and slag tap that is mixed with water. It is
hard, angular, and black colored particles those have a
smooth and glass-like appearance. The fast cooling of the
boiler slag causes it to immediately crystallize into a black,
dense, and fine-grained glassy mass that fractures into
angular particles (http://www.caer.uky.edu/kyasheducation/
boilerslag.shtml).
2.5. Fluidized bed combustion
The fluidized bed combustion (FBC) is a combustion
technology used to decrease the quantity of sulfur in the form
of sulfur oxides released into the atmosphere during burning
of sulfur-rich coal. FBC was created at the time of coal
combustion in the presence of crushed limestone as a bedding
material in fluidized form. It contains unburned coal, ash, and
spent bed material. The temperature required for fluidized bed
furnace is approximately 815 to 870°C while the other conven-
tional coal fired have furnaces (1400–1600°C) temperature
(Jain and Das 2014). Wang, Hedley, and Bolan (1994)
addressed that due to its low cast flexibility FBC technology
has become broadly used for reducing SO2 emissions from
power plants.
2.6. Flue gas desulfurization material
The remains of alkaline scrubbing of sulfur oxides from flue
gases of coal-based thermal power plants are known as FGD
material. FGD technology has removed 95% SO2 and can also
help in reducing the production of other acidic gases like SO3
and HCl (Srivastava 2000).

3. CCP and use

Figure 1. Pathway of fly ash generation (Rani and Jain 2015).
Coal combustion products are used in various applications,
few of them are cement and concrete, mine backfilling,
agriculture, blasting grit, roofing application, and waste
stabilization.
The use of class F fly ash in concrete is recorded by many
researches (Gopalan and Haque 1987; Tikalsky, Carrasquillo,
and Carrasquillo 1988; Langley, Carette, and Malhotra 1989;
Maslehuddin et al. 1989; Sivasundaram, Carette, and Malhotra
1991; Langley, Carette, and Malhotra 1992; Gopalan 1993;
Bilodeau et al. 1994; Oluokun 1994; Ghafoori, Cai, and
Ahmadi 1997; Bakoshi et al. 1998; Berg and Neal 1998; Hwang,
 PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 125

Noguchi, and Tomosawa 1998; Malhotra et al. 2000). When

concrete containing fly ash, fly ash reaction products fill, the
spaces between hydrating cement particles, thus bringing
down the concrete permeability to water and aggressive
chemicals (Manmohan and Mehta 1981).
In the current years, due to rapid development of
technology, demand of cement is increasing day by day
(Harison, Srivastava, and Herbert 2014). Fly ash shows
pozzolanic property, so, it is used in cement replacement
(Christy and Tensing 2010).
The grain size distribution of ash particles falls within the
silt range with small percentage of fine sand, which is best
for road embankment (Jafri and Kumar 2013), and the another
reason for use of fly ash in road embankment is the presence
of high content of calcium and silicate oxides in the fly ash.
The road constructed by fly ash gives high compression
strength (Mulder 1996; Lahtinen 2001).
Fly ash has great potential in agriculture due to its
efficiency in modification of soil health and crop yield (Basu Figure 2. Flow curves for different fluids. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Viscosity.
et al. 2009). The bearing of all important plant nutrients such
as N, P, K, Mg, Ca, S, and micronutrients makes it a nutrient
source for plant and increases yield of various crops (Aitken, 4. Flow properties of fluids
Campbell, and Bell 1984; Wong and Wong 1989; Kene et al. The fluid classification explained in Figure 2 on the relation-
1991; Ko 2000). ship between shear stress and shear rate (or shear strain)
Use of fly ash as a stowing material in addition to providing (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity).
an alternative to scared river bed sand is economical and safe The relationship between shear stress and shear rate is
material. It further helps in isolation of underground fire areas linear when the fluids are Newtonian in nature. This is
in coal mines. According to Poon, Qiao, and Cheeseman expressed by the following straight-line equation:
(2005) and Luna et al. (2009), fly ash also uses for waste
stabilization. s ¼ gc
The boiler slag is exclusively used in the construction
of blasting grit. Its use as roofing granules is also an where s ¼ shear stress (Pa), g ¼ viscosity (Pa · s), and c ¼ shear
important market area. Almost 90% of boiler slag applica- rate (s 1).
tions make by blasting grit and roofing granules. About The fluids which do not follow this type of linear relation-
65% of bottom ash is used in road base/subbase, structural ship are known as non-Newtonian fluids. The downward
fill, and snow and ice control (Kalyoncu 2000). Table 2 curve represents shear thickening or dilatants behavior and
shows the CCP production and their use in different field the upward curve represents shear thinning or pseudo-plastic
in 2013 (http://www.acaa-usa.org/Publications/Production- behavior. The dilatant fluids are characterized by growing
Use-Reports). viscosity and shear stress while expanding the shear rate

Table 2. Coal combustion product (CCP) production and use survey report 2013.
Beneficial utilization versus production totals (short tons)
Bottom Boiler FGD FGD material FGD material CCP production/
2013 CCP categories Fly ash ash slag gypsum wet scrubbers dry scrubbers FGD other FGD ash utilization totals
Total CCP produced by category 53,400,000 14,450,000 1,355,939 24,400,000 8,514,789 687,706 1,557,431 10,326,745 114,692,610
Total CCP used by category 23,321,230 5,640,693 897,185 11,921,154 830,872 189,218 0 8,583,877 51,384,229
Concrete products/grout 12,356,726 494,074 0 263,742 0 5,710 0 0 13,120,252
2. Blended cement/feed for clinker 2,286,144 1,324,131 0 1,080,832 83,817 0 0 0 4,774,924
3. Flowable fill 41,841 2,301 0 0 0 0 0 0 44,142
4. Structural fills/embankments 3,005,136 1,912,283 0 966,334 268,816 0 0 0 6,152,569
5. Road base/sub-base 136,318 228,517 0 0 0 2,026 0 0 366,861
6. Soil modification/stabilization 268,462 457,070 1,000 3,827 0 102 0 92,556 823,017
7. Snow and ice control 0 421,087 11,797 0 0 0 0 0 432,884
8. Blasting grit/roofing granules 4,150 17,672 884,861 0 0 0 0 0 906,683
9. Mining application 1,843,292 250,113 0 1,562,373 478,239 139,244 0 8,403,003 12,676,264
10. Gypsum panel products 0 0 0 7,466,839 0 0 0 0 7,446,839
11. Waste stabilization/solidification 2,034,182 59,751 727 0 0 3,948 88,318 2,186,926
12. Agriculture 15,644 217 0 582,244 0 0 0 0 598,105
13. Aggregate 3,976 293,932 10,681 0 0 5,136 0 210,363 524,088
14. Oil field services 313,373 73,883 0 0 0 25,954 0 0 413,210
15. Miscellaneous/other 1,011,986 105,662 0 14,963 0 0 0 0 1,132,611
FGD, flue gas desulfurization.
Source: http://www.acaa-usa.org/Portals/9/Files/PDFs/2013ReportFINAL.pdf.
126 R. RANI AND M. K. JAIN
(Lemmer, Hartmann, and Wolf 1999), whereas pseudo-plastic
fluids show a reduced alteration of shear stress when increas-
ing the shear rate. The fluids are known as Bingham plastic
fluid when they do not show any flow until a threshold shear
stress. The pseudo-plastic behavior of a fluid is well expressed
by the following equation:
s ¼ KðcÞn
where s ¼ shear stress (Pa), K ¼flow consistency index (Pa · s),
c ¼ shear rate (s 1), and n ¼flow behavior index.
K is equivalent to viscosity and n is a number smaller than
1. When n ¼ 1, the pseudo-plastic behavior turns into
Newtonian behavior. More the deviation of n from 1 on either
side, the flow character deviates more and more away from
Newtonian behavior (Sanin 2002). The power law describes
3 flow behavior:
Pseudo-plastic (n < 1.0)—the effective viscosity decreases with
shear rate.
Newtonian (n ¼ 1)—the effective viscosity does not change
with shear rate.
Dilatants (n > 1.0)—The effective viscosity increases with
shear rate (Rawat and Jain 2014).
5. Factors affecting rheology of CCP
Slurry viscosity is one of the essential rheological properties
which can be used during the transportation of CCP in under-
ground mine. Variables which can have a very clear effect on
the flow behavior of slurry is pH, particle size distribution,
solid concentration (Brown and Heywood 1991) shear rates,
and temperature (He, Wang, and Forssberg 2004). The impor-
tant factor which affects the viscosity of slurry is given below.
5.1. Temperature
Naik, Mishra, and Rao Karanam (2009) and Shah and Jeong
(2003) performed that viscosity decreases at higher tempera-
ture. It was also observed that the values of shear stress also
decreased with an increase in temperature (Shenoy 1976;
Shenoy 1984).
5.2. Pressure
The effect of pressure on rheological properties of cement
slurry could be neglected because it is not predominant
(American Petroleum Institute Recommended Practice, 13D,
1995). But the Chandel, Seshadri and Singh (2009) found that
there is a reduction in pressure when additive like soap
solution is added in high concentration fly ash slurry.
Table 3. The different factors and their effect on rheology.
Factors Effects
Temperature increase Viscosity decrease
Pressure increase Neglected
Particle size increases Viscosity decreases
Solid concentration increase Viscosity increases
5.3. Particle size distribution
The rheological behavior of concentrated slurry is strongly
related to the particle size (Tangsathitkulchai and Austin
1988). Bunn and Chambers (1993) and Ward, Bunn, and
Chambers (1999) examined the hydraulic transportation of
dense fly ash–water slurry having a particle size of 17 µ. Biswas
et al. (2000) and Senapati, Panda, and Parida (2009) show that
if decreases particle size (particularly when the particle size
distribution is narrow), viscosity of slurry is increasing.
5.4. Concentration
The slurry rheology is also a function of solid concentration.
Fly ash above 40% concentration by weight shows non-
Newtonian behavior and when concentration increases,
viscosity also increases (Sive and Lazarus 1986; Bunn and
Chambers 1993; Biswas et al. 2000).
5.5. Effect of chemicals
According to Biswas et al. (2000), Seshadri et al. (2005),
Matras, Malcher, and Gzyl-Malcher (2007), and Verma, Singh,
and Seshadri (2006), some chemical additives decrease the
energy consumption and water requirements. These chemical
additives also allowed the slurries to be pumped at a much
higher concentration and help in reduced ash pond size. Naik
et al. also observed that the fly ash–water slurry rheology is
strongly influenced by the chemical additives. The occurrence
of elements such as iron oxide, aluminum, and other alkaline
earth materials in the fly ash slurry gives rise to adverse
rheological properties and these effects were cancelled by the
addition of surfactant (CTAB) that formed charged complexes
with the fly ash particles.
The different factors and their effect on rheology of fly ash
are shown in Table 3.
6. Preparation of slurry
For rheometric tests, 100 ml of fly ash slurry was prepared by
mixing the required amount of CCP with desired distilled
water to obtain the desired concentration (CW) (Senapati
et al. 2012). An electronic analytical balance with a resolution
of 10 3 gm was used for materials weighing precisely. To avoid
attrition of the particles, the suspension was mixed gently by a
glass rod. It is allowed to wet for at least 1 h before conducting
the tests in a constant temperature bath (circulator). After
preparation, the suspension was covered with aluminum foil
to avoid evaporation of water from the suspension, and about
19 ml of the slurry sample was poured into the cup. The slurry
was well stirred with a glass rod and the bob was lowered into
the cup, so that the free surface touches the top of the bob
References
Naik, Mishra, and Rao Karanam (2009), Shah and Jeong (2003)
American Petroleum Institute Recommended Practice
Biswas et al. (2000), Senapati, Panda, and Parida (2009)
Bunn and Chambers (1993), Sive and Lazarus (1986)
 PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 127

Table 4. Different ratio of fly ash and bottom ash combinations and their advantages on rheology.
S.No. Combination Ratios Solid concentration Advantages References
1. Fly ash þ bottom ash 4:1 CW ¼ 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% The slurry with a mix of fine and coarse Kumar et al. (2003)
particles requires less energy for
transportation
Some optimum particle size distribution
the energy required is less than the
energy required for fine slurry
2. Fly ash þ bottom ash 8:1 CW ¼ 60%, 65%, % Addition of bottom ash fractions to fly ash Senapati and Mishra (2012)
slurry has a helpful effect in reducing
the pumping power requirement
during disposal of coal combustion
product at higher solid concentration
7:1 Head loss also decreased with addition
6:1 of bottom ash fraction in mixture
5:1
4:1
3. Fly ash þ bottom ash 5:1 CW ¼ 62.5%, 65%, 67.5% The addition of bottom ash fraction to fly Senapati, Mishra, and
ash slurry reduced the apparent Parida (2013)
viscosity of slurry
Affecting the head loss
4. Bottom ash þ fly ash 9:1 CW ¼ 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% The addition of fly ash in bottom ash Kumar et al. (2014)
slurry reduces the viscosity of the slurry
at higher concentration also improves
the pump performance in terms of head
ratio and efficiency
8:2 Reduced the power input
7:3
5. Fly ash þ bottom ash 9:1 CW ¼ 60%, 65% The addition of bottom ash fraction in fly Senapati et al. (2015)
8:2 ash has a beneficial effect on pumping
7:3 power requirement
6:4

(Naik, Mishra, and Rao Karanam). The viscosity and shear
stress were calculated under the controlling shear rate. The
rheological data for ash slurry samples at required solid weight
concentrations were obtained in a computer screen.
Steady-state shear measurements were performed at room
temperature of 30°C (Senapati, Panda, and Parida 2009).
Several rheometers are used for rheological study of slurry.
The names of some rheometers are given below
1. Bohlin-controlled stress rheometer (Shah and Jeong 2003).
2. A concentric cylinder rheometer (Rheostress RS150L,
Haake, Germany) (Yuanling, Xiaolin, and Chen 2004).
3. Anton PaarRheometer (model Physica MCR 101) (Naik,
Mishra, and Rao 2011).
4. HAAKE rotational viscometer (Model RV 30) supplied by
M/S Haake Mess Technik, Germany (Senapati, Panda,
and Parida 2009).
5. Haake RV 100 rotational viscometer Karlsruhe, Germany
(Bhattacharya, Panda, and Bandopadhyay 1998).
6. HAAKE Rotational Viscometer (Model RV 30) (Senapati
et al. 2012).
7. Fann viscometer (Kumar et al. 2014).
7. Rheological properties of CCP
Several coal-fired thermal power plants discard fly ash and
bottom ash to ash pond in lean aqueous solid concentration
with solid content of 15–20% through pipelines (Bunn 1989;
Kumar et al. 2003; Seshadri et al. 2005). Naik, Mishra, and
Rao (2011) discuss transportation of fly ash in pipelines as lean
aqueous slurry requiring more energy input and 80 to 85% of
water. Rawat and Jain (2014) show that the presence of any
coarser material with fly ash making easier flow during
hydraulic transportation. Vlasak, Chara, and Stern (2010) also
reported that the attractive inter particle forces slow down
after addition of coarse ash particles (bottom ash) and result
in aggregate destruction formed by the ultrafine fly ash parti-
cles, thereby bringing down the slurry viscosity. The possible
breakage of fine aggregates in the presence of relative higher
quantity of coarse ash particles contributed in dropping the
shear stress value. Sometimes the addition of coarse particles
in the fine particulate slurry does not change the flow
characteristics at low solid concentration (Kumar et al.
2003). Senapati et al. (2012) found that the small proportion
sodium silicate (0.2–0.6% of the total solids) addition also
reduce the slurry viscosity. Table 4 shows the different ratio
of fly ash and bottom ash combination and their advantages
on rheology.
8. Conclusion
The utilization of CCP is essential for thermal power plant to
maintain healthy environment. It deals with huge consump-
tion of fly ash because the percentage of fly ash generation
in thermal power plant is 80% of the total ash. The main
aim is to focus on the long distance pipeline transportation
of fly ash by reducing water and electricity demand. According
to the previous study, the slurry of fly ash and bottom ash ratio
at different solid to liquid concentrations decrease the slurry
viscosity and help in reducing the pumping power require-
ment. But another side water conservation part is left. So for
the water conservation purpose, more studies should be
performed for slurry of fly ash and with different other
CCPs at different solid to liquid concentration. This purpose
will fulfil by increasing the solid concentration parallel to
128 R. RANI AND M. K. JAIN
decreasing water concentration to find out the better product
for mine fill through rheological properties.
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