250

f10
River Engineering
Lecture notes f10

September 1993 Prof.dr. M. de Vries

,Pi
TUDelft Faculty of Civil Engineering
Departmentof Hydraulic Engineering

Delft Universityof Technology

 250

River Engineering

fl0 juli 1993 650250 fl.l0.00

 page

4. .Solving river problems

4.1 Introduetion 73
4.2 Tools
4.2.1 Introduetion 76
4.2.2 Numerical models 77
4.2.3 Scale models 82
4.2.4 Hybride models 85
4.3 Flood mitigation
4.3.1 Introduetion 87
4.3.2 Detention reservoirs 88
4.3.3 Flood mitigation middle-river 91
4.3.4 Design of flood way 96
4.3.5 Applications 102
4.4 Bank proteetion
4.4.1 Introduetion 106
4.4.2 Types of structures 107
4.4.3 Morphological aspects 109
4.4.4 Alignment etc. 112

Main symbols 117

Literature 119

Annex I Dimensional analysis 127

Annex,11 On the design of scale models 131

2
 page

4. .Solving river problems

4.1 Introduetion 73
4.2 Tools
4.2.1 Introduetion 76
4.2.2 Numerical models 77
4.2.3 Scale models 82
4.2.4 Hybride models 85
4.3 Flood mitigation
4.3.1 Introduetion 87
4.3.2 Detention reservoirs 88
4.3.3 Flood mitigation middle-river 91
4.3.4 Design of flood way 96
4.3.5 Applications 102
4.4 Bank proteetion
4.4.1 Introduetion 106
4.4.2 Types of structures 107
4.4.3 Morphological aspects 109
4.4.4 Alignment etc. 112

Main symbols 117

Literature 119

Annex I Dimensional analysis 127

Annex,11 On the design of scale models 131

2
1 INTRODUCTION

The aim of river engineering is to 'improve' rivers. This implies human

interference in river systems. Before the actual interference takes place it is
necessary to predict whether the improvement anticipated will indeed be
reached. It is then also possible to investigate whether side effects may take
place leading to a disimprovement.

The forecasting of the effects of interference is carried out by using modeIs.

This is a three-step approach:
(i) The river is schematised into a model-river
(ii) The problem is solved for the model-river
(iii) This solution is interpreted for the real river

These three steps are linked. The schematisation has to be reliable otherwise
interpretation of the model-solution is not possible.

In all cases the model has to be calibrated. This means that field measurements
have to be used to adjust coefficients (such as Chézy-roughness). In the ideal
case other field measurements have to be used for the verification of the
model. This is necessary to judge the accuracy of the model.

At this stage it is not yet necessary to specify whether a numerical model or a

scale model is used. Both types are used in river engineering. Also combina-
tions are used. For a general reference to the application of models for river
problems De Vries (1993b) can be mentioned.

In these lecture notes the main attention is on the prediction of morphological

changes in rivers due to natural causes or human interference. These changes
are of a time-depending nature. At present (1993) for these predictions mainly
numerical models are used. These models are available at various degrees of
sophistication. Besides numerical models also some analytical models are
described. They provide insight into the nature of morphological processes and
are therefore indispensable tools (Section 2.3).

3
Thus Eq. (2.26) becomes:

(uo + u~ -êx {u
o + u' } + g-Bx {a
0
+,,} =g
.
'0 - g.
(u +
0
U~3
C2q (2.35)
0 0

As oujox = 0 and oajox = 0 as weIl as io = this gives

u Bu' 0" 3u~ u' (2.36)

o ox + g OX =:: - C2q g

From Eq. (2.27) follows:

(2.37)

or

u' =:: (2.38)

Combination of Eqs (2.36) and (2.38) gives

u; {O'f/-
- - - -
oz} + g -
O'f/ _
- - g -
3u; {Uo- - ('f/ - z)
} (2.39)
ao OX OX êx C2q ao

or

O'f/ 2 OZ
g { 1 - Fro
2 }
- + g • Fro - = g • -3i 0
('f/ - z) (2.40)
ox OX ao

Thus with ao = 1 - Fr~ and Ao = 3i)ao

a -O'f/ + (1 - a \ -OZ = A (" - Z) (2.41)

o Bx ol Bx 0

15
2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL MODELS (pRINCIPLE)

2.1 Genera!

In the one-dimensional approach the morphological parameters (flow velocity,

sediment transport, depth and bed level) are averaged over the cross-section.
The discussion in this Chapter on one-dimensional models will mainly focus on
models with two additional underlying assumptions.
Uniform bed material is supposed to be present. At any rate the absence
.of grain sorting is assumed. Hence the grain size is not a function of
time and space.
Fixed banks are postulated. Or, in other words the erodibility of the
banks is much smaller than that of the bed due to natura! causes or
human interference (bank protection).

After a discussion of the basic equations (Section 2.2) some simplifications can
be made for subcritical flow with moderate Froude numbers.

Then in Section 2.3 analytical models are treated. This can only be done after
additional schematisation of the basic equations. Moreover it appears that
analytical solutions can only be obtained for specific boundary conditions.
Nevertheless some practical applications can be given.

In Section 2.4 numerical models are considered. In this Section also some
practical problems and their solution are mentioned.

2.2 Basic equations

The dependent variables are (Fig. 2.1)
flow velocity u (x,t)

h a sediment transport stx.t)

water depth a (X,t)
bed level z(x,t)
In some cases the water level h = z +a
Fig. 2.1 Definition sketch
will be considered. The width of the
river Btx.t) is supposed to be known.

5
Considering a constant width leads to the possibility to take the basic equations
for the unit of width. The basic equations are:

au
- +
au
u- + g-
aa + g-
az = _gulul (2.1)
at ax àx êx Cla

az as = 0 (2.2)
at + ax

aa
- + u-
aa +
au
a- = 0 (2.3)
at Bx àx

s = .f{u, parameters) (2.4)

Remarks
(i) Equation (2.3) is the continuity equation for water if sediment is absent.
The equation can here be used if s/q < < 1, which is usually the case.
(ii) At this stage no specific transport formula is used. Equation (2.4)
expresses the essential assumption that the loeal transport is governed by
the loeal hydraulic parameters of which only u is supposed to vary in
time and space.
(iii) The alluvial roughness appears twice in the basic equations. The
momentum equation (Eq. (2.1» contains the Chézy value in the
hydraulic friction term. Moreover the roughness is one of the parameters
in the transport formula, Eq. (2.4). For this first analysis it is assumed
C(x,t) = C = constant.

The Eqs (2.2) and (2.4) can easily be combined into

az + d .f{u) au = 0 (2.5)
at d u ax

Hence Eqs (2.1), (2.3) and (2.5) form a system of three partial differential
equations in the three dependent variables u, a and z.

6
 the bifurcation (BulIe, 1926). Hence the bifurcation determines SI/S2' In
practice it is not easy to establish this ratio.

2.4.5 Numerical schemes

A number of schemes are in use to solve the basic morphological equations

numerically. Here only the cases for which Eqs (2.100) and (2.101) apply will
be considered. Hence for the decoupled equations valid for subcritical flow with
Fr < 0.6 to 0.8.
A complete numerical solution of Eqs (2.100) and (2.101) is obtained by
altemating steps

Step I: Solve Eq. (2.100)for given values z

Step 11:Solve Eq. (2.101)for given values u

In this Sub-section only some attention is given to step 11.For the first step i.e.
the determination of the flow profile any suitable methode can be used.

For a detailed overview of varlous possible schemes for Eq. (2.101) reference
can be made to Vreugdenhil (1982). Explicit schemes can be usedbecause the
celerity C is rather small so large time steps can be made. A class of difference
schemes can be indicated based on the following difference equations.
n+1
Zk - Zk
n n
Sk+1 - Sk
n-I
+ +
M 2t.x

- _1_ [ {aZ+1 + aZ} {Z:+I - Z:} - {aZ + aZ_I} {Z: - Z:_I} ] = 0 (2.107)
4M

in which z: = z(ktu, nAt).

The coefficient a can be chosen in different ways for (J = coü Sx

(i) a = 1 gives the original scheme by Lax (1954)
(ii) a = (J gives a form of an upstream difference (Godunov) scheme
(iii) a = al gives a form of the Lax-Wendroff (1960) scheme
(iv) a = al + B with a smalt adjustable coefficient B results in an

37
 1
10 , I I 1.1

'\ " ,~-1+Fr \

-T-t- -- -_.
~ 0
i\4>-1.Fr
.- r--

~ 10 I- = 1 ± Fr-I} (2.9)
/'7
\
V
4>1,2

UI
>
·1
10 \'( 4>3 = 0
F
:sw .2
a:: 10

Or in dimensional form

C1,2 = U + s: } (2.10)
ol C3 =0
10 0 0.2 0.6 1 1.4
--- Fr

Fig. 2.2 Celerities for fixed bed

Thus the familiar celerities of small disturbances of the water level for a fixed
bed are found again.

• Mobile bed, moderate Froude numbers

Equation (2.7) has for physically relevant values of if; and Fr always three
real roots. In Fig. 2.3 the three roots are plotted graphically. Only small
values of if; are used as usually if; = ns/q < < 1. Apparently for moderate
Froude numbers (say Fr < 0.6 to 0.8) the celerities of the water levels are
not influenced by the mobility of the bed.
Thus like in the case of if; = 0 it holds

,I..
0/1,2
= 1 +
-
Fr-I (2.11)

Equation (2.7) can be written as

(2.12)

8
 0
10
~

~ ----
-,

~
a:
"~ V
~
~

w
SYMBOl ~EGARDS
Fr<1 FT'> ~
SIGN
d_
...J ·1
- WATERlEVEL+ +

;(
~\
W
o
10
--
_----_.
..
WATERlEVEL-
BEDlEVEL +
+
/~ -
W "
I ""
> '«1'=10.2 ---_.....,
", " "
I ,
'...
"'..."" .. ....'1'-10-2
-2 _---- I ,\
10 I
I
\ .................
~ I
I \
\ ..............
W I \
,,
I
,
a: ,"
I;'" "
I
I
1,

"
1 • "-,
'"...' ~,
1 •
I
••,
_ ..".--"
,'"...
'«1'-10-3
1
I
•• " ' ...... '1'-10-3
·3
10
------- I
I
I
I
I
\
\
\
...

............
I \ ...............
I
I
•• \
\
, I
• \
\ ,,
""
I

I <t> I " ,
" •,
1 •
~,
,,'"...'"
I
1
•• ......
'«1'-10-4 -_ .......,., 1
1
......... '1'-10-4
-4
10
------- I
1
I
I
• •,
\
.........
....
I \
.........

t
I \
I \
I \
,,
/'
I
,
"
,'"...'" " '... '«1'-10-5
·5 ...-.----- ----- "
'«1'-10-5 " .........

10 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

.. Fr FROUDE NUMBER

Fig. 2.3. Relative celerities (after de Vries, 1969)

9
• Trees
The most simple hydraulic situation is present if only the sterns of the trees are
under water. This was for instanee the case in the flood plain of the Danube R.
as reported by Vincent and Strauss (1975).
The effective shear stress ('TJ consists then of the shear stress ('TI) due to the bed
roughness and the equivalent shear-stress ('TJ due to the trees. The latter can be
found as follows.
Each stem (diameter D) excerts a force F to the flow with

F = ..!.pC
2 D
• u2 • Da (3.66)

The drag coefficient CD is generally a function of Reynolds number (Re). If n

trees are present per unit area then

(3.67)

This leads to the effective Chézy-value (Ce) via 'Te = TI + 1'2 in the following
relationship

1 n • C • A
+ - D (3.68)
C~ 2g

Note that n has the dimension [L-2].

If only the stem of the trees is under water then A = D.a. However, if also the
top of the trees are partly under water A will increase with the water level. This
was found in a scale-model study (DHL, 1970). For this study the scales of Fr
and Re basically have to be equals unity. This implies that then only the trivial
solution of a full-scale model is possible (Annex 11).However, given the cha-
racteristics of the sterns (rough cylinders) and the values of D involved, CD is
not too much dependent on Re as long as D is not too small. This reasoning
makes it possible to apply such scale models.

• Hedges
In the flood plain of the Rhine R. and the Meuse R. in the Netherlands hedges
are frequently used to mark the boundaries between the different landed

69
 Figure 2.3 shows that 1 <P21 ., 1 <P31 for Fr = 1. Hence with <PI = 2 this
gives here

(2.18)

• For supercritical flow (Fr> 1) and not too close to critica1 flow Fig. 2.3
shows that two roots are again not influenced by the mobility of the bed. The
two celerities of the water surface are now both positive. However, as again

(2.19)

the third root, that cao be identified with the celerity of a small disturbaoce at
the bed is here negative. This is in accordaoce with the behaviour of
antidunes propagating opposite to the flow direction.

The aoalysis is particularly of importance for moderate Froude numbers

(Fr < 0.6 to 0.8) because it follows that in this case the water movement and
the sediment movement cao be decoupled. Moreover for this case yields
c3 < < 1 CI,21 or <P3 < < 1 <PI,21 (Fig. 2.3). This mak~s a further
schematisation possible (Fig. 2.4).

GENERAL TIDALCOMP. MORPH. COMP.

dt-O
t t

T
t

t "~ t '~ Cz t I

c3 c3 :
C3 ! Cz I
I

-- X --- X ---- X

Fig. 2.4 Possible schematisations for Fr < 0.6 to 0.8

11
 Figure 2.4 shows the x-t plane for the general case of the propagation of
disturbances in an open channel with a mobile bed. In this case
(Fr < 0.6 to 0.8) the values of Cl and C2 are not influenced by the mobility of
the bed. Hence if only the water movement has to be computed (for tidal waves
or flood waves in rivers) it can be stated I C ,21
l >> c3 or C3 = O. In other
words during the time interval important for the computations of the water
movement (say days) it can be assumed that the bed is fixed.

However, if time depending changes of a river bed are studied it can be

concluded from I C .21
l >> C3 that 2
Cl• -+ ± 00. Thus the flow can then be
considered as quasi-steady. This means that for rivers (not for tidal rivers) the
terms au/at and aa/at can then be neglected with respect to the other terms in
their respective equations.

The water equations become then

au
u- aa
+ g- + g-= - g-
az u2 (2.20)
ax ax ax (!la

u aa + a au = aq = 0 (2.21)
ax ax ax

Remark
Note that integration of öq/öx = 0 leads to q = q(t). Thus the discharge may
still vary in time. At any time t, however, the discharge is constant for every x
and the Eqs (2.20) and (2.21) are the differential equations for theflow profile
present at time t.

2.3 Analytical models

2.3.1 General

It is attractive to study analytical solutions based on the schematised one-

dimensional morphological equations. After the schematisation carried out in

12
 Examples of groynes can e.g. be found in Jansen et al. (1979) and Petersen (1986).

4.4.3 Morphological aspects

The bed level to be chosen at the toe of the bank proteetion is an important
morphological problem. The design bed-level is govemed by four more or less
independent morphological processes.
(i) Overall degradation of the river is possible.
(ii) Seasonal degradation may be present.
(iii) . Constriction scour may be induced.
(iv) Local scour may be induced by groynes.

The four possible processes have a different length- and time-scale. Therefore
superposition seems possible. Below the four processes are given attention.

• Overall degradation
Logically the degradation process that is already in progress has to be considered.
However, also possibly induced future degradation has to be taken into account.
This is for instanee necessary for the design of a bank proteetion in the Mekong
River near Vientiane. Upstream of Vientiane the construction of a dam with reser-
voir (Pa Mong dam) is planned. If this dam is built then overall degradation down-
stream can be expected.
Basically the degradation can be estimated by means of a one-dimensional morpho-
logical model.

• Seasonal degradation
This degradation due to the variation of the discharge in time is a change in the bed
level in the cross-sections. It is for instance of large importance for the Mekong
River near Vientiane (see Sub-section 4.4.4).
Another possibility regards the river flowing around an island. At the upstream end
of the island a bifurcation is present. Hence the distribution of Q and S may vary
in time and cause seasonal bed-level variations. This can be very significant as was
measured in the Mekong River. It is not so easy to tackle this problem with a
morphological model as a bifurcation is involved.

109
they give insight into the physics of morphological processes.

Linearisation can be carried out for cases in which variation from an originally
equilibrium situation (subscript 0) is studied. The original bed slope is io and the
x-axis is now taken along the original bed slope, still positive downstream.
The basic equations then become

(2.26)

u(h - z) = q (2.27)

s = j{u) (2.28)

(2.29)

For the linearisation it is assumed (see Ribberink and Van der Sande, 1984)

u = uo + UI with (2.30)

h = ao + 11 with (2.31)

a = ao + t with (2.32)

This gives

(2.33)

Moreover small bed changes are assumed, thus

(2.34)

14
Thus Eq. (2.26) becomes:

(uo + u~ -êx {u
o + u' } + g-Bx {a
0
+,,} =g
.
'0 - g.
(u +
0
U~3
C2q (2.35)
0 0

As oujox = 0 and oajox = 0 as weIl as io = this gives

u Bu' 0" 3u~ u' (2.36)

o ox + g OX =:: - C2q g

From Eq. (2.27) follows:

(2.37)

or

u' =:: (2.38)

Combination of Eqs (2.36) and (2.38) gives

u; {O'f/-
- - - -
oz} + g -
O'f/ _
- - g -
3u; {Uo- - ('f/ - z)
} (2.39)
ao OX OX êx C2q ao

or

O'f/ 2 OZ
g { 1 - Fro
2 }
- + g • Fro - = g • -3i 0
('f/ - z) (2.40)
ox OX ao

Thus with ao = 1 - Fr~ and Ao = 3i)ao

a -O'f/ + (1 - a \ -OZ = A (" - Z) (2.41)

o Bx ol Bx 0

15
Now also the sediment equations, Eqs (2.28) and (2.29) can be linearised

az + [ dJtU)] • au' = 0 (2.42)

at du 0 Bx

or with Eq. (2.38)

. { Bz _ a.,.,
Bx êx } = 0 (2.43)

or with

(2.44)

àz + c az _ c a.,., = 0 (2.45)
at 0 ax 0 ax

Thus the combination of Eqs (2.41) and (2.45) gives the general linearised
morphological equations in the dependent variables .,.,and z.
The following two special cases can be distinguished.
• The parabolic model is valid if backwater effects can be neglected. This
means in practice if only large values of x (and t) are considered. Thus the
assumption au/ax = 0 and aa/ax = 0 are made. This can be reached by
putting CXo = 0 in Bq. (2.41) without stating, however, that Fr~ = 1. Thus

az =
-ax A (.,.,- z) (2.46)
0

or

az } (2.47)
ax

Elimination of a.,.,/ax from Eqs (2.45) and (2.47) gives

az
at
+ c
0
az _
ax
c
0
{A 0
-1 az
2
ax 2
+ az }
àx
= 0 (2.48)

16
 Thus

OZ _ K 02Z = 0 (2.49)
at 0 OX2

• The simple-wave equation is found if for small x (and t) the resistance term is
neglected. Equation (2.41) becomes then

a 0'1] + (1 - a \ OZ = 0 (2.50)
o Bx ol êx

Combination with Eq. (2.45) gives

• The hyperbolic model expressed in Eqs (2.41) and (2.45) can also be written
as a second order partial differential equation in z.
Combining Eqs (2.41) and (2.45) gives:

(2.52)
az + C az _ c { __ 1_-_a_o _az + _Ao ('1]
u!lt 0 ax 0
« ax «:

or

oz + -
Co az
- - ~
c A
('1] - z) =0 (2.53)
at =, ax =,

Thus

(2.54)

17
Or, again using Bq. (2.45)

-1
Co
àz + az ] Co Ao
+ -- -
az = 0 (2.55)
[ at ax 010 ax

Hence

az 010 az
2
(2.56)
at Ao axat
Or

(2.57)

if again K; = cfA, is used.

It has been shown by Vreugdenhil (1982) that indeed if a small length L has to
be considered that the hyperbolic model expressed in Bq. (2.57) reduces to the
simple-wave model of Bq. (2.51) and reduction to the parabolic model of Bq.
(2.49) if large values of L are of importance. In dimensionless form the validity
of the models can be judged by means of the Péclet number P = CJ)OI~o.

type equation validity

az
- + ---
Co az = 0
simple wave model at CXO OX
small x and t

az -K-a2z
- = 0
parabolic model at o OX2 large x and t

--- az a [az ax 1 = 0
az
CO

«,«, at - ax at
CD
hyperbolic model + CXo general

Table 2.1 One-dimensional models (linearised)

18
 In Table 2.1 a summary of the three models discussed is given. Therefore
Eq. (2.57) has been rewritten in a slightly different way. For small Péclet
numbers the simple-wave model follows whereas for large Péclet numbers the
parabolic model applies.

2.3.2 Practical applications

In Chapter 1 it is stated that analytica1 models can be used to gain insight into
morphologica1 phenomena. In the first place an application of the parabolic
model of Eq. (2.49) can be given. It regards a morphological time-scale
(De Vries, 1975).

• The parabolic model can be derived straight forward from the basic equations
in the following way. The derivation is based on the assumption that the flow
is not only quasi-steady but also quasi-uniform. Hence the momentum
equation reduces to

= _g~ = gaZ (2.58)

Cl-q êx

Differentiation with respect to x leads to

(2.59)

This can be combined with the combined sediment equations

az + df(u) au = 0 (2.60)
at du Bx

into

az -K-
a2z = 0 (2.61)
at ax2

19
with

(2.62)

See also Jansen et al. (1979).

Only differentation with respect to x has been carried out. Hence the time t is
treated as a parameter. Therefore the merit of the parabolic model is that it
can also be used for time-dependent discharges with

az _ K(t) a2z =0 (2.63)

at ax2

Consider now a river discharging into a (hypothetical) lake (Fig. 2.5).

At t = 0 the lake level is supposed

----------
Fig. 2.5 Morphological time-scale
to drop over a distance .:l h. The
1:.11 --=- neglect of draw-down effects
---
implies that for t > 0 the flow is
LAKE assumed to be uniform. The x-axis
is taken along the original bed
level positive upstream. That does
not change Eq. (2.61) but it
simplifies the initial condition into

Z(x,o) =0 (2.64)

The boundary conditions read

lim z(x,t) = 0 (2.65)

x-oo

and

z(o,t) = -ah • H(t) (2.66)

20
in which H(t) is the Heaviside function (unit-step function).
The solution reads (see for details De Vries, 1975):

z(x,t) = -Ah • erfc [ x ] (2.67)

2{KJ

in which

erfc y = ~ i
IlO

exp (-!"l d, (2.68)

For a varying discharge the solution is

z(x,t) = -Ah • erfc
(2.69)

The parabolic model is valid for A = xi/a> 2 to 3 (Vreugdenhil and

De Vries, 1973).

Consider now in Fig. 2.5 a standard length L; from the mouth upstream.
How long does it take before the river bed is lowered by 50 % at the station
x = Lm' i.e. before z(Lm, TJ = -1/2J~.h?
If Tm is expressed by the number of years (Nm) then the following expression
can be obtained

(2.70)

where

;i
Iyear Iyear

Y = f K(t)dt = ~ f S(t)dt
(2.71)
o 0

for s = mu' with n and m being constant.

21
 STATION
RIVER (approx. D i 3ali Nm
distance mm *1ü4 km centuries
to sea)

Rhine Zaltbommel
(Netherlands) (100 km) 2 1.2 100 20

Magdalena Puerto Berrïo

(Colombia) (730 km) 0.33 5 30 2

Dunaremete
(1826 km) 2 3.5 40 10

Nagymaros
Danube
(1581 km) 0.35 0.8 180 1.5
(Hungary)
Dunaujvaros
(1581 km) 0.35 0.8 180 1.5

Baja
(1480 km) 0.26 0.7 210 0.6

Tana Bura
(Kenya) (230 km) 0.32 3.5 50 2

Apure
(Venezuela) San Fernando 0.35 0.7 200 4.4

Mekong Pa Mong
(Thailand) (1600 km) 0.32 1.1 270 1.3

Serang
(Indonesia) Godong 0.25 2.5 50 2.0

Rufiji Stiegler's
(Tanzania) Gorge 0.4 3.2 20 4.0

Table 2.2 Morphological time-scales (after De Vries, 1975) for Lm = 200 km.

22
 In Table 2.2 information is given on the morphological time scale for some
rivers. In this table Lm = 200 km is taken. For the Mekong River this is even
too small. Note the large differences found for the morphological time scale
for various rivers .

• An application for the simple-wave model is found in the deformation of a

trench dredged across a river (Fig. 2.6).

a
h
:;;:;:.' .

~.._I ••
LI"IUM

Fig. 2.6 Dredged trench across a river

In this case the friction can be neglected because of the small value of x
involved.

The momentum equation reduces now to

êa + oz = oh = 0 (2.72)
êx àx ox

Hence h(x,t) = constant (rigid-lid approximation).

Here bed load has to be postulated in order to allow the use of s = mu', It is
attractive to rewrite Eq. (2.51) with ao = 1 using a(x,t) as the only
dependent variabie left.
With Eq. (2.72) this gives

oa + c(a) oa = 0 (2.73)
ot ox

23
in which

ds
e(a) = (2.74)
da

If m and n are constant then

(2.75)

Hence in this (exceptional) case linearisation is not required.

Now the modification of the downstream slope can be studied.

j
;
: ~u
i
____ __J_Qi ~_~ ~_:_I.
A0SITST---- ~-
;
,
I
pI I

i
;
!
!

Figure 2.7 Downstream slope

Taking the original bed level as x-axis the downstream slope at t = 0 is

given by

a(x,o) = ao + p L°L-o x] (2.76)

[

a(x,o) = ao x > Lo (2.77)

A certain depth a with a; < a < a, +p is for t > 0 present at alocation

which is a distance e(a) . t more downstream than at t = O.

The question can be raised at what time t a prescribed depth will be present
at a certain location x = L < L,

24
 This simply leads to

(2.78)

Remarks
(i) The change of the downstream slope can easily be computed for a trench
because it regards an expansion wave. With time the slope becomes
flatter. For the upstream slope the opposite is the case: it is a shock
wave. In theory the slope gets steeper here until the angle of repose of
the sediment is reached (Fig. 2.8).

~ EXPANSION-WAVE SHOCK-WAVE

~ SHOCK-WAVE EXPANSION-WAVE

Fig. 2.8 Deformation of a trench and a hump (bed load)

(ii) If instead of a trench there is a hump present, then the deformation is in

the opposite way. Now the upstream slope is an expansion wave and the
downstream slope behaves as a shock wave (Fig. 2.8). Note the similarity
with a propagating dune.

• An application for the hyperbolic model is not easily obtained. On the one
hand this model is only valid for a constant discharge. On the other hand the
hyperbolic equations (Eqs (2.41) and (2.45» can only be solved for specific
boundary conditions.

For small Froude numbers Fr -+ 0 hence a; -+ 1 the Eqs (2.41) and (2.45)
become

071 - A (71 - z) = 0 (2.79)

ox 0

25
and

az + c az _ c 01'/ = 0 (2.80)
at 0 ax 0 ox

This hyperbolic model is applied to the following case (Fig. 2.9).

A river with a constant discharge q

is flowing into a lake. At t = 0 the
lake level is dropped over a certain
distance Sh. Solutions for 1'/(x,t)
and z(x,t) are sought.
For Ilh < < ho Eqs (2.79) and
(2.80) apply with the initial

Fig. 2.9 Hyperbolic model conditions:

z(x,O) = 0 and 11(x,O) :: 0 (2.81)

The boundary conditions are:

lim z(x,t) = 0 lim 1'/(x,t) = 0 (2.82)

x-oo x-oo

and

1'/(O,t) = - ll.h • H(t) (2.83)

in which H(t) is the Heaviside function (unit-step function). It is possible to

arrive at an analytical solution for the relative variation of the depth at the
river mouth HO,t) (De Vries, 1980).

(2.84)

26
 in which
T = 2 Ao cJ = dimensionless time
I, = modified Bessel function of the fust kind and the vlh order.

,
t

Fig. 2.10 Dimensionless depth reduction ~ = HO, T)

This solution has been used to investigate how errors in the 'submodels' i.e.
the predietors for s and C propagate into an error in the morphological
prediction (here n. Here only the main line of thinking is given. For details
see De Vries (1982).
(i) The lowering of the lake level (Fig. 2.9) induces a temporary reduction
of the available depth in the mouth expressed in ~. Accepting a certain
reduction (with ~ < 1) means that a certain (dimensionless) time (T) is
present during which navigation is restricted.
(ii) Equation (2.84) expresses the result of a deterministic model. By
considering that T = 2AocJ errors in Ao and Co propagate into an error in
t. The errors in Ao and Co come from the errors in s and C as it can be
shown that

(2.85)

2.3.3. Aggradation due to overloading

A typical example of the applicability of analytical models regards the study by

Ribberink and Van der Sande (1984, 1985). It deals with aggradation in a river

27
due to overloading. The problem sterns from the Indian subcontinent. Earthqua-
kes in the Himalayas lead locally to subsidence causing the supply of (some-
times huge amounts of) sediment to a river. This causes aggradation of the river
bed and consequently of a raising water level during floods. Inundations may
occur.

By Sony et al (1980) a study was reported measuring the aggradation in a

laboratory flume with steady uniform flow S and Q adding ilS for t ~ 0 at
x = O. The authors used the parabolic model as a theoretical model to explain
the tentendency of their measurements. However, the parabolic model is not
valid for small x and tand the solution of the authors could only be adjusted to
the measurements by changing the parameter K. But then the model loses the
capability of making forecasts.

The general (linearised) hyperbolic model suitable for this problem is described
by Eqs (2.41) and (2.45).
The boundary conditions for a supply .6.s at x = 0 for t > 0 are

z(x,O) = 0 and 7](x,O) = 0 for x > 0 and t ~ 0 (2.86)

and

lim z(x,t) = 0 lim 7](x,t) = 0 (2.87)

x~oo x-oo

Moreover the continuity of sediment requires

C)O

ss • t = f z(x,t) dx (2.88)
o

Taking the time derivative of this equation and substituting az/at from Eq.
(2.57) using (2.45) and (2.88) yields the upstream condition:

(2.89)

28
Ribberink and Van der Sande (1984, 1985) present solutions using the following
dimensionless parameters

location x- = •x (2.90)

(2.91)
time

(2.92)
bed level

The overloading at x = 0 leads to the

propagation of a shock-front described by
; i = 112 i. In Fig. 2.11 an indication is
given for the validity of the various analy-
tical models. It appears that only for a
small interval for 1 no analytical solution of
this problem could be obtained.
The authors used the linearised hyperbolic
model also for the case in which the over-
loading is substantial. In that case adapted
expressions for c and K were used.
Fig. 2.11 Validity diagram (after
Ribberink & Van der Sande, 1985) At the shock locally the simple-wave
equation is used. Combination with the
continuity equation yields

c az = as (2.93)
ax ax
I---,..._~::-"""""""'-T In discrete form (Fig. 2.12) this becomes
I
I
I
I -u 6.S
I
I C = C = - (2.94)
~ s 6.z

In which Cs is the shock-front celerity.

Fig. 2.12 Finite shock

29
Using locally the equation for the flow profile without friction

a aa + az = 0 (2.95)
ax ax

it follows that over the shock

- .
a 6a + 6Z =0 (2.96)

Eliminating ~ from Eqs (2.94) and (2.96) and assuming that upstream of the
shock front S = s; + Ils = SI (the subscript 1 used for t - 00) it follows that
a = 1/2(ao + al) and the adapted celerity results
1 (2.97)

Similarly also an adapted diffusion coefficient KI can be found. Expressed in

terms of Ils the results are:

(2.98)

and

(2.99)

In Fig. 2.13 the results for the hyperbolic model for large disturbances are
compared with the experimental data of Soni et al (1980). The dimensionless
relative bed level change is plotted against () = sb/i. Considering the usually
large scatter in morphological measurements, this can be called a fair agreement
between the model and the experiments.

30
 t-1 experIments
1.8
SonI et al (1980)
~
io o 1 <; < 10
1.2 .6.10<; <100

t 1.0 100

0.'

8
Fig. 2.13 Hyperbolic model for large disturbance (after Ribberink & Van der
Sande, 1985)

2.4 Numerical models

2.4.1 General

For practical river problems the basic equations for the one-dimensional
morphological process have to be solved numerically.

Here only the case will be treated for which the equations for water and
sediment can be decoupled i.e. for quasi-steady flow.
For the unit of width the equations are

(2.100)

and

(2.101)

This implies that the following restrictions apply

(i) Only for Fr < 0.6 to 0.8.

(ii) Only if au/at and aa/at can be neglected in Eq. (2.1) and Eq. (2.2) .
respectively. Hence morphological computations for tidal rivers are
excluded. The same holds for rapid discharge-changes in non-tidal rivers.

31
 Moreover it excludes the case in which au/at < < 0 but aa/at has to be
considered. This holds for instanee for a river with a reservoir where due
to Q(t) there is storage govemed by aa/at.
(iii) An essential restrietion is that the local sediment transport is govemed
by the loeal hydraulic conditions. Hence a sediment transport formula can
be used, expressed in a general way by s = f(u).
(iv) The alluvial roughness has to be known or supplied by a sub-model: a
roughness predietor.

The Eqs (2.100) and (2.101) are written in the dependent variables u(x,t) and
z(x,t). The other dependent variables can be found as follow

• a(x,t) from q = u.a

• s(x,t) from s = .f(u)

• h(x,t) from h=z+a

To solve the basic equations means that boundary conditions have to be

available (Sub-sections 2.4.2 ... 2.4.4). A numerical scheme is required for the
equation. This aspect is treated in Sub-section 2.4.5.

In Sub-section 2.4.6 some practical aspects of the use of numerical models for
morphological problems are given attention.

2.4.2 Boundary conditions

First of all we consider a standard case of a river reach 0 < x < L for which
Eqs (2.100) and (2.101) have to be solved. The following conditioris have to be
known.

(i) Initial eondition: z(x,O)

(ii) Downstream eondition: h(L,t) (subcritical flow)
(iii) Upstream condttion: q(O,t) and s(O,t)

The following information can be given

ad (i) Initial eondition

32
 Even for a meandering river with constant width (B) it is not so clear
how z(x,y,O) with -JI2B < Y < + JI2B has to be schematised into z(x,O).
It seems logical to take the average bed level across the river.
ad (ii) Downstream condition
For subcritical flow the downstream water level has to be known to
determine the flow profile by solving Eq. (2.100) for known values of z
and q. In practice usually h(L,t) follows from the discharge rating-curve
h =h(Q). Obviously when the bed level at x= L changes then the Q-h
curve known at t = 0 is not valid anymore. In practice the downstream
.boundary is placed so far downstream that bed level changes do not take
place during the time of interest.
ad (iii) Upstream conditions
Two boundary conditions are necessary
• Q(o,t) for the solution of Eq. (2.100)
• S(o,t) for the solution of Eq. (2.101).

The upstream boundary conditions have to be selected by the user of the model.
The model is not more than a tool in the hands of the user.
Some general guidelines can be given.
• The selection of Q(t) can be from historical records. The selection can also be
based on records of the rainfall R(t). A hydrological model is then required
for the translation of R(t) into Q(t).
• Which historical record is taken cannot be answered in a simple way. It
depends on the purpose of the model study. Wet years will in generallead to
quicker morphological changes than dry years. One may also conclude that
various records Q(t) have to be used to investigate the sensitivity to the
morphological changes.
• Mathematically s(o,t) has to be known. As here via s = ./{u) a unique rela-
tionship is assumed between s and u, it is also sufficient to know u(o,t). Only
as an exception it is possible to select s(o,t) without difficulty (see remark
below).
• The fact has to be faced that s(o,t) cannot be selected properly. There is,
however, a simple way to overcome errors in the morphological predictions
due to erroneous selections of s(o,t).

33
 Any error in s(o,t) will propagate into the
............

<:::: «:~gron ...:.:.:::: x-t diagram (Fig. 2.14) above the

::::::::::::::::Irl~U~:::::::::::::::::: characteristic through the origin (0,0).
Therefore at x = Xo errors can be expected for
t > to' The location of x = ° has then to be
selected in such a way that for interesting

-x points in the interval °< x < L forecasts can

be made over a sufficiently long time interval.
Fig. 2.14 The x-t diagram

• There is one case in which the (upstream) boundary condition for the
sediment creates no difficulty. Consider a dam built in a river. In case no
sediment passes the dam the condition downstream of the dam is then u = u.;
(Shields). The depth is there a = qlu.; and the bed level follows from
z = h-a.

2.4.3 Internal boundaries

For practical problems the boundary conditions are not sufficient. Consider
again the interval °< x < L. In this interval one of the relevant parameters
may be discontinuous. Now two branches have to be considered. Standard Pro-
blems are
(i) Withdrawal of a discharge AQ(t) at a point.
(ii) Withdrawal of part of the sediment AS(t) at a point.
(iii) A change of the width of the river at a point.

For the three cases indicated above the following additional information can be
given.
ad (i) Withdrawal of water
In case the withdrawal takes place via pumping than the only internal
boundary condition that has to be introduced is Ql = Q2 + AQ.
However, if the withdrawal takes place via an intake upstream of a weir
than not only the discharge but also the water level is discontinuous at
x = Xo' The characteristics of the weir have to be introduced at the
internal boundary to determine the water level at the downstream end of
the upstream branch.

34
 In Fig. 2.15 at x = Xo a discontinuity
is present. It is then necessary to place
at x = Xo an intemal boundary to handle
t
the discontinuity properly. In this way
t
the interval 0 < x < L is divided in
two branches linked by condition(s) at
branch 1 branch 2
o Xo_x L the intemal boundary.

Fig. 2:15 Intemal boundary

ad (ii) Withdrawal of sediment

In this case ('sediment mining') the sediment transport is discontinuous
at Xo. Again two branches are used. At the intemal boundary the
condition has to be given that
(2.102)

Note:
If the sediment mining takes place in areach rather than in a point then it is not
necessary to use an intemal boundary. In this reach the sediment withdrawal is
represented by a lowering of the bed with a velocity W(x,t). For this reach this
W is then introduced as a souree term in the sediment continuity equation:

B az + as = - W • B (2.103)
at ax

Outside the reach W = 0 has to be taken. For this problem three branches are
required.

ad (iii) Change of widtb

Again two branches are necessary with B = BI and B = B2 respectively.
The intemal boundary condition is now

(2.104)

35
 Remark
The discontinuities discussed here create discontinuities in other parameters
notably in the bed level. For instance the sediment withdrawal at a point will
gives a downward step àz in the bed level with
(2.105)

At every time t the value of àz is directly related to the local conditions.

2.4.4 Confluences and bifurcations

Confluences and bifurcations in the river considered require a special treatment.

Now at least three branches have to be used.
Confluences are relatively simple to introduce. At the conjluence there is
continuity for water and sediment. As the values of Q and S for the two
upstream branches are known, the values of Q and S for the downstream branch
follow from these two equations.

A bifurcation is more difficult to handle.

In Fig. 2.16 a sketch of a bifurcation is

given. Now Qo and S, are known and there
arefour unknowns namely QI, Q2, SI and
S2. Hence besides the two equations
2 2
L Qj = 0 and L s, = 0 (2.106)

Fig. 2.16 Bifurcation

(with i = 0,1,2) there are two more
equations required.

(i) At the bifurcation there is only one water level.

Hence the distribution of Qo into Ql and Qz is such that given the
conveyance of the two downstream rivers and their stage-discharge
relations both rivers lead to the same water level at the bifurcation.

(ii) The division of So into SI and S2 is governed by the local flow pattern at

36
 the bifurcation (BulIe, 1926). Hence the bifurcation determines SI/S2' In
practice it is not easy to establish this ratio.

2.4.5 Numerical schemes

A number of schemes are in use to solve the basic morphological equations

numerically. Here only the cases for which Eqs (2.100) and (2.101) apply will
be considered. Hence for the decoupled equations valid for subcritical flow with
Fr < 0.6 to 0.8.
A complete numerical solution of Eqs (2.100) and (2.101) is obtained by
altemating steps

Step I: Solve Eq. (2.100)for given values z

Step 11:Solve Eq. (2.101)for given values u

In this Sub-section only some attention is given to step 11.For the first step i.e.
the determination of the flow profile any suitable methode can be used.

For a detailed overview of varlous possible schemes for Eq. (2.101) reference
can be made to Vreugdenhil (1982). Explicit schemes can be usedbecause the
celerity C is rather small so large time steps can be made. A class of difference
schemes can be indicated based on the following difference equations.
n+1
Zk - Zk
n n
Sk+1 - Sk
n-I
+ +
M 2t.x

- _1_ [ {aZ+1 + aZ} {Z:+I - Z:} - {aZ + aZ_I} {Z: - Z:_I} ] = 0 (2.107)
4M

in which z: = z(ktu, nAt).

The coefficient a can be chosen in different ways for (J = coü Sx

(i) a = 1 gives the original scheme by Lax (1954)
(ii) a = (J gives a form of an upstream difference (Godunov) scheme
(iii) a = al gives a form of the Lax-Wendroff (1960) scheme
(iv) a = al + B with a smalt adjustable coefficient B results in an

37
 intermediate type (Vreugdenhil & De Vries, 1967).

These schemes except (iii) give a first-order approximation of Bq. (2.101).

These and other (second-order) schemes are analysed by Vreugdenhil (1982) on
a number of aspects: (i) lineair wave propagation, (ii) stability,
(iii) conservation, (iv) shock waves and (v) numerical diffusion.

The analysis is among other things based on the comparison of analytical

solutions and numerical solutions of the simple-wave equation (in a
dimensionless form)

àz a {n}
-+-z = 0 (2.108)
at ax

This equation describes e.g. the deformation of a dredged trench in the case of
bedload transport c.f. Bq. (2.75).

Remarks
(i) The solution of a numerical scheme has to be made with care and the
characteristics of the scheme should be analysed properly. This is not
always done. It was shown by Croat (1986) that the HEC-6
morphological model published by Thomas (1979) is unstable.
(ii) No general rules can be given as to the actual selection of ÀX and !l.t in
a specific case. Obviously the accuracy of the computational results will
increase the smaller !l.t and ÀX are selected. Moreover !l.t has to be small
enough to reproduce adequately the boundary condition Q(o,t).
(iii) The scheme applied for Bq. (2.101) has to be conservative also in the
treatment at the (internal) boundaries.

2.4.6 Practical aspects

The results of numerical computations can hardly be judged in detail in their

correctness. There are, however, two aspects that can be helpful in assessing
numerical computations. These are:
(i) The ultimate solution (t -+ 00).
(ii) The magnitude of discontinuities notably for z.

38
These aspects will be treated seperately here .

• New equilibrium situation (t - 00).

The final equilibrium solution with respect to the induced changes can give a
guidance to the judgement of the computation for t > 0 if t = 0 is the time
at which the changes start. It has to be recalled that three 'standard' cases can
be distinghuised
(i) withdrawal of water
(ii) withdrawal of sediment
(iii) long constriction
For a constant discharge Q both depth and slope will change eventually. For
a varying discharge, expressed in the probability density p{Q} only the
change of the slope (from io to it) is of practical importance.

Table 2.3 summarises the results for the three standard cases. A practical
example of predicting bed-level changes due to the withdrawal of water from
a river can be found for the Tana River (Kenya) in Jansen et al.
(1979, pp. 433 .. .440) .

• Magnitude of discontinuities
In various cases discontinuities are introduced in Q, S, and/or B. This leads
to discontinuities in the river characteristics, notably in the bed level (z). The
magnitude of the discontinuities can be estimated by means of simple conside-
rations on conservation of mass.

As an example the withdrawal of water (dQ from Qo) at x = 0 for t > 0

can be taken. For the discharge holds

Q=uoBoa (2.109)

For the sediment holds (m and n supposed to be constant)

s = m 0 UA (2.110)

39
 problem for constant varying discharge
discharge

f-
withdrawal of i} Q 3/n
- =
water io o-eo Qn/3Po{Q} dQ
i1
-
io
= 0
..
AQ or a}
- = 1- flQ f Qn/3PI {Q} dQ
ao Q 0
Po{Q} - PI{Q}

withdrawal of
sediment
i}
-
io
: [1- ~r I}
- = [I-V
io
fl vr n ,with:

AS or AV a} ..
- = [1--
flSr,n V = fS(Q) p{Q} dQ
ao S
0

long constriction ..
-
i}
io :[!:F B}-n/3.inf3 f Qn/3 p{Q} dQ
0
= constant
Bo-Bl

a}
-
ao :[!J' thus: -
i}
io :[!J'
Table 2.3 Changes of slope and depth for n = constant (after De Vries, 1986)

Upstream of x = 0 it holds Qo = u, . B, . a; and downstream UI = BI . al'

As there can be no sedimentation at a point, for reasons of continuity it has
to be stated S; = SI' This leads via Eq. (2.110) to u; = UI' Eq. (2.109) gives
then for BI = Bo.

Qo Qo - AQ (2.111)
=
ao al
or

al AQ
= 1 - (2.112)
ao Qo

40
By definition the water level (h) is given by

h = a +z (2.113)

If the water is withdrawn via pumping then h is continuous (hl = hJ.

Hence
(2.114)

or
(2.115)

Combining Eqs (2.112) and (2.115) leads to

(2.116)

41
3. ONE-DIMENSIONAL MODELS (EXTENSION)

3.1 Genera!

In the previous Chapter the basis of one-dimensional modelling is treated.

However, a number of restrictions are made there.

In a random order these restrictions are:

(i) The sediment transport is supposed to be dependent on the local
hydraulic conditions, expressed as s = ft...u).
(ii) The sediment is supposed to be (nearly) uniform. This implies that
sorting effects are excluded.
(iii) The erodibility of the river banks is assumed to be negligible like in the
case of protected banks.
(iv) The alluvial roughness (e.g. expressed in the C-value) is supposed to be
known.

The following initial remarks can be made.

ad (i) This point gets more attention in Section 3.2.

ad (ii) Research is going on to include grain-sorting in the numerical modeIs.
Ribberink (1987) carried out detailed studies on this matter. Olesen
(1987) used the research of Ribberink to include this in his two-
dimensional (horizontal) model.
ad (iii) The erodibility of the river banks is especially of importance to two-
dimensional (horizontal) models.
ad (iv) Roughness and resistance are discussed in Section 3.3.

3.2 Influence of suspended-Ioad changes

3.2.1 Introduction

The presence of suspended load not necessarily means that s = ft...u) cannot be
used anymore. The presence of suspended load means that in space (and time) it
takes for the transport a certain distance (or time) to adapt itself to the

43
 hydraulic conditions. If the adaptation length is much smaller than the space-
step ÄX of the one-dimensional model, then the adaptation takes place 'sub-grid'
that means that still s = /(u) can be used. A similar situation is present in time.
If the adaptation time is much smaller than the time-step t::.tof the one-dimen-
sional model, then the adaptation can be assumed to be instantaneous. In other
words s = fïu) can be used.

3.2.2 Basic equations

Por steady uniform flow the sediment concentration (cp) is described by the
differential equation

W cp + e dcp
s s dz
= 0 (3.1)

in which Ws is the fall velocity of the particles. Usually the sediment diffusion
coefficient (e.) is taken equal to the turbulent diffusion coefficient for
momentum (e"J with

em(z) = K U. Z {1 - zla} (3.2)

Combining Eqs (3.1) and (3.2) gives after integration

(3.3)
cp(z) = [a _ z • ~] W/ KU •
CPI a - z, Z

This equation, known as the Rouse equation, contains an integration coefficient:

at Z = ZI the concentration CP(ZI) = CPI has to be known.

Remarks
(i) Equation (3.1) holds for dilute suspensions i.e. cp < < 1. If this is not
the case then the basic equation reads (Halbronn, 1949; Runt, 1954)

44
 (l - cf»W cf> +
s
E
s
dcf>
dz
=0 (3.4)

. Consequently the value of z, in Eq. (3.3) should not be taken too close
to the bed as there cf> < < 1 is not valid.
(ii) Equation (3.2) is an approximation which according to Coleman does
not hold too good in the upper half of the vertical. Moreover there
seems to be an influence of Z = W)KU. on Es. In Fig. 3.1 the results of
the measurements (Coleman, 1970) are depicted. The scatter in this
figure is due to the fact that dé/dz was determined from flume measure-
ments and used in Eq. (3.1) to determine Es.

1.0
wju • wju.
0.6
0.4 0.3470 0.641.
+
• • 0.4140 0.672•
.. *... * ~
.
~ A 0.43211 0.702-

.. e- .4.....+ 11

.
0.2 <I ~
• <I <I 0.4390 0.705+
•
_i
u.a
0.1
,_
~
-8
-
~~~ ---..._ -.! I o...
••
0
0.475 Ó 0.818*
0.513 <I 0.840...
o·b~~ ~(..~ 0 ~ ,~ ::I
0.542 ... 0.864'"
0.06
0.04
:~. '~~.,r\ 0.570 + 0.908x

t 0.02
~
••°0
'K
Oe
__ Von Karman
0.01
--PowerLaw
0.006 ------ Logarlthmlc
0.004

0.002

0.001
o ru U U M U U V U M 1~
- z/a
Fig. 3.1 Sediment diffusion coefficient Es (after Coleman, 1970)

In his experiments Coleman flushed the sediment through the flume; hence no
alluvial bed was present.

By matching the Coleman measurements with a parabola in the lower half of the
depth and a constant in the upper half the parabolie-constant function of Es was
obtained (Kerssens et al., 1977).

45
This reads

Es(Z) = Emu = {O.I3 + O.2(W/u.)} u ,a for zla ~ ~

(3.5)
Es(Z) = 4{z/a} {I - va} Emax for zla < ..!.2

For steady uniform flow a4>/ax = O. However, for the non-steady and non-
uniform situation a4>/ax ~ O. For this case the mass balance for the sediment
has to be reconsidered. Consider the control volume Ax dl. The momentary
velocity components are Ui and the momentary concentration is 4>.
The mass balance gives

a4> a a (3.6)
- + - {UI 4>} + - {U3 4> - W 4>} = 0
at ax az s

Defining as usual in turbulent water-movement Ui = Ui + U 'i and 4> = 4> + 4>'

makes averaging over a suitable time-interval ()possible. It is assumed that ()is
large enough to get rid of the turbulent fluctuations.
The averaging leads to

It can now be assumed

- ui 4>' = E1l 4>x + En 4>z (3.8)

- U; 4>' = E31 4>x + E33 4>z

in which the subscripts x and z denote differentiations. The continuity equation

for the fluid reads

(3.9)

Combination of Eqs (3.7), (3.8) and (3.9) gives

46
 oe/> oe/> oe/> oe/> 0 0 (3.10)
-+UI-+U3--W---{EIIe/>
ot OX OZ s OZ OX x
+EI3e/>}--{E31e/>
Z OZ x
+E33e/>}
Z
=0

In order to make Eq. (3.10) manageable it is common to assume that the axes of
the coordinate system are taken along the main axes of the tensor E;j (see e.g.
Graf, 1971, p. 164). This is a (weak) argument to neglect EI3 and E31. The result
is

(3.11)

in which EI = Eli and E3 = E33 is taken for simplicity.

A further simplification is possible by assuming nearly uniform flow (u3 =: 0).

Moreover it can be assumed that EI and E3 are of the same order of magnitude.
If the length scale of the problem area is longer than its depth scale then

(3.12)

The result of all these simplifications is

o</> + U(I) a</> - .i_

at ax Bz
{W s
e/> + E(3) a</>} = 0
àz
(3.13)

Remarks
(i) For steady uniform flow Eq. (3.13) reduces to (with E3 = Es)

.i_
az {W </>+ s
E
s
ae/>}
àz = 0 (3.14)

Integration in the z-direction gives

Ws</>+ E d</>= constant (3.15)

sdz

47
 Equation (3.15) expresses the sediment flux in the vertical direction. As this
flux equals zero at the water surface, Eq. (3.1) follows from Eq. (3.15).
(ii) Whether in Eq. (3.13) the terms with acJ>/at and/or acJ>/ax can be neglected
depends on the problem involved.

3.2.3 Solving 2 DV-equation

The solution of Eq. (3.13) will be continued here for the case acJ>/at = O. Hence
the following equation has to be solved (with E = Es)'

u -acJ> - - a { ws cJ> + E(Z) -acJ>} = 0 (3.16)

ax az az

To simplify the understanding, the solution is sought for a case of uniform flow
(Fig. 3.2).
For any upstream
boundary condition
cJ>(o,z) for increasing
x the concentration
cJ>(x,z) will gradually
approach the equili-
brium concentration
Fig. 3.2 Adaptation of cJ>(x, z) cJ>e(z) of the flow in
the rectangie.

The solving of Eq. (3.16) requires the following boundary conditions:

(i) At x = 0 the value of cJ>(o,z) has to be known.

(ii) At z = a (water surface) the sediment flux has to be equal zero.
Hence

(3.17)

48
(iii) At x - 00 no condition is required. The value of cJ>(00 .z) is a result of the com-
putation.
(iv) At the bed (z = Zb) the flux is non-zero. Sediment is settled or picked-up.

lim [WscJ> + e(z) OcJ>] =0 (3.18)

~"" oz z = Zb

The bed-boundary condition requires special attention. The reasoning made by

Kerssens (1974) is as follows:
• For bed-lood transpon it cao be assumed that the transpon reacts
instantaneously on a change in the flow conditions.
• For suspended load it can similarly be assumed that the concentration near the
bed reacts instantaneously on a change in the flow conditions. This implies the
assumption

(3.19)

in which Zbo is close to the bed not at the bed. Equation (3.3) is then determined
by z, = Zbo and cJ>1 = cJ>" and as the transport s is known for cJ> = cJ>" via a
transport formule and

a (3.20)
s - lim J u(x,z) • cJ>(x,z) dl
x"''''' Zbo

the value of cJ>" is known from Eqs (3.3), (3.5) and (3.20).

An alternative to the assumption made in Eq. (3.19) is the one made by

O'Connor (1971) that the concentration gradient reacts instantaneously on the
change of the hydraulic conditions. Or

ocJ> I (3.21)
oZ Z=Z
bo

49
 Remarks
(i) In order to save computer time it is customary to use the following
transformation in the vertical direction.

(3.22)
az e(z) àz'

A constant step àz' gives then automatically that in the z-direction the
grid points are concentrated near the bed where the largest concentration
gradients are found.
(ii) A complete one-dimensional morphological computation using the 2-DV
convection-diffusion equation requires four alternating steps.

Step I: Compute the flow field for given bed level.

Step 11: Compute the concentrations c/>(x,z)

a
Step 111: Compute the transport from J uc/>dz
Step IV: Compute the new bed level
(iii) The solution of Eq. (3.16) requires per time step not much computer
time. However, as in practice many time steps have to be taken it is
worthwhile to look for approximative solutions. This topic is treated in
Sub-section 3.2.4.

3.2.4 Asymptotic approach

Consider Eq. (3.13) rewritten as Eq. (3.23).

ac/>+ _! {uc/>}- i. {wc/> + eac/>} = 0 (3.23)

at ax az s az

The equation is made dimensionless by using corresponding scales to the various

parameters:

u = Vu' z = ar t = Tri and x = L~

50
Inserting this in Bq. (3.23) gives

a ae/> aU { ,ae/>}
WsT aT + LWs u ar =
ae/>
ar +
E
Wp ara {
E
1 ae/>}
ar (3.24)

An asymptotic approach can be used to solve this equation. This is possible if

the concentration profiles in the vertical do not differ too much from the
equilibrium profiles (Galappatti, 1983; Galappatti and Vreugdenhil, 1985;
Wang, 1984; Wang and Ribberink, 1986).

Galappatti and Vreugdenhil (1985) state that the scale E of E is of the order
1,4 K u. a. Hence

1 K u. a U (3.25)
4 Wa
= 0.005 -
Ws
s

which can weU be of the order one.

Therefore the right-hand terms of Bq. (3-24) are supposed to be of 0(1). They
are responsible for the vertical readjustment of the concentration profiles.
If the dimensionless parameters a~T and Ua/L Ws are small then asymptotic
solutions for Bq. (3.23) are possible provided the concentration profiles do not
differ too much from the equilibrium profile.

In an introduetion to the method Ribberink (1986) considers the case of Bq.

(3.21) without the convective term. It is assumed that a small parameter
5 = a/WsT < < 1 is present and that the following asymptotic expansion can be
found for e/>(r, T)

e/> = e/>0 + 5 e/>1 + 52 e/>2 + ..• + fi e/>j + ... (3.26)

Inserting this in the equation

(3.27)

51
(the value of E and hence of E' = E/Wsa assumed for simplicity sake to be
constant) gives

(3.28)

As öi</>o< <
I
lil </>0,-I the following equations can be found

O-order
a </>0
+E--
I a2</>0 = 0 (3.29)
ar af

a</> I I a2</>1 = a </>0 (3.30)

1st-order +E--
ar af ar

flh-order
a</>j
+E-
I a2</>j = a</>j_1 (3.31)
ar af a:;:-

Equation (3.29) is the equation for the equilibrium profile (steady state).
Thus </>o(r,r) = </>e (r,r) and also </»(/>0 = </»(/>e·

By using the operator D[] = -a + EI -

a2 the ï" order equation can be
ar af

written as

(3.32)

or with the inverse operator D -I

(3.33)

The important assumption made by Galappatti (1983) is that only the zero-order
part of the solution contributes to the depth-averaged concentration </>(r), or

52
 1 1 1
q;(T) =! ePG",T)dr=!{ePo+OeP +024>2 + ... }dr= ! ePodr=q;:(T)
l
(3.34)

A shape function I/; ir. T) is introduced with

(3.35)

Using Eq. (3.33) gives

eP (r T) =D-1 [a4>o] =D-1 [i.{1/; • q;}] =D-1 [q;. al/;o +1/; aq;] (3.36)
1 ' aT aT 0 aT Br 0

As an approximation

(3.37)

In which 1/;1is the first-order shape function.

In genera!

(3.38)

The complete asymptotic solution reads

+ ... (3.39)

Equation (3.39) shows that 4>(r, T) can be described by an ordinary differential

equation for the depth-averaged concentration (if».
The equation contains the shape-functions I/;j. Now the boundary conditions have
to be considered. At the bed (here it can be taken r = 0) it can be assumed
either

(3.40)

53
or

a<p I = a<pe I (3.41)

ar r=o ar r=o

If for instance Eq. (3.40) is taken as a boundary condition, then the following
ordinary differential equation holds for the unknown ;p

(3.42)

Because <po(r,r) and <pir, r) have the same shape I/Io(r,r) and thus
<pe(r,r) = 1/10 . <Pe(r) it follows from Eq. (3.42)

(3.43)

If l/Ii(O,Ö = 'Yi and retuming to the original time coordinate t gives finally

'YI a d-q) 'Y2 !!_ ] d 2q) +... (3.44)

?J:(t) = -q)(t) +-----+-
[ Ws
2

'Yo Ws dt 'Yo dt2

In the simple case of Ribberink (1986) the shape functions I/Ii can be determined
analytically. In the general case the shape functions have to be determined
numerically.
The asymptotic method is attractive if only a restricted number of terms of Eq.
(3.39) is of importance. In practice the zero-order and the first-order term
together can give already a good result.
The more terms of Eq. (3.39) have to be considered the smaller is the gain in
time of the 1 D-computation. This is because 'Yi have to be determined
numerically in practice.
Galappatti and Vreugdenhil (1985) described the case in which in Eq. (3.13) the
first term is neglected.
Figure 3.3. shows the computational results for the case for which at x ;:::0 a

54
mobile bed is present. The initial erosion is given. The relative values of
{q,e - q,}/q,e are plotted against the relative distance x/a.

2-DV
__________order (1)
--- order (2)

chézy - 50 ri(2 I_
t w. 1".-0.01 064

o 15 30 45 60 75 90

- x/a

Fig. 3.3. Example: initial erosion

The data are compared with the results of a complete 2 DV-computation. For
this case the first-order solution is even better than the second-order solution.
The asymptotic approach cannot be expected to hold for small values of x/a
because there the concentration profiles differ too much from the equilibrium
profile.

Wang and Ribberink (1986) present results of laboratory tests. In a flume with a
fixed bed for x < 0 and a fixed bed but perforated for x ~ 0 sediment is
introduced in the flow. The sediment settles for x > 0 but disappears through
the perforations.
In Figure 3.4 the results
4,--------------------------,
of the measured
concentrations are
. presented. The relative
concentrations 4>/ q, are
2 4 • • 10 12 14 l' plotted against x for
-X(III)
various values of the
Figure 3.4 Relative concentrations 4>1q, vertical coordinate z.

55
It appears that for x > 2m the relative concentration 4>ljp is not a function of x
anymore. This is a condition for the applicability of the asymptotic approach.

A comparison with measurements was also made by Galappatti and Vreugdenhil

(1985). This regards the sedimentation of a trench dredged across a river
reproduced in a laboratory flume. The laboratory tests were performed with fine
sand (Dso =::: 0.16 mm) and a mean flow velocity u = 0.51 mIs. Upstream of
the trench a mean depth of 0.39 m was present.
Figure 3.5 show the measured and computated sedimentation 71/2 hours after the
beginning of the test.

o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
-O.~ :.:.:
.."[ \\ [\ -,1.,

.~\ ~: I}' / <~;~f---

'~_+___+___I;I+.7"-;/ ::f-....:::;,......--+-+--+------j
-O.081----+-----1·:Hf\....----jI----tI~
:~\ ~~.:~~~
-o.121---+---I-,++\\--+---+-=4
J.~.Y
p.F. -f:-+---I---+---I--+----!
1

A vi':
InltlaJbed profile
-o.16L_L_j-it:=,·j:··· . ::::1:::: =:1. "_L_L_L_l__L_j
.:::

--- measured ..... 2-0 comp. --- X [m]

---------- comp. wtth asympt. approach

Fig. 3.5 Example of asymptotic approach (Galappatti and Vreugdenhil, 1985)

The computed sedimentation by means of the asymptotic approach is in Fig. 3.5

also compared with the results of a complete 2 D-V-computation.

In this Sub-section the asymptotic approach has in the first place been applied
for the case in which the convective term in Bq. (3.13) is absent,' leading to the
approximative equation Bq. (3.39).
The Figs 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5 regard situations in which éJ4>léJt of Bq. (3.13) can be
neglected. It will be clear that the asymptotic approach can also be used when
the convective term and éJ4>léJt of Bq. (3.13) both cannot be neglected. The
method can even be extended for cases in which two horizon tal space-
dimensions and time have to be considered. This has been done by Wang (1989)
in morphological computations for a tidal estuary.

56
3.2.5 First-order ap_proach

In practice problems occur for which so few experimental data are available that
a high order asymptotic approach is not justified. It is, however, attractive to
consider the first-order approach because it contains in principle the effect of
adaptation in time and/or space.
In the case both time and space are of importance the first-order approach is
given by

(3.45)

in which
Ta =::: a/Ws = characteristic adaptation time
La =::: au/Ws = characteristic adaptation length
Obviously La =::: U Ta, which gives the link between the two scales.

Equation (3.45) describes in principle how the depth-averaged concentration (ëp)

approaches the equilibrium value (ëpe). Basicly (ëpJ can be a function of time and
space. If

(3.46)

then for ëp = ëpe it follows l/; = 0 and Eq. (3.45) becomes

T aq;: + L aq;: = 0 (3.47)

a at a ax

Combining Eqs (3.45) and (3.47) yields

T al/; + L al/; = -l/;

a at a ax (3.48)

In order to understand the implications of Eq. (3.48) the following points can be
considered .

57
(i) If only adaptation in time takes place as in Eq. (3.44) then

T al/; = _I/; (3.49)

a at

Thus

(3.50)

Here 1/;0 is the value of I/; for

_y ,,
'1'0 \
\
t = O.
\
\

t \
\
\
\
In Fig. 3.6 a sketch is given of
\
\
\
\
\
Eq. (3.50). The gradient at
\
\
\
\
\
t = 0 intersects with the t-axis
\
\

""Ta at t = Ta.
- t The process is described by the

Fig. 3.6 Adaptation in time relaxation time Ta.

(ii) If only adaptation in space takes place then similarly

(3.51)

In this case 1/;0 is the value of I/;

1 at x = O. Figure 3.7 gives a
,
\
\
\
sketch of Eq. (3.51). Now the
\
\
\
\
\
\
gradient at x = O'intersects with
\
\
\
\
, the x-axis at x = La. This
\
\
\
\
, \
process is described by the
\

\\~ relaxation lengtn La.

-x

Fig. 3.7 Adaptation in space

(iii) Let now adaptation take place both in time and space. This means that
Eq. (3.48) has to be approached. This equation can also be written as
 (3.52)

It may be solved with the characteristic method. Along the characteristic

holds

(3.53)

and the following characteristic relation applies

(3.54)

As mentioned earlier the term on the right hand side of Eq. (3.53) is
approximately the flow velocity. Equation (3.52) has the same solution
as Eq. (3.49). In other words, moving with the velocity La/Ta, thus
approximately following the flow, the adaptation of the concentration
deficit v in time is as shown in Fig. 3.6.

3.3 Roughness and resistance of river beds

3.3.1 General

River-bed changes and water-level changes are to a large extent govemed by the
roughness of the river bed. This holds for the (alluvial) lew-water bed and also
for the (usually) non-alluvial high-water bed.
For the alluvial low-water bed the influence of the roughness is twofold. It
effects the roughness term in the equation of motion of the water. However, the
roughness also has its influence in the sediment-transport formula applied.

59
 The roughness cannot be predicted with a large accuracy although it has a large
influence on the river parameters involved. This can be demonstrated for steady
uniform flow.
The normal depth for a wide channel follows from

a = 3~ (3.55)
n JCïi

Combined with the Strickler equation

1/6

C = 25 :: (3.56)
[ ]

gives a; - kNO.1• Here kN is the Nikuradse sand-roughness. A statistical analysis

of the propagation of errors gives then for the relative error in the normal depth

r a. = (3.57)

An error of a factor 2 in kN is quite possible. The relative error of the normal

depth is then 10%. Especially for high discharges this gives a significant error
in the water levels.
The error propagation of the roughness in the combined equations of water and
sediment has been studied by De Vries (1982).

3.3.2 Alluvial roughness and sediment transport

Basically the assumption underlying transport formulae is the presence of steady

uniform flow over an alluvial bed. Einstein (1950) was the first to give an
overall concept.

Einstein considered an alluvial channel with a given bed slope (i) of granular
material (diameter D and relative density ~ = (Ps - p)/p). A constant discharge
per unit width (q) is introduced over the bed (Fig. 3.8).

60
 p

D,A

Fig. 3.8 Basic concept (Einstein, 1950)

Bed forms are developed leading to a bed roughness (C). This determines the
water depth (a) via q = C a3/2 ill2•
Under these conditions there will be a transport of sediment per unit width (r),
provided the shear stress at the bed (Tb = pgai) is larger than the critica1 one
(Tc) for initiation of motion (e.g. according to Shields, 1936).

Obviously the water movement and the sediment movement are closely
interrelated. Consequently two predietors have to be used. A roughness pre-
dietor to predict C and a transpon predietor to predict s. Modem transport
formulae are based on this concept.

Remarks
(i) Obviously there are two types of transport formulae. Firstly transport.
formulae that are assuming the roughness to be known. They can be used
to estimate the transport in an existing alluvial channel of which the
composition of the bed and the water movement are known. This is for
instanee the case for the Meyer-Peter and Mueller (1948) formula. This
paper written prior to Einstein (1950) does not even mention how the
roughness value is obtained, to be used in the MPM-formula.
A second example is the Ackers and White (1973) formula. This formula
can only be applied to existing channels. However, in this case the
transpon predietor can be combined with a later roughness predietor
(White et al., 1980). With these combined predietors it is possible to
forecast the sediment transport if the composition of the bed material, the
overall bed-slope and the discharge per unit width are known. It becomes

61
 then a tool for the second category of predietors viz the general ones that
can be used in numerical morphological models.
(ii) A 'complete' formula for the sediment transport is therefore a
combination of a roughness predietor and a transpon predictor. The first
roughness predietor was the one described by Einstein and Barbarossa
(1952). It seems to be now of historical value only as it was based on
just few measurements.
(iii) The original concept of Einstein (1950) was later also used as a
framework to process river measurements with respect to discharge and
sediment transport (Colby and Hembree, 1955). It seems that to call this
a modified Einstein procedure is somewhat misleading as it is a different
use than is given in the original Einstein-concept.

It is not tried here to give a fuIl overview on the more modem transport
predietors and roughness predietors as in Raudkivi (1990) a rather complete
picture is given. Older books are Graf (1971), Yalin (1972) and Bogárdi (1974).

Many transport formulae can be expressed as a function between two

dimensionless parameters ~s and ()with

and () = uai (3.58)

t:.D

For D a characteristic grain diameter (different definitions are in use) is taken.

The coefficient I-' does take care of the influence of the bed forms; also here
different definitions are in use.

For general considerations on morphological changes either by mathematical

anlysis or by scale modeIling it is attractive to apply the approximation

s = m un (3.59)

62
 or in its dimensionless form

cPs = ex (JP (3.60)

by assuming m and n to be constant locally; Eq. (3.56) takes into consideration

that of all parameters involved, the variation of u contributes to the largest
extent to the variation of the transport. As (J - ,; it can easily be shown that n
= 2{3.

For the Engelund-Hansen (1967) formula it can easily be found that n = 5. For
the Meyer-Peter & Mueller formula n varies with (J.

In general when the transport formula can be written as a unique function.

(3.61)

then the values of exand 6 can be obtained by equalising the function values and
the first derivatives of Eqs (3.59) and (3.60) respectively.
This procedure gives for example for the Meyer-Peter & Mueller formula the
following expression for n

n = ------:- 3 (3.62)
1-0.047 (J-l

Besides the older formulae quoted above, some newer ones can be mentioned
here (Brownlie, 1981; Karim & Kennedy, 1983; Van Rijn, 1984 and Parker &
Klingeman, 1982). As stated above details and also other formulae can be found
in Raudkivi (1990).

Transport predietors and roughness predietors have a restricted accuracy. A

transport preditor is already accurate when a measured transport can be
predicted within a factor two. Predicting the alluvial roughness (C-value) within
± 20 % accuracy is a success already. The influence of the inaccuracy of
predietors on morphological forecasts can be studied in two ways.

• Accuracy of predietors proper

The study of the accuracy of the predietors proper can be carried out by
comparing measured and predicted values of s and C. Using the data from the
compendium of Peterson and Howells (1973) the writer compared some

63
formulae for transport and roughness (De Vries, 1983).
Some results are given below. The scores (in %) for the ratio r, for predicted
and measured transport (rs = sJSm) are given for four formulae in Table 3.1.

Souree No. of Transport predietor

data
Engelund & Ackers & Van Rijn Karim
Hansen White (1982, &
(1967) (1973, 1980) 1984) Kennedy
(1983)

CSU-data 162 89% 85% 70% 74%

USA-rivers 299 67% 61 % 79% 53%

Pakistan
Canals 142 71 % 71 % 56% 45%
(ACOP)

Table 3.1 Scores (in %) in the interval 112 < rs < 2

Similarl y the scores (in %) for the ratio re for predicted and measured Chézy-
roughness (re = C/Cm) are given in Table 3.2.
The reader can judge for him/herself that the newer predietors are not
necessarily better than the older ones. The relatively simple predietors of
Engelund & Hansen (containing much less experimental coefficients than
the Ackers-White method) are still doing surprisingly weIl.

Souree No. of Roughness predietor

data
Engelund & Ackers & Van Rijn Karim
Hansen White (1982, &
(1967) (1973, 1980) 1984) Kennedy
(1983)

CSU-data 162 59% 36% 63% . 53%

USA-rivers 299 38% 56% 68% 34%

Pakistan
Canals 142 42% 80% 84% 81 %
(ACOP)

Table 3.2 Scores (in %) in the interval 0.8 < re < 1.2

64
 • Accuracy of morphological predictions
For many morphological predictions the accuracy of the transport is not the
ultimate goal (sedimentation of reservoirs perhaps excluded). Therefore also
research has been carried out to study the propagation of inaccuracies in the
prediction of s and C into morphological predictions (e.g. of the water depth).
Using analytical solutions of the one-dimensional morphological equations,
insight in this aspect can be obtained (De Vries, 1982; 1983). Although
analytical solutions give insight into the influence of errors in the separate
parameters there is the disadvantage that the basic equations have to be
linearised .
An alternative method is the repeated use of a numerical model. Random
selection of the parameters from their respective probability distributions can
lead to e.g. the probability distribution of the bed level as a function of time and
space. An example is given by Van Rijn (1987). Obviously this method can only
be applied when a single computation in not too time-consuming.

3.3.3 Notes on statistics

In the previous Sub-section it appears that (morphological) parameters can have

a substantial error which influences the accuracy of computations by means of
morphological rnodels.
To increase this accuracy it is of paramount importance that proper (statistical)
techniques are applied. This is the more the case as for the evaluation of raw
river data an adequate hydrodynamic model is not (yet) available. The treatment
of the data is therefore almost purely empirical by assessing relationships
between dimensionless groupings of parameters (dimensionless products) which
can easily introduce errors.

This causes that in this Sub-section some notes on the (statistical) treatment of
measurements are given.

• Possibility of spurious correlation

Benson (1965) has shown that correlating two (dimensionless) parameters (each
containing the same stochastical parameter) may lead to spurious correlation.

65
 The au thor gives a number of possibilities of which one is taken here as an
example.
Suppose three stochastical parameters XI' X2 and XJ are measured. The standard
deviations are respectively 0"1' 0"2 and 0"3' The relative errors are then

(3.63)

Between the parameter ~ (j = 1,2,3) correlations may be present, expressed in

the correlations coefficients r12, r13 and r23.

New variables are now made: .ï = X/X2 and 1: = XJ/X2' As an approximation the
correlation coefficient ryz between .ï and 1: can now be written as

(3.64)

In the special case that the original parameters are not correlated (thus
r12 = r13 = r23 = 0) the Eq. (3.64) is reduced to

r22
ryz = ------------------ (3.65)
{r2l + r2'2}.1>i2 • {2r2 + r32}1/2

If certain ratio's between rl, r2 and rs happen to exist, then large values of ryz
can be present although the original variables are not correlated!
As an example; if it happens that r2 = 3rl = 3r3 then according to Eq. (3.65)
the correlation coefficient ryz = 0.9 is found!

• Dimensional analysis
From the above example it is clear how the possibility of spurious correlation
can be avoided. Correlation (and hence regression) should be sought between
combinations of parameters that do not have a stochastical parameter in
common. This requires care in the selection of combinations of parameters.
Usually these combinations consist of dimensionless parameters. The technique

66
 applied is called dimensional analysis, A special form i. e. the one that avoids
spurious correlation is given by Langhaar (1956). For easy reference the gist of
this technique is explained in Annex I.

• On curve fitting
The adjustment of a theoretical function with experimental data should consists
of two steps.
(i) The actual computation of coefficients and exponents of the theoretica!
functions using experimental data.
(ii) .Comparing the prediction of by means of the adjusted function with
observed values.
As sets of experimental data usually have a restricted sizè it is tempting to use
all available data for the curve fitting. However, then step (ii) loses its
independency. There is some kind of inbreeding. It is therefore advisable to use
only part of the data (say 50%) for the curve fitting and the rest for the check in
step (ii). The splitting of the data in two parts should be done at random.

An attractive relatively new method for curve fitting is the DUD-method as

proposed by Ralston and Jennrich (1978).
For the comparison of measured and predicted results (step ii) special reference
is made to the bootstrap method proposed by Efron (1979). See also
Groeneboom (1990). The advantage of this method is that the characteristics of
the probability distributions have not to be known.

3.3.4 Non-alluvial roughness and resistance

The flood plain of a river will be in general non-alluvial. The vegetation will
create resistance to the flow. In Chow (1959) some information can be found.
More recent data are compiled in Barnes (1987).
These data are relevant for one-dimensional river models if rivers with
composite cross-sections are modelled. Naturally the data are also used for two
dimensional (horizontal) river models comprising the flood plains.
The overall roughness (e.g. expressed in kN) can vary considerably as is
demonstrated in Fig. 3.9.

67
 The kN values reported by Bruk and Volf
~.-------,-----~
are extremely large. This regards data
for the Tamish R., a tributary of the
Danube. The flood plain is here very
.......

, ID
(~:~ irregular. This dominates the kN value
derived from measurements.
--_.--.-

o~u~----~u~----~u~ Various elements contributing to the non-

- water depth (J [mI
alluvial resistance are given here some
Fig. 3.9 Flood plain with vegetation attention.

• Pasture land
If the flood plain is reasonably flat then the roughness is caused by grass.
During a flood in February 1980 careful measurements were performed in the
flood plain of the Pannerden Channel (Klaassen & Van Urk, 1985).
The results are presented in Fig. 3.10. Some remarks have to be made.
(i) Figure 3.9 is based on DHL (1976); a literature survey. There for the
Rhine R. a value kN = O.07m was found. The measurements compiled in
Fig. 3.10 show larger values.
(ii) Figure 3. 10 shows a
E
0.60 ~ decrease of kN in time.
5 This can be explained by
CD
El200I----'oL..-f------+-----"- t!
111
CD the fact that the grass is
~111 t:
0.30 'á
'6 :::J bent by the current.
c::
I 100I------t----- ...
0

~ Deposition of sand and

§ 't:
~Cl silt prevents that the
t o~~~~~~~~
8/2 9/2 10/2 11/2
0.00 ~
grass returns in the
- time [days)
original shape once the
Fig. 3.10 Pasture land (kN-values) flow veloeities are
reduced.

(iii) During the 1982-flood even larger kN values than in Fig. 3.10 were
found. This is logical as the 1982-flood took place in May-June; the
grass is then longer than in February.

68
• Trees
The most simple hydraulic situation is present if only the sterns of the trees are
under water. This was for instanee the case in the flood plain of the Danube R.
as reported by Vincent and Strauss (1975).
The effective shear stress ('TJ consists then of the shear stress ('TI) due to the bed
roughness and the equivalent shear-stress ('TJ due to the trees. The latter can be
found as follows.
Each stem (diameter D) excerts a force F to the flow with

F = ..!.pC
2 D
• u2 • Da (3.66)

The drag coefficient CD is generally a function of Reynolds number (Re). If n

trees are present per unit area then

(3.67)

This leads to the effective Chézy-value (Ce) via 'Te = TI + 1'2 in the following
relationship

1 n • C • A
+ - D (3.68)
C~ 2g

Note that n has the dimension [L-2].

If only the stem of the trees is under water then A = D.a. However, if also the
top of the trees are partly under water A will increase with the water level. This
was found in a scale-model study (DHL, 1970). For this study the scales of Fr
and Re basically have to be equals unity. This implies that then only the trivial
solution of a full-scale model is possible (Annex 11).However, given the cha-
racteristics of the sterns (rough cylinders) and the values of D involved, CD is
not too much dependent on Re as long as D is not too small. This reasoning
makes it possible to apply such scale models.

• Hedges
In the flood plain of the Rhine R. and the Meuse R. in the Netherlands hedges
are frequently used to mark the boundaries between the different landed

69
properties. Hedges are difficult to schematise in a scale model. Moreover now
the values of D are so small that CD = ./{Re) cannot be neglected. This has let to
laboratory research on full-scale hedges (DHL 1970; Klaassen & Van der
Zwaard, 1974).

First of all the situation can be taken with only flow through the hedges.
Basically this can be described by Torricelli law.

(3.69)

in which
.1h = difference in piezometric head over the hedge
pA = total effective wetted cross-sectional area
IJ. = discharge coefficient.
By measuring Q, A, .1h and u the factor IJ.p can be determined (Klaassen & Van
der Zwaard, 1974). The results are given in Fig. 3.11.

1.00

!lP
.~. . •
~

• •
. . ... _ .J: ~
.:.;_ !-t I- I-
'"
t 0.50
IL"
• ,:;." • ....: lr" ....
\--"' • •
- -
r.- If'It •
• O_t
• • •
- ~-
.00
:_jI:.
0
'0>0'"
-- -- ---
- --
-;,- 0

o
o 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50
-- WATER DEPTH (m]

-- no organlc rubblsh -------- with organic rubbish

Fig. 3.11 Flow through hedges

During floods floating trash is frequently transported by the river. This

influences the flow as indicated qualitatively in Fig. 3.11.
In the second place flow over and through the hedge is considered. Klaassen &
Van der Zwaard (1974) propose to simply add up the two components of the
discharge.

70
 --------------------------------

With Fig. 3.12 the subrnerged flow over the hedge can be described by

(3.70)

Measurernents show 111.0 = 1

(i) Flow through the hedge as expressed in Eq. (3.69).
(ii) Flow over the hedge using the equation for a submerged spillway.
In both cases the discharge per unit width is applied.

--.--===-------------------------------- -·!J.h
~ ~---~ I

Fig. 3.12 Flow passing hedge

(3.71)

with
aa-a] (3.72)
M = [
(p.p) _
a =,
+ m
• ____::_
a 0 a 0

Remark
Equation (3.69) and hence also Bq. (3.71) does not contain the dirnension of the
hedge in the rnain flow-direction. In the experirnents quoted here this was about 112 rn.
• Flood ways
Sornetirnes secondary flood ways are present in aflood plain being submerged
during floods (Fig. 3.13).

71
 --------------- -------------------_

q h,
a,

Fig. 3.13 Subrnerged flood way

The discharge forrnula for this case reads

(3.73)

The discharge coefficient (m) depends on the shape and the roughness.
Remark
Sornetirnes the flow direction is not perpendicular to the alignrnent of the flood
way but there is an angle ex < 11211'". A good assurnption is that when approa-
ching the flood way the stream lines are bent and pass perpendicularly. The dis-
charge q according to Eq. (3.73) is then linked with qo' of the stream lane via

(3.74)

Obviously this expression can also be used for hedges.

72
4. SOLVING RIVER PROBLEMS

4.1 Introduction

In the previous chapter fluvial processes and their mathematica1 descriptions have
been treated. In this chapter some river problems will be discussed and their basic
solution will be presented.
A large variety of problems is available. Here only a restricted number is treated.
It is tried, however, to do it in a systematic way. In this respect a number of
questions are relevant for aspecific problem.

(i) What is the nature of the problem?

(ii) What kind of method can be used to solve the problem?
(iii) Which river data are required?
(iv) How can the results of the model study be interpreted, considering practical
~.

aspects as well and keeping an eye on possible side effects?

Not all problems can be solved at present (1993) with a sufficient degree of
accuracy. This means that more research is required. It means also that solving
river problems has to be done by a combination of science and art. The models are
only tools in the hands of the river engineer. In Section 4.2 the available tools: the
models are summarized.

In solving river problems the study of literature is helpfl!l, but it can never be
expected that a recipe as from a cookery book is available.
Much can be learned from studying literature with respect to failures in the design
of river works. Obviously not much literature is found on such topics. Here as a
demonstration two examples are given.

73
 navlgatlon
route

high b~k '<:<"'0" 0.5 . ::~:):~ :;i,: ~::!~:

~i::û: o
projection
new aJlgnment

Fig. 4.1 VistuIa River in 1940

e:===-__
0.5 1.0km

Fig. 4.2 VistuIa River in 1944

74
• River works Yistula River

During the German occupation of Poland river works were constructed in the
VistuIa River (in German called Weichsel). It was intended to improve the river
for navigation. Figure 4.1 shows the (braided) river reach as it was present in
1940. The anticipated alignment of the artificial meandering river is indicated.
In Fig. 4.2 the situation is given as it was eventually constructed in 1944. This
situation was, however, only obtained after a big struggle with the river and
obviously at high costs.
The struggle is described by Müller (1955) who at the time was the engineer
responsible for the construction of the river works.

The paper of Müller is of a descriptive nature. The grain size of the bed material
is not even mentioned. However, from the paper it can be learned what went
wrong there. In the initial situation (Fig. 4.1) groynes were being built as
anticipation for the 1944-situation (Fig. 4.2). It was hoped that the new single
channel would scour. However, that takes time and temporarily the cross-section
of the river was reduced leading to high veloeities during floods, i.e. damaging the
groynes under construction.

Obviously this failure was caused by improper execution of the river works. The
construction of the groynes should have been accompanied by dredging of the new
channel.

Remark
It is tempting to reflect on the question how at present (1993) i.e. half a century
later, the VistuIa problem would have been approached. It has to be admitted that
the obviously strong three-dimensional nature of the problem (Fig. 4.1) does not
yet make it possible to apply a mathematical model. Application of a scale model
is questionable because of the long river reach involved (Annex 11).

• Collapsing bridge over the Big Sioux River

The Hoover Dam is built in the Colorado River (U.S. A.). The reservoir upstream
of the dam is called Lake Mead. The Big Sioux River is discharging into Lake

75
 Mead. Rather close to the river mouth a bridge was present over the river.
Galay (1983) reports on the collapse of this bridge due to a river flood. It is
understood that the eause of this failure can be explained as follows (details in
Anderson, 1966).

At the time of the bridge failure the water level in Lake Mead was kept low. Hence
the erosion base of the Big Sioux River was low when the flood came. Hence
serious degradation took place in the river. Basically it is the problem of which
Fig. 2.9 gives the schematised version.

In conclusion: inadequate river management can induce failures in river works.

In this chapter, after discussing the 'tools' (Section 4.2) two large topics in river
engineering are treated. In Section 4.3 various aspects in flood muigation are
discussed. Section 4.4 regards problems related to bank protection.

4.2.1 Introduction

River problems can be solved by means of tools. In various cases the tools consist
of models (numerical models and/or scale models). The selection of aspecific
model depends on the nature of the problem.
Also the availability ofjield data is of great importance to the selection of a model.
Usually when a problem has to be solved, there is hardly time to get additional
data from the river. The lack of sufficient data is normal. It requires skill of the
investigator to solve his problem in spite of insufficient data.

• Example: Gash River (the Sudan)

The Gash River flows from the North-West of Ethiopia into the Sudan.
Downstream of the city of Kassala (the Sudan) the water disappears in the sub-soil.
It is an ephemeral river, most of the time the river bed is dry. The river reach near
Kassala is relatively narrow. This local constriction makes that during floods in
time degradation followed by aggradation is likely.

76
 Brolsma (1980) describes the construction of a bank proteetion near Kassala. How
to determine the bed level at the toe of the bank protection? After the flood the bed
level will be higher than during the flood. The problem was solved as follows.
Before the flood came holes were bored in the river bed. The holes were filled
with a coloured sediment (in this case crushed brick), After the flood the top level
of the coloured sediment can be found. This top level is the lowest level of the
erosion process. When such a top level cannot be found it can mean two things.

(i) The actual erosion took place at a lower level than anticipated.
(ii) .Inadequate surveying was made to locate the sites of the coloured sediment.
Hence it could not be traeed back after the flood.

In this Section in general terms the application of numerical models (Sub-section

4.2.2) and scale modeIs (Sub-section 4.2.3) are discussed.
In some cases a river problem is solved by using a numerical model and a scale
model. The advantages of each type of model can then be combined. An example
is given in Sub-section 4.2.4.

4.2.2 Numerical models

Various numerical models are available to tackle river problems. Here only the
ones regarding the movement of water and sediment are considered in general
terms. The progress in numerical modelling is fast. Therefore the number of
problems that can be solved numerically is also increasing.
First of all some general remarks have to be made.
(i) A clear distinction has to be made between professional software and a
research program. The latter is in fact only applicable by the composer of
the program and then even not too long time after the composition of the
program was completed.
(ii) A distinction is to be made between models of the water movement only
tfixed-bed modeis) and the ones for the movement of water and sediment
(morphological modeis).
(iii) Increasing the number of space dimensions considered increases the
complexity of the model. This statement holds whether or not time is taken
into consideration as an independent variable.

77
 (iv) A mathematical model can only be made when a good hydrodynamic
description of the process involved is available. Usually this regards partial
differential equations.
(v) With respect to the selection of the model for a particular problem the
availability of river data is of importance. The model selected should not
be too sophisticated considering the available quantity and quality of the
river data.

• Fixed-bed models

Fixed-bed models can be classified according to the number of space dimensions

(with or without time) considered. One-dimensional models have been in use for
a long time (c.f. Jansen et al., 1979). Most of the work lies in the schematisation
of the (composite) cross-sections into one space-dimension.
Two-dimensional models (horizontal) are also applied. Preferably a curvi-linear
coordinate system is used. Then also the veloeities near the borders of the flood
plain are reproduced correctly. This is of importance if a bank proteetion has to be
designed. The increased computer capacity makes it now also possible to use time-
depending 2DH models.
Three-dimensional modeIs become possible (see e.g. Versteegh, 1990). It seems to
be restricted yet (1993) to cases in which the turbulent flow-structure is not too
complicated. Research in turbulence-modelling seems to be a prerequisite for
extending the applicability of 3D-models.

• Morphological mode Is (fixed banks)

First of all fixed banks are considered. Fixed banks can be present due to natural
causes or due to the construction of bank-proteetion works. For a meandering river
the mathematical description of the water movement is now fairly complete.
Basically the flood has a 3D-character but for a sufficiently large width/depth ratio
a quasi 3D-formulation can be used. It is then possible to apply a mobile bed even
for non-uniform bed-material (Olesen, 1987).

In Fig. 4.3 an example is given of what can be reached at present (1993). The
figure is taken from De Vries et al. (1990). It regards the Bifurcation Pannerden

78
 o 1km
prototype 1966

scale model

computatIon

Fig. 4.3 Model studies Bifurcation Parmerden

in the Rhine R. in the Netherlands. In this case a steady state computation is

applied for a constant discharge of 2000 m3/s.
Note that the results are already better than could be obtained by a scale model.
An example with more simplified equations but with a varying discharge is given
for the Mekong River in Sub-section 4.4.3.

• Morphological models (erodible banks)

If the erodibility of the banks has to be taken into consideration things become
more complicated. This is due to two facts. First of all the bank erosion has to be
described in mathematical terms. Secondly the erodibility changes in space as the

79
characteristics of the soil can vary considerably.
Nevertheless the development of models for morphological models with erodible
banks (meander models)is of great practical importance. This can be demonstrated
by means of an example for the Tana River (Fig. 4.4).

The Tana River is a freely meandering, relatively small river in Kenya. Some
information on this river can be found in lansen et al. (1979, pp 433-440).
Between the Koreh Falls and the bridge at Garissa an irrigation scheme (ADC-
scheme) is located along the Tana River. It regards sprinkler irrigation (large
investments). There is no bank proteetion present. Hence the question is whether
the river will flow through the irrigated land in future.

Based on the theory of Ikeda et al. (1981) a meander model was constructed by
Van der Linden (1985). The calibration of the model (Fig. 4.5) was done by
hindcasting over the period 1960-1975. Then aforecasting was made (Fig. 4.6).
In both cases the river is in the figures indicated by the centreline. The prediction
was made for 1979-1990.
Note the large movement of the river in the horizontaI plane (up to 17m/a).

34° /
/
I
/
I
'I
1
ti
1
KENYA
. MÖÜNTKËN'iA ...

o 100 200 300 km

Fig. 4.4 Tana River basin

80
 1.80

1.80

1.40
('r>.
:,,
I "", ,, '-
,

~
.E 1.20
8
UlO
~
=c 0.80
1975 observed
t 0.80

0.40

0.70 0.90 1.10 1.30 1.50 1.70 1.90 2.10

__ dlstance In km

Fig. 4.5 Calibration of meander model

1Il00

y
[ml'l1OO
t ,_
1200

---- x [mI

Fig. 4.6 Prediction of meander model

The development ofthe MIANDRAS-model by Crosato (1990) has to be mentioned

here.
In Fig. 4.7 the formation and migration of meanders in an originally straight river
have been indicated. Murshed (1991) has extended the MIANDRAS-model by
making it possible that part of the eroded bank-material becomes bed material i.e.
participating in the morphological process. Murshed gave an application to the
Dhaleswari River (Bangladesh). An interesting aspect of this study is that the 1986
river-course was taken from satellite images, the 1993-course was then predicted.
The model gave unrealistic results if much of the bank material was considered to
become bed material.

81
 The above given information in meander models regards large scale processes. The
more detailed small-scale processes were studied by Mosselman (1992).

--.:._ Initia! planlmetry

--- channel's planlmetry after 200 days
............................
channel's planimetry after 400 days
.. channel's planimetry after 600 days
---------- channel's planimetry aftar 800 days
_._._._.
__._._._._. channal's planimetry aftar 1000 days

Fig. 4.7 Meander migration (after Crosato, 1990)

4.2.3 Sca]e models

An alternative to the use of numerical models is the application of a scale model

in a hydraulics laboratory .
The keyword in the design of a scale model is similarity, The physical phenomena
in the scale model have to be similar to the ones in the prototype. Complete
similarity can be obtained for the trivial case of a full-scale model. Usually this is
not attractive because of the costs involved.
The size of the model will therefore be selected much smaller than the prototype.

Scales (or scale factors) are introduced such as the length scale

(4.1)
Lmodel

The scales of other parameters have to be selected in such a way that the physical
processes involved are reproduced correctly. The design of a scale model has to
be made in such a manner that scale effects are kept to a minimum.
In Annex 11a short outline is presented regarding the derivation of scales. More

82
 -------- ---

information can be found in Jansen et al. (1979, pp 305-321).

Reference can also be made to Muskatirovié (1991) especially for examples regar-
ding hydraulic structures. For river problems the following types of sca1e models
can be distinguished.

• Hydraulic structures

For the reproduetion of the free-surface flow it is evident that Froude condition is
fulfilled (Fr", = Frp). This leads to the condition

nu = na
1/2 (4.2)

Moreover the flow has a three-dimensional character. This makes that the model
has to be undistorted or

(4.3)

Moreover the flow has to be turbulent (as in the prototype). Hence

Re. = [':' l. > 600 10 800 (4.4)

Ifthe hydraulic roughness is important for the flow pattern, then also the roughness
condition is of importanee. For an undistorted model this is the condition

2 nL (4.5)
n
C
- -
na = 1

If the bed is mobile then similarity for the sediment transport is required (Annex
II). For suspended sediment Z = KU./Ws has to be the same in model and
prototype.
Considering Eqs (4.2) and (4.3) this requires

n W, = nL 1/2 (4.6)

83
 This sets requirements to the sediment to be used in the scale model (Dm and .1m).

• River models with fixed beds

Models of this type still require Froude condition as given in Eq. (4.2). Now the
model can be distorted. The roughness condilion is then

(4.7)

The distortion (usually r ~ 3) has to be selected so that given Cp the required

value of Cm can be realised.
The Reynolds condilion is as expressed in Eq. (4.4). This type of scale models is
gradually replaced by numerical models.

• River models with mobile bed

Essential is now that the morphological process is reproduced correctly. The bed
material and the velocity scale have to be selected accordingly (Annex 11). This
velocity scale (ideal velocity scale) will differ from the one according to the Froude
condition. Hence

nu < n!a
I
(4.8)

This makes that the slopes in the model become steeper than would follow from ip
and the adopted distortion (r). This is corrected by tilting the model. Uncertainties
in Cm (before the model is constructed) make that the length of theriver reach that
can be reproduced is restricted. Implicitly it has been assumed that the banks are
non-erodible. The writer is not aware of any successful scale-model study with
erodible banks. This seems logical. It is already difficult to formulate the
erodibility properly (Sub-section 4.2.2). For the scale model it would require the
choice of a bank material that gives similarity with respect to the erodibility.

84
4.2.4 Hybride models

Sometimes a combination of a numerical model and a scale model is used to solve

a problem. In practice that is usually off-line.
The advantages of both model types are combined in this way.
It has to be mentioned that scale models (like numerical modeIs) require boundary
conditions. The conditions at the boundaries (both upstream and downstream) have
to be independent of the (river) geometry between the boundaries.

The use of hybride models can be explained by means of an example. Therefore

the Rio Coca-Codo Sinc1air Project (Equador) is taken.

• Rio Coca (general)

The Coca River is a

relatively small moun-
N
tain river discharging
A
into the Napo River,
which in its turn is a
tributary of the largest
~~~~~-------------------
river in the world: the
-------------------
RIOS
.-=--=- 5 km
Amazon River. The
Coca R. is situated
close to the active El
Fig. 4.8 Rio Coca
Reventador Volcano
Cthe trembling one'). The area is subject to earthquakes.
The Coca R. starts at the confluence of the Quijos R. and the Salado R. (Fig. 4.8).
Just downstream of the confluence the construction of a low dam with a water
intake is planned. The water will be led through a tunnel to a planned hydro-power
station at Codo Sinclair. The tunnel will have a Iength of about 14 km. The total
available head is about 650 m. This large head sterns from the steep river-slope and
the San Rafael Falis (head about 150 m).

The river reach important to the project can be divided into 4 sub-reaches.
(i) Upstream of the dam site. The Quijos R. and the Salado R. do not have a

85
 flood at the same time.
(ii) From the dam site to the tributary Malo R.
(iii) From Malo R. to the San Rafael Falls.
(iv) From San Rafael Falls to Codo Sinc1air.

• Rio Coca (data)

The Coca R. is situated in rain forest. The rainfall at the San Rafael station is
almost 5 m/a! The rainfall varies locally very much. The bed material seems to
have a bimodal probability distribution with 5 cm and 1 mm as modes. For this
model studies necessary to guide the design of the dam apparently reach (iv) is not
important. The same holds for reach (iii) as the river bed at the mouth of the Malo
R. seems to be rocky. Downstream of this point the slope of the Coca River seems
to be larger than the critical slope.
Reach (ii) has a width of about 200 mand the Chézy-roughness of this reach is
estimated to be C = 30 m'lzls. The slope of this reach to is 1 to 5 * 10-3•

• Rio Coca (models)

For the design of the dam (only about 8 m high) a model study is required.
Obviously this has to be a scale model. The flow near the intake and in the planned
sediment trap downstream has astrong three-dimensional character. Hence a scale
model is required; it has to be undistorted given the available space a length scale
nL := 60 was estimated.
Only part of the discharge is led through the tunnel. During floods the water passes
the crest of the dam. Hence downstream a stilling basin is required. Downstream
of the stilling basin erosion may take place. This regards not only local scour but
also degradation. Degradation takes piace because the dam will lead to
sedimentation upstream.

The scale model requires boundary conditions both upstream and downstream.
(i) Downstream
The purpose of the stilling basins is depending on the downstream water
level. This water level is, however, governed by the induced degradation
process. A one-dimensional morphological model is suitable in this respect.
(ii) Upstream
The scale model of the structure requires also a condition at the upstream

86
 boundary. This regards the discharge and the velocity distribution across the
river. Also the latter has to be independent of the structure. This is not easy
to reach in the undistorted model. Therefore a larger area including the
confluence has to be used. Basically this can be a numerical model or a
distorted scale model.

~ Flood mitigation

4.3.1 Introduction

Floods in rivers may cause damage to the adjacent land as the river water leaves
the flood plain. The damage caused is not primarily due to the magnitude of the
discharge but due to the accompanying water levels. It is therefore important to
keep the water levels low enough to prevent damage.

There are a number of measures available to reach this situation. The results of
these measures have to be investigated considering both the transport of water and
sediment.

Consider an alluvial low-water bed. For steady and uniform flow

(4.9)

As an approximation holds for the sediment transport

(4.10)

Elimination of the depth (a) gives

3-n
(4.11)
S = Q n/3
•m• C2n/3
'b
• B 3 • .n/3

If Q, m, n, C and B do not change due to the change of the sediment supply to a

river reach, then it yields

(4.12)

87
 This rough estimation indicates that reduction of the sediment supply to a river
leads to a reduction of the bottom slope. For a fixed erosion base this means that
the bed level goes down eventually and the water levels will follow. Hence:
• Erosion control in a river basin is a potenaal method to lower the high-
water level downstream.
An other method to avoid flooding outside the flood plain is the construction of
levees. In the following Sub-sections some measures for various parts of a river are
discussed.

4.3.2 Detention reservoirs

In the upper part of a river basin detention reservoirs are built to reduce the peak
value of a flood wave. The principle is described in lansen et al. (1979, p.402).

apIIlwaydlacharQ4!..
crest spi!lwalC. ._.__ ._._._._._._._._._._.__._._._._._._. ._._._._._._._._._._._._._._._._._._._._._
.. _._._._._._._._._.

i ~time
!
---t-~]~r redu~oo

Fig. 4.9 Principle detention reservoir

In Fig. 4.9 the principle of such a reservoir has been given. A spillway with
underflow is constructed. The discharge is stored temporarily. Hence the flood
wave is reduced as far as the maximum is concerned. Sometimes it is also possible
that water is released over the crest of the spillway.
The construction of a detention reservoir in only one of the tributaries of a river
may not be successful. Therefore more tributaries may be equipped with a
detention reservoir.
It is possible that detention reservoirs do not reduce the water levels downstream.
In lansen et al. (1979, p.402) an interesting schematic example is given. It is

88
 reproduced in Fig. 4.10 .

.... ,'-,
, \
\
T4 \
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
/
/
/
I
L_
T2: I
~
---- /
~

I~
- COI1IrOIIed by -"'*-
-no.-volra
~TIME

Fig. 4.10 Adverse effects detention reservoirs

If the city A has to be protected against flooding then the construction of reservoirs
as indicated may even have adverse effect if the rain storm has the indicated
direction.

Nieuwkamer (1989) has studied the determination of the main features of a

detention reservoir (dimensions of the outlet under water and the crest level). In
this case the design flood-wave, the topography of the river bed and the required
maximum downstream water-level have to be known.

To the writer's knowledge no systematic design is available yet (1993) that takes
into consideration also the sediment management. Originally uncontrolled openings
under water were applied (Fig. 4.9). However, with the present level of automation
controlled openings do not seem unrealistic.

• Example
In 1986 a detention reservoir has been constructed in the Panaro River (Italy)
upstream the city of Modena. Modena is situated between the rivers Secchia and
Panaro (both tributaries of the Po River).
Proteetion against floods by constructing higher levees was not possible because of
lack of space.

89
The spillway and reservoir are based on the requirement that the maximum of the
design flood is reduced from 2100 m3/s to 1400 m3/s. Roughly speaking this flood
has a return period of 100 years.

Fig. 4.11 Detention reservoir Panaro River

In Fig. 4.11 the lay-out of the reservoir is given. Adjacent to the actual reservoir
an area of 70 ha is used for storage if necessary. This area (grey in the figure) is
normally used for agriculture.
The banks of the reservoir are partly formed by the natural elevation of the terrain
and partly by levees.
The cross-section of the spillway is
given in Fig. 4.12. The spillway is
about 10 m high.
The river bed has a rather steep
slope (5.10-3). The bed material
Fig. 4.12 Cross-section (gravel with J5 = 2 to 3 cm) does
not lead to sedimentation of the
reservoir as the sediment is withdrawn upstream for building purposes.

Upstream of the reservoir a screen is constructed from concrete piles (1/2 • 1/2 m2
cross-section). This screen is present to prevent that floating trash (trees!) damages
the spillway.
It seems that no special measures are taken to prevent damage caused by
degradation downstream of the dam. The cost of the total work amounted to (1986)
about NLG 50 * 106•

90
 ------------------------------------------------------- - ---

For the design a scale model was used, undistorted and with fixed bed. The
purpose of this model was to determine the veloeities close to the borders of the
river and reservoir. In order to reduce these veloeities sufficiently it was decided
to equip the sluice openings close to the borders with sluice gates. The gate
openings can thus be controlled.

4.3.3 Flood mitigation middle-river

In the middle-river water levels during floods can be reduced by:

(i) Constructing of a bypass channel

in a certain reach of the river.
Then the capacity of the river is
increased locally. The principle is
indicated in Fig. 4.13. At Station
A part of the discharge is released
Fig. 4.13 Bypass channel via the bypass channel. The water
is flowing into the river again at
Station B. To control the functioning of the system a (fixed) weir can be
constructed at Station A.
In some cases e.g. near Taipeh (Taiwan) Station B is situated at the coast.
This type of flood-way is treated in Sub-sectien 4.3.4.
(ii) By creating additional storage along a river, peak discharges can be reduced
leading to lowering of the water levels.

To demonstrate the functioning of such a measure a (schematic) example has been

taken from Jansen et al. 1979, p.104). In Fig. 4.14 computational results from a
one-dirnensional mathematical model (fixed bed) have been given.

91
A river reach with a length of 500 km is considered with different cross-sections

A1 ~

B
OISCHARGE CANAl Ba

A2. 100 200 300

OISCHARGE CANAl Ba WITH

FlOOOPlAIN STORAGE B
E 100 200 300
81 z
::r:
l-
a.
W
OISCHARGE CANAl WITH
RESERVOIR STORAGE
o
NEAR STATION 60 km
100 200 300

100 200 300

CELERITY WAVE-CREST
400 ......
" ,-.-
.., , ~...•...
----- /f. ,., ·/J,·s ·::':"·~
~ ~,/: o~/ "'.ir"
300
200
........
~;~~~q(J!I:~~~;:Ql·
... '~I/ ,.;"
100 ",zi:S",/
o L_L/~ ~ ___

100 200 300

100 200 300

- TIME IN HOURS

Fig. 4.14 Water-level lowering by local storage

The following cases are considered:

• Al: The river has no flood plain and there is no reservoir present for
o < x < 500 km.
• A2: The river has aflood plain that is only available for storage (no
flow). There are no reservoirs.

92
• BI: The river has no flood plain but at x = 50 km a reservoir is present
with restricted storage capacity. The reservoir is getting filled if the
local river depth becomes €lso = 6.4 m.
• B2: In this case there is storage in the flood plain depending on the
water level. Moreover the reservoir as in case BI is present.

The following numerical data have been used.

River data:
stream with B, = 200 m
,bed slope ib = 1.087 . 10-4
bed roughness k = 0.1 m
base discharge Qo = 800 m3/s (ao = 4 m)
Boundary conditions
In the four cases the same flood wave is taken at the upstream end of the
reach (x = 0). The flood wave is given in Fig. 4.14.
At the downstream end of the reach the water level follows from the
discharge rating-curve (Q-h curve).
For constant values of C and i, this follows from the relation
Q = Qo {alaopl2.

In the numerical model a space step Ax = 10 km and a time step !::..t= 1 h were
applied.

From the computational results the following conclusions can be drawn.

(i) In the four cases the celerity (c) of the flood wave is in agreement with the
theoretical value for a constant Chézy value

c = ~u • BIB (4.13)
2 s

(ii) In the case Al (only storage in the L.W.-bed) the demping of the wave is
small. The top level of 3.9 m for x = 0 is only reduced by 0.4 m at
x = 450 km.
(ii) In case A2, however, over 500 km a reduction of the top level with about
1.4 m is present. This demonstrates the value of the H.W.-bed even (like
in this case) it carries no flow.
(iv) Comparison of the cases BI and B2 shows the positive effect of the

93
 reservoir at x = 50 km. Locally the wave height is reduced by one metre.
The top of the flood wave becomes, however, very broad (uniform flow).
Consequently for x > 50 km the storage capacity of the H. W.-bed is not
used. Therefore the demping of the wave height for x > 50 km is
negligible (case BI) or small (case B2).
(v) Comparing of the wave heights at x = 450 km for cases Al and BI shows
that the presence of the reservoir with (restricted) storage is favourable.
Comparing of the cases A2 and B2, however, shows that the effect of the
reservoir is small. This is because in case B2 the storage of the H. W.-bed
is not used. This can lead to the conclusion that application of a reservoir
with restricted capacity is not so useful when the area to be protected
against floods is situated far downstream of the reservoir.

• Example: Ancient Lower Yellow River

In Fig. 4.15 the course of the
Yellow River (China) is sketched.
:110" In 1855 the river changed its
BAOTbu
lower course northeast ward. In
an historica! analysis Zhang and

• Xie (1990) have analysed the

LANZHOU

~
.: frequency of levee breaching in 5
30" ........... j . reaches of the ancient lower river
from 1466 to 1855.
For each reach the frequency of
breaching is given in times per
Fig. 4.15 Ancient Yellow River year for a length of 100 km.
Generally a breach causes a 10-
wering of the discharge downstream. So making the levees higher implies that
storage is taken away. Thus the possibility for the downstream reach of getting
breaching of levees increases.

Figure 4.16 shows the results of the analysis. During the first two centuries the top
of the frequency curve moves gradually downstream (Fig. 4.16 is like an x-t
diagram). Figure 4.17 indicates the location of the five reaches.

94
 1.0
0.5
o 1

1.0
0.5
o I_!
f 1496-1525 1.0~ 1706-1735
0.5
o 1Wf1ttu...,

i::
C) j .. )

c:: 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
~
~
...
Q)
.c
Q)
1.0 [ 1525-1555
0.5
o }:::::,::::.:::::::::::'f::::::;:;:;:;:.::;:;::l
1 2 3 4 5
0.:-=.
1.0 1736-1765

12345
=

O.:~
Q)
> 1.0 [ 1556-1585 1.0~ 1766-1795
~
0.:
ë5
t
>:.;Î':':':':':':"':':':"':~
1 2 3 4 5 12345
~
c:: 1.0 [ 1586-1615 1.0 1796-1825
CD 0.5 0.5
::::J
C'" o ]::::::(::::::::::::::::=F=::::::::::::t=:::!· ± .. '.
····t··········· o Y0t=::;:;::={:;:.;::!:;:-;:;:~-::::::-"'::::;:;=:::;;:=;:;:;:~
....
~ 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
U. 1.0
1616-1645 1.0 [ 1826-1855
0.5 0.5
o _4TIill4illB1J1 o . =:!J7I1
12345
1.0 Reach 1 Yingze - ChenIlu
Reach 2 langyang - Yucheng
0.5 Reach 3 Dangshan - Olnghe
0 _ Reach4 Suining - Oinghe
Reach 5 below Olnghe

Fig. 4.16 Frequency of Ievee breaching (Yellow River)

Logically also the sediment movement plays a role in the process leading to the
features of Fig. 4.16. This holds especially for the Yellow River with its huge
sediment transport.

95
 The most important one may
be the growth of the river at
Yellow Sea (Huang Hal)

the mouth. It seems that in the

present time the river mouth
moves in the seaward direction
Qinghe

with a speed of 1/2 km/a. This

effect causes aggradation up-
stream which consequently
makes higher levees necessary.

o
- 100 km
.

Yellow River (Huang He)

Fig. 4.17 Old course Yellow River

4.3.4 Design of tlood way

To lower water levels in a river it is sometimes proposed to construct an additional

channel from a certain point (L) upstream of the erosion base.
To analyse the value of this measure it is in the first step assumed that at x = L
a constant amount ..1.Q and t::.S is withdrawn from the river with constant values of
Q and S.
The analysis is kept simple here. Equilibrium stages are only considered.
An important parameter is now Sh, the difference between the water levels at x =
Land x = o.

96
 A negative side effect is that for 0 < x <

ss, so L the depth can decrease (navigation).

Therefore the water depth (a) is also
considered.
The following equations are valid

(4.14)
Fig. 4.18 Withdrawing IlQ and ss

and

S = B • m • u" = B· m { ia r (4.15)

From these two equations first of all a is eliminated. This gives

_ Q2
Ilh - --·L
[ -B {
-
S } I/n] 3 (4.16)
C2B2 Q Bm

or

(4.17)

The old situation (subscript 0) and the eventual new situation (subscript I) can be
compared

(4.18)

If Ilhl/Ilho = 'YJ; (J = IlS/So and ~ = IlQ/Q then Bq. (4.18) can be written as

(4.19)

Also the change in depth can be considered for the reach 0 < x < L.
From s - u' follows

a - q • rl/n (4.20)

97
or if ex = a/ao

(4.21)

In Fig. 4.19 the areas are indicated where

due to the withdrawal of .::lQ and/or à.î a
• >1
:l~ ,,<1 lowering of the water level ('Y1 < 1) will
I
I)
be reached.
« <1
,,> 1
The morphological change with respect to
the depth is also indicated.
Figure 4.19 is based on the assumption
n = 5.

Fig. 4.19 Areas for ex and 'Y1 Special cases are present for ~ = 0 (sand
mining) and a = 0 (withdrawal of clear
water). The morphological reaction for these special cases are given in Table 2.3.

Now the case of aflood way is considered. At x = L a bifurcation is present. The

new channel gets the subscript 2.

Again the analysis is kept simple (C, m

and n constant). However, the width
(B) and the length (L) can be different.

At the bifurcation there is continuity

with respect to water and sediment.
Hence the following equations apply
Fig. 4.20 Bifurcation (Fig. 4.20).

(4.22)

and

(4.23)

The sediment distribution S/ S2 is governed by the local geometry, therefore a is

98
supposed to be known here. The same holds for the geometrie properties ~/ Bo = fJ
and L,_/Lo = À.

There is another condition namely that for the two channels the same water level
is present at the bifurcation. With Eq. (4.1) this gives

(4.24)

Using the above given definitions for t (with !\Q = Q2) and u (with tS = S2)
makes it possible to combine the last three equations into

(4.25)

For

RI-3/n
IJ
'\
.,,="( (4.26)

this becomes

(4.27)

The change of the water level at the bifurcation becomes

!\h Q -I S st;
= (4.28)
'TI
!\ho -
1_
Qo-I
1.1
st n

Combination of Eqs (4.27) and (4.28) gives

'TI = (I -(J )
31 31
n +"((J n
(4.29)

Some more insight can be obtained by defining (J = rt. With r > 1 relatively
much sediment is withdrawn through the new channel. This can be the case if the
new channel branches off from an outerbend of the old channel (BulIe, 1926). For
a constant discharge it can also be analysed how the depth (al) in the original river
downstream of the bifurcation changes. It follows simply from Eq. (4.20):

(4.30)

Some simple relationships can now be derived.

(i) By eliminating ~ from Eqs (4.27) and (4.29) a relation 'TI = ft ("(,r, n) can

99
 be obtained.
(ii) By eliminating ~ from Eqs (4.27) and (4.30) a relation ex =T. ('Y, r, n) can
be found.

1.6,-----------, With the selection n = 5 Fig. 4.21 has

,-1.0 been composed. The relations '1/ = h('Y)
and ex = !z(')') have been plotted for
some values of the parameter r.
In Fig. 4.21 only 0 < 'Y < 1 is con-
sidered. This has been done because it
is likely that ~ < Lo. It has to be re-
called that 'Y follows from

Fig. 4.21 Situation at bifurcation

(equilibrium)

B ] . [L]L:
[ B: (4.31)
1-3/n
'Y = {31-3/n ·À =

Hence 'Y < 1 is the most logical choice.

• When is '1/ < 1 obtained?

For flood mitigation the situation with '1/ < 1 is the attractive one. The equations
for n and 'Y are therefore reconsidered.
Equation (4.19):

(4.32)

and Eq. (4.27):

(4.33)

In Fig. 4.19 it has already been indicated for which values of CT and ~ the situation
with '1/ < 1 is reached. The figure shows that this holds in general for relatively

100
large o-values and small t-values. The extreem situation is present when only
sediment is taken out (sediment withdrawal, see Table 2.3). From Eq. (4.33) it
follows that 'Y has to be small to reach 1] < 1.

By replacing U by r via u = rt it
2,------------------------,
is possible to compose Fig. 4.22
1.8 1'1 < 1 to indicate for which combination
r
of r and 'Y the required lowering
of the water level can be expec-
1.4
ted.
1.2
Another way of looking at it is to
10L_--~--~~--~--~~--~
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
draw from Eq. (4.33) with u =
-- Y = rt lines of constant values of 'Y
and r. A certain combination of 'Y
and r can give 0,1 or 2 possible
Fig. 4.22 1] = ft:y,r) for n =5
solutions. This is besides the
trivia! solutions u = t = 0 and
u=t=1.
/
/

T constant"" /"
0.8 /

ex /
/
/
Figure 4.23 is composed for
/

t 0.6 /
/
/
/

n = 5.
/
" <, r constant
0.4 /
/
/
There is just one non-trivial so-
/
/
/
/
/ lution if the line r = constant is
/
0.2 /
~
/
the gradient of the line 'Y =
constant. It can be shown that this
0.2 0.4
--~ 0.6 0.8

is the case if

Fig. 4.23

"/("-3) []3/(1I-3) [3]3/(11-3)

[ r] - r = 2·-=-~~ (4.34)
[n'Y]"'(1I-3)

101
 Remarks
(i) The above given analysis is a very rough schematisation of the reality. It
is, however, a warning that not always the solution anticipated can be
reached.
(ii) For the design in practice it is essential to make time-depending morpho-
logical computations.

4.3.5 Applications

The following two exampies can be taken to illustrate the above given theory.

• An ill-constructed flood way

In the lower reach of a small river with
a relatively large slope (about 4 * 10-4)
and a large sinuosity, hindrance of floo-
ding is present. It was decided to con-
struct aflood way. A straight channel
is selected with a slope i, = 13 * 10-4.
In order to provide the river at low
discharge with sufficient water a weir is
constructed at the new bifurcation. The
erosion process in the flood way is
Fig. 4.24 Flood-way design
serious and fast (because of the large
slope). Four years after the completion of the works the weir collapses; a new weir
more upstream is constructed. A pumping station at the new weir takes care of
bringing through a pipe line (irrigation) water to the downstream 'river reach.

Ten years after the completion of the works the bed at the entrance of the flood
way has been lowered over Sm. The unlined flood-way has hardly been widened
during the erosion process. Due to the lowering of the bed also the water levels are
lowered. This causes the ground-water level to get lower.

What went wrong here? Obviously the analysis given in Sub-section 4.3.4 does not
apply here. This is because here at the weir there are (Wo water levels at the

102
 bifurcation. What cao be learned, however, is that in the design of aflood way the
transport of water and sediment has to be considered.

• Lower Choshui River (Taiwan)

Due to serious erosion in the upper part of the basin of the Choshui River the bed
level in the lower reach has been aggradated substantially. This causes flooding of
the adjacent irrigated lands.
It regards here an ephemeral river with a basin of 3155 km'. The average rainfall
is about 2.5m/a(!). Therefore it is not surprising that the l00-year discharge at
Hsi-Lo amounts to QlOo = 24000m3/s.

Fig. 4.25 Lower Choshui River

The lower reach of the river (Fig. 4.25) has a bed slope of about ib - 10-3•
Therefore large flow veloeities can be present.
One way of reducing the flooding is to narrow the river. This can for instance be
done by building groynes during the long dry period. What happens eventually due
to the narrowing can be found in Tabel 2.3. It is a special case in the analysis of
Sub-section 4.3.4.

For the design a one-dimensional morphological model can be used. With the
program ODIRMO (Vermeer, 1985) the time-depending changes have been
estimated in a very schematic way.

103
Fig. 4.26 Schematic longitudinal profile Choshui R.

In Fig. 4.26 the longitudinal profile is given. A discharge of 20 000 m3/s is taken
and a grain size Dm = 0.4 mmoThe C-value was estimated with Van Rijn (1984).
At t = 0 the width is supposed to be reduced from Bo = 2 km to BI = 1.5 km
over the last 25 km of the river.
If the bed level has not yet changed it causes the water levels to rise due to the
increase of the normal depth.

,
;

t 0
-1

-2 ~

-3

50 25 o
__ x [km]

Fig. 4.27 Time-depending changes Choshui River

In Fig. 4.27 the computed changes of the bed level (àz) and of the water level (t:..h)
are reproduced. This regards the changes with respect to the situation at t = O.
It appears that it takes between 200 and 500 hours before the water levels reach

104
again the values present for t < O. Later on the anticipated lowering of the water
levels is reduced gradually due to degradation.

What is the interpretation of the computer results? It has to be recalled that the
computation was carried out for a constant discharge. This discharge is the top of
a flood wave which lasts only a few days almost every year. Consequently it has
to be concluded that it will take several years before the goal of the works (i.e.
flood mitigation) is reached. During those years the flooding frequency will even
be larger on average than for t = O. This is not easy to explain to the public at
large ..
What can be done about it? Obviously the artificial removal of the sediment has to
be considered. However, that is not so easy. It requires two questions to be
answered:
(i) How has the sediment to be removed and
(ii) Where has it to be placed?

To start with the last question, in practice it tums out in general that when
sediment is available for building purposes it is not suitable or there is locally no
demand. The other side of the story is that when the sediment cannot be missed in
the river, it is suitable for building purposes and there is a demand.

How can the sediment be removed? Obviously removal 'in the wet' by means of
a dredger is out of question here. There is only sufficient water depth in the river
during a few days per year and then the veloeities are high. So removal of the
sediment 'in the dry' is the most realistic option. However, this is expensive,
considering the large quantities to be removed.

What to do then? WeIl, the guideline here is that the river has to do the work.
There is basically the possibility to let the river do the scouring without large
temporary raises of the water levels. This is accomplished if each year the river is
narrowed over a restricted length 1lL. Like in the case of breaking an ice cover on
a river, this has to be done from the mouth going into the upstream direction.

Is this a suitable altemative? As can already be seen from Fig. 4.27 the draw-down
curve present upstream from the mouth is relatively short. This is due to the large

105
 slope of the river!
Using the dimensionless length-scale of the river A = xi/aft it can be shown (De
Vries, 1993a) that a small induced change in the depth is reduced via the draw-
down curve upstream, by a factor 2 for Ao.5 = JA. The normal depth for the new
situation can be estimated as follows:

= 3~2 _ 3 (20000)2
= 4.8m (4.35)
~ ----~--~--~3
I B/Clib (150ol. (40)2 • 10-

Hence

':·a ':·4.8
XO.5 =
4 ft
=
4
=lkm (4.36)
ib 10-3

Consequently it will take a large number of years before the narrowing over
L = 25 km can be obtained without too large temporary rises of the water levels.

4.4 Bank protection

4.4.1 Introduction

The need to proteet river banks is caused by the requirement to regulate the river
bed. A number of examples can be given.
(i) For flood proteetion it may be required to construct levees in the high-water
bed. The main questions regard then the alignment and the proteetion of the
slope of the levee at the river side.
(ii) To prevent flooding due to the formation of ice jams it may be required to
normalise the low-water bed ti.e. to make the width constant). This was the
reason to start normalising the Rhine branches in the Netherlands (19th
century).
(iii) Normalising mayalso be necessary if improvement for navigation at low
discharges is anticipated.
(iv) Additional bank-proteetion works may also be required if the river is
canalised by constructing weirs.
(v) Local bank proteetion may be necessary if a bridge has to cross a river.

106
 Examples are the local works near Hardinge bridge (Bangladesh). For the
Apure River (Venezuela) an example can be found in Fig. 4.33.

In this Seetion only the functional design of bank-proteetion works is discussed.

This is done in three steps. In Sub-seetion 4.4.2 the types ofstructures are treated.
The morphological aspects essential for the design are discussed in Sub-seetion
4.4.3. Finally the seleetion of the alignment is given attention in Sub-seetion 4.4.4.

4.4.2 Types of structures

Basically a river bank can be proteeted in two ways:

(i) A continuo us proteetion is obtained when the bank is proteeted with a
revetment over a substantiallength along the river.
(ii) A discontinuous proteetion is obtained by a series of groynes or spur-dikes.

In the case of groynes it may regard (solid) groynes or open groynes. The latter
consist of a series of piles driven into the river bed, usually perpendicular to the
bank of the (low-water bed of the) river.

When the bank has to be protected over a large height (/lh) then only a continuous
proteetion can be applied. Groynes would beeome enormous (and expensive) struc-
tures. Examples are the Mekong River near Vientiane (/lh := 10 to 15 m) and the
Apure River (/lh := 10 m) near San Femando de Apure.

Groynes are frequently used to proteet the bank of the low-water bed. (Rhine R.
and Danube R.). In that case an alternative may be a continuous protection.
In Fig. 4.28 an example is taken (lansen et al., 1979, p. 354) for which a channel
has to be proteeted with sufficient depth for navigation.

For the design of a bank proteetion two basic questions have to be answered.
• Which lowest bed level near the bank has to be considered? This question
can be answered in principle (see Sub-seetion 4.4.3).
• Which highest water level in the river has to be considered?

107
 INmAt. CHANNEL

HYORAUUC FILL

HYDRAUUC ALL

Fig. 4.28 Types of channel-fixation structures

The last question is not so easy to answer. A distinction has to be made between
two cases. If the river bank is in fact the bank of the H. W. -bed (like in the case
of the Mekong River near Vientiane) then an optimal solution is not so difficult to
reach. It is basically the same problem as to establish the crest level of alevee.

More difficult is to solve the problem of the required crest level of a series of
groynes protecting the L.W.-bed. This can be demonstrated by an example for the
Danube River. The river leaves Hungary near Baja and flows into Yugoslavia. The
crest level of the groynes, above a (sloping) reference level is in Hungary one
metre higher than in Yugoslavia! In order to avoid a silly look at the border the
difference of one metre is gradually divided over a number of groynes at both sides
of the border.

The required crest levels of a series of groynes forms an important research topic
in river engineering.

• Example
The Canal del Dique is an artificial channel in Columbia from the city of Calamar
along the Magdalena River to the ocean at Cartagena. To deepen the channel a
series of open groynes have been constructed to narrow the channel. The groynes
consist of a series of wooden piles. The reduction of the flow veloeities between
the groynes forces suspended sediment to settle. In a relatively short time the areas
between the groynes are completely full of settled sediment.

108
 Examples of groynes can e.g. be found in Jansen et al. (1979) and Petersen (1986).

4.4.3 Morphological aspects

The bed level to be chosen at the toe of the bank proteetion is an important
morphological problem. The design bed-level is govemed by four more or less
independent morphological processes.
(i) Overall degradation of the river is possible.
(ii) Seasonal degradation may be present.
(iii) . Constriction scour may be induced.
(iv) Local scour may be induced by groynes.

The four possible processes have a different length- and time-scale. Therefore
superposition seems possible. Below the four processes are given attention.

• Overall degradation
Logically the degradation process that is already in progress has to be considered.
However, also possibly induced future degradation has to be taken into account.
This is for instanee necessary for the design of a bank proteetion in the Mekong
River near Vientiane. Upstream of Vientiane the construction of a dam with reser-
voir (Pa Mong dam) is planned. If this dam is built then overall degradation down-
stream can be expected.
Basically the degradation can be estimated by means of a one-dimensional morpho-
logical model.

• Seasonal degradation
This degradation due to the variation of the discharge in time is a change in the bed
level in the cross-sections. It is for instance of large importance for the Mekong
River near Vientiane (see Sub-section 4.4.4).
Another possibility regards the river flowing around an island. At the upstream end
of the island a bifurcation is present. Hence the distribution of Q and S may vary
in time and cause seasonal bed-level variations. This can be very significant as was
measured in the Mekong River. It is not so easy to tackle this problem with a
morphological model as a bifurcation is involved.

109
• Constriction scour
Constriction of the river also causes the bed level to vary in time.
The constriction can also be
induced by the bank-proteetion
works proper. An example is
given in Fig. 4.29. Flood pro-
tection along the Cimanuk Ri-
ver (Indonesia) is obtained by
building alevee along certain
reaches. Locally (open)
groynes are planned to prevent
damage to the levee due to
o 200m

bank erosion in the low-water

bed. Figure 4.29 shows that
Fig. 4.29 Cimanuk R. (Java)
this is done by constructing the
groynes in the low-water bed. This means that locally a river constriction is
induced. Consequently constriction scour can be expected.

• Local scour
Local scour is typical for groynes. A distinction has to be made between the local
scour present around the individual pile of an open groyne and generally the local
scour near the head of the groyne.

• Estimation of local scour (open groyne)

Basically the determination of the local scour around the piles of an open groyne
can be based on the available methods for bridge piers (Breusers, et al. 1977).
There is, however, a difference. First of all the flow velocity near the pile has to
be computed. Secondly contrary to a single bridge pier here the flow around an
individual pile is influenced by the presence of other piles.
In principle the following consideration is possible (Fig. 4.30). Over the length AB
the same difference in head (1lH) is present as along CD. For the river it regards
only friction losses governed by the velocity Uo. Along the line CD there are
friction losses governed by the velocity UI but now also expansion losses (Carnot)
are present. If the diameter of the individual piles (D) and their mutual distances
(b) are known, then the velocity UI' can be computed. For the determination of the

110
 local scour the velocity ~
between the individual piles
c·
is of importance. The velo-
city U2 can be determined
A· ·B
from the continuity equa-
tion.

.. ... .... ..... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ...........

. . . . . . .. .

Fig. 4.30 Principle of open groyne

Roughly speaking

(4.37)

• Local scour at groyne head

For an open groyne the relevant flow velocity to be used for the local scour at the
head can be determined from the above given analysis (Bq. 4.37). The largest
velocity (1.10 or ~) has to be seleeted. For asolid groyne there does not exist a
simple method to estimate the local scour. Much depends on the local (3-D)
velocity field. For important cases when serious scour can be expeeted ascale
model study can be required. Obviously this has to be an undistorted model.

Example
The Lower Mangoky River (in Malagasy = Madagascar) has a relatively steep
slope (ib = 7 . 10-4)and the bed consists of sand (15 = 0.5 mm). An average width
of 21/2 km makes that aflood discharge of 30 000 to 50000 m3/s can give flow
veloeities of about 4m/s.
Alevee along the river was damaged during a serious flood leading to flooding of
adjacent irrigated lands.
Together with the repair of the levees a number of individual strongholds (i.e.
individual groynes) were planned to proteet the levee. An undistorted scale model
(nL = 300) with fixed bed was used to find the proper location of the strongholds

111
 (DHL, 1970, 1971). In addition an undistorted scale model of the surroundings of
the head of the groyne was used to study the local scour. Obviously this was a
mobile-bed model. The objective of this model study was to have the local-scour
hole, downstream of the head, shallow and/or at a sufficient di stance from the
revetment, to avoid damage.
In the overall-model it was found that a groyne perpendicular to the river but with
a head bended (like a hockey stick) was attractive as far as the velocity field was
concemed.

...

Fig. 4.31 Groyne head Lower-Mangoky River

In Fig. 4.31 results of a scale-rnodel test in the mobile-bed detail-model are

presented. In this figure it is indicated which areas in the scale model before the
A

scouring took place were given a level of = + 24.0 mand respectively + 21.0 m.
Lines of equal scour depth are indicated as well. The scour hole is sufficiently far
from the structure. This favourite situation is due to (i) the alignment of the head
and (ii) the mild slopes taken for the head.

4.4.4 Alignment etc.

In the first place some remarks have to be made regarding the alignment of levees
along a river to avoid flooding of the adjacent land. By placing the levee close to
the river the area to be protected is maximal. However, the river is narrow in this
way and the water levels may rise. Moreover when the river changes its course the
levee may be attacked. Hence selecting an alignment for this problem is a
compromise.

112
For freely meandering rivers by means of aerial photographs it can be analysed
where the river was situated in the past. The 'meander belt' can be indicated (Fig.
4.32).

recommended a1ignment

recommended aJignment meanderlng rlver

reoommended a1ignment

recommended a1lgnmeni

Fig. 4.32 Selection levee alignment

By situating the levees outside the meander belt serious attack by the river can be
avoided. For a braided river a similar policy can be followed (Fig. 4.32).

In Fig. 4.33 the design of a local bank proteetion for the Apure River (a tributary
of the Orinco R.) in Venezuela is depicted. In this case proteetion was planned to
guarantee that the river passes the Maria Nieves bridge. Groynes are not conside-
red due to the large difference between the H.W.-Ievel and the L.W.-Ievel.

RIO PORTUGUESA

o 2 3km

Puente
'Maria Nleves'
~
~~·/··:····:C
RIO APURE

CAUCEVIEJO

Fig. 4.33 Alignment design Apure R. (Venezuela)

113
The proteetion is planned outside the existing river bank to have the possibility to
execute the works 'in-the-dry' during a L.W.-period (DHL, 1971).

WORKFLOOR
L

Fig. 4.34 Bank proteetion Gash River

This approach was not necessary for the Gash River near Kassala (the Sudan) as
this river bed is usually dry. A typical cross-section is presented in Fig. 4.34
(Brolsma, 1980).
In Fig. 4.35 part of the Mekong River near Vientiane is reproduced.

"1111 1111111111 bank erosion

2 3 4 5km
: '-_. '_. __ Î

Fig. 4.35 Mekong River near Vientiane

114
Here also groynes are not attractive because of the large water-level differences.
Lack of space makes here construction 'in-the-dry' impossible.

In this case an extensive study was made on the river-bed variations near the banks
(Taal, 1989). The model developed for this problem was quasi two-dimensional and
time dependent. Along the river axis the equations were solved numerically
whereas in the transverse direction the (linearised) basic equations were solved
analytically.

The grt?yarea in Fig. 4.36 gives the variations in time along the Lao-bank of the
river during a wet year. The variations of some metres agree with observations.
The model cannot predict the variation near km 1566 properly as the river is
flowing there around an island. Here seasonal bed-level variations of about 10 m
were observed in the river (see Fig. 4.37).

·15.00r----r------,----,--------,-----,-----,----,------,

15.00L____-'-__ -L- __ -'---_-----I.

__ ----'-
__ --'--__ ..___-'
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00
DISTANCE [km]

Fig. 4.36 Bed-level variations Mekong River

115
 171 LEFTBANK
174 (lAOSIDE) slKveyed 1988- 06- 09

E 170

..1 ,.
c
0

182
11
lil

154

180
o
!ii
~
.._ dlstance (m)

RIGHT BANK
(THAI SIOE) 171

174

1 I.
170

182
g
c
1
&;
SlKveyed 1988-06-09 158 "ij
I
I
slKveyed 1988-08-22/23 I 154
I
surveyed 1988-10-25 /
.~---,-,-----~~ 180

~ ~ 2 SI ~ 0

_ dlstance (m)

Fig. 4.37 Bed-level variations along the island at km 1566 (Mekong River)

116
MAIN SYMBOLS

Symbol description dimension

a water depth [L]

A cross-sectional area [L2]
B width [L]
c celerity [Lil]
C Chézy coefficient [L'hil]
D gram-size [L]
Fr Froude number = ur/. ga
g acceleration of gravity [Li2]
h water level [L]
H energy head [L]
dune height [L]
i slope
K diffusion coefficient [L2il]
n exponent of transport (power) law
nx scale of x = x/xm
q discharge per unit width [L2il]
Q discharge [L3il]
r distortion = n/na
R radius of curvature [L]
Re Reynolds number
s sediment transport per unit width [L2il]
(bulk volume)
S sediment transport over [L3il]
the entire width (bulk volume)
t time [T]
u flow velocity (x-direction) [Lil]
v flow velocity (y-direction) [Lil]
w flow velocity (z-direction) [Lil]
w, fall velocity , [Lil]
x ordinate in flow direction [L]
y horizontal ordinate perpendicular [L]
to main flow direction
z vertical coordinate [L]
z(b)
bed level [L]
Z = W/KU.
.1 relative density = (Ps - p)/ p

117
Symbol description dimension

E eddy viscosity [L2i1]

K von Kármán constant
A = x.ila
P density of water [ML-3]
Ps density of sediment [ML-3]
(J courant number = cll.t/ilx
cl> relative celerity (=c1u)
concentration
cl>s transport parameter = s/{lY1Vgll.}
'I' a-I ds/du

118
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Berlin etc., 182 p.
Vries, M. de (1959) 'Transients in bed-Ioad transport (basic considerations)'. Delft
Hydraulies, Report No. R3.
Vries, M. de (1965) 'Considerations about non-steady bed-Ioad transport in open
channels'. Proc. IAHR, Leningrad, pp. 3.8.1-3.8.8.
Vries, M. de (1969) 'Solving river problems by hydraulic and mathematical modeis' . Delft
Hydraulies, Pub!. No. 76-11.
Vries, M. de (1973) 'Application of physical and mathematical models for flyer
problems'. Delft Hydraulies, Publ. No. 112.
Vries, M. de (1975) 'A morphological time scale for rivers' . Proc. IAHR, Säo Paulo,
Vol. 2, pp. 17-23 (also Delft Hydraulics, Publ. No. 147).
Vries, M. de (1980) 'How accurately has bed-material transport to be predicted in rivers?'
Guest lecture IAHR-Symposium, Belgrade, May, 1980.
Vries, M. de (1982) 'A sensitivity analysis applied to morphological computations'. Proc.
Third Congress of APD-IAHR Bandung, Vol. D, pp. 69-100 (also Delft University
of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engrg., Communications on Hydraulies, No. 85-
2).
Vries, M. de (1983) 'On morphological forecasts for rivers' Proc. Sec. Intl. Symp. on
River Sedimentation (Cont.) pp. 23 - 40 Nanjing, China.
Vries, M. de; G.J. Klaassen and N. Struiksma (1990) 'On the use of movable-bed models
for river problems: a state-of-the-art'. Int. Journal of Sediment Research, Vol. 5,
No. 1, pp. 35-47.
Vries, M. de (1993a) 'Rivers' (in Duteh). Delft University of Technology. Faculty of
Civil Engineering. Lecture notes f 8.
Vries, M. de (1993b) Use ofmodels for river problems. UNESCO - IHP, Paris, 103 p. ,
(to appear).
Wang, S.S. Y. and S.E. Adeff (1986) 'Three-dimensional modelling of river sedimentation
processes' . Proc. Third International Symposium on River Sedimentation,
University of Mississippi, USA.
Wang, Z.B. (1984) 'The validity of a depth-integrated model for suspended sediment
transport and the extension of this model to tidal rivers' . Delft University of
Technology. Dept. of Civil Engrg. Report No. 10-81.

124
Wang, Z.B. and J.S. Ribberink (1986) 'The validity of a depth-integrated model for
suspended sediment transport'. Journ. Hydr. Research, Vol. 24, No. 1.
Wang, Z.B. (1989) 'Mathematical modelling of morphologica1processes in estuaries' . Ph
D -Thesis, Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engrg., Communi-
cations on hydraulic and geotechnical engineering, Report No. 89-1.
White, W.R.; E. Paris and R. Bettess (1980) 'The frictional characteristics of alluvial
streams: a new approach'. Proc. Instn. Engrg., Vol. 69, 1980, part 2, pp. 737-
750.
Yalin, M.S. (1972) Mechanics of sediment transport. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Zhang, R. and S. Xie (1990) 'Prognosis of aggradation in the Lower Yellow River by
historical analysis of the morphology of the abandoned ancient channel'. Inti.
Journal of Sediment Research. Vol. 5. No. 2, pp. 15-29.

125
Annex I Dimensional analysis

If a physical phenomenon is described by a parameter Pi with i= 1,... ,n and if m

elementary quaruities are involved, then n-m dimensionless products can be
derived.
In hydraulic engineering there are usually three elementary quantities mass (M),
lengtb (L) and time (T); this means m=3.
The derivation given below is restricted to this case. Thus n-3 dimensionless
products have to be formed.

Any of the n-3 dimensionless products (IJ) can be composed with

(1.1)

If Pi has the dimensions [Ma;LP'T;] then the dimension of II can be expressed by

Or, written in a slightly different way:

This implies that II can only be dimensionless if

alkl + a~ + . + a nk n = 0
Plkl + P2k2 + . + "'11
A k = 0 (1.4)
n
ylkt + Y2~ + . + y 11k n = 0

From Bq. (1.4) the coefficients Oli. 6i and "Ii are known because it is known which
parameters Pi are involved. The problem is now to derive n exponents ki from Bq.
(1.4). It has to be remarked that if m elementary quantities are involved then m

127
equations to determine kj are present.

Apparently in the case of Bq. (I.4) it is possible to select freely n-3 values for kj
and then the remaining 3 values are fixed by Bq. (1.4).
It is advisable to determine kj in a systematic way to avoid spurious correlations.
Here a method is used described extensively by Langhaar (1956). This will be done
here by means of an example to avoid too much abstraction.
Consider the flow over a
u 2/2g sill (Fig. 1.1). A number
of physical parameters

H a are involved in this pro-

P," blem. They will be put
in a special order for
reasons that become
clear later.
Fig. 1.1 Flow over a sill

Group 1
Group 2
dependent parameters
parameters that may contain errors
-- H
a, u, p, h
Group 3 all other parameters
- g and 1'/

The exponents a.; Bj and "Ij are now ordered systematically.

GROUP
1 2 3

PARAMETER
H a u p h g 1'/

M 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

L 1 1 1 -3 1 1 -1

T 0 0 -1 0 0 -2 -1 Eo- "Ij

Table 1.1

128
In this case Eq. (I.4) reads

k4 +k., = 0
kt +Js +k3 -3k4 +ks +k6 -k., = 0 . (I.5)
-Js -2k6 -k., = 0

Elimination of ks, k6 and k7 leads to

ks = -kt -Js -~k3 +%k4

(I.6)
k6 = -~k3 +~k4
k., = -k4

The four dimensionless products can be selected easily from the matrix of solutions
given in Table 1.2.

kj kt k2 k3 k4 ks k6 k7

parameter H a u p h g '1

IIt 1 0 0 0 -1 0 0

II2 0 1 0 0 -1 0 0

II3 0 0 1 0 -112 -112 0

II4 0 0 0 1 3/2 1/2 -1

Table 1.2

Table 1.2 is composed by means of the following procedure

(i) The first four k-values are selected in such a way that one value becomes
equals to one and the other three equals to zero.
(ii) The other k-values are obtained by using the rows of Eq. (I.6) as columns
for Table 1.2.

129
The following II - values result from Table 1.2

III = Hlh
Il, = alh
(1.7)
IIJ = ulvgh
II4 = pgll211-1 hJ/2

Note that following this way of grouping the parameters leads to II-values that
reduces automatically the possibility of spurious correlaiion.

Remark

Obviously combinations of the II-values derived also lead to dimensionless

products.
Two examples are given here:

I
II S = II 3 • II 2-., = = Froude number

IIó = II4 • IIJ • II2 = ua = Reynolds number

v

Now, however, both IIs and II6 contain two stochastical parameters (u and a).
Hence, using IIs and II6 for this example may lead to spurious correlation.

130
 Annex TI On the design of scale models

1... Introduction

The design of a scale model has to be made in such a way that the hydrodynamic
processes in the scale model are similar to those in the prototype. Therefore, the
scales of the various parameters involved cannot be chosen at will. Scale relaüons
derived from the description of the hydrodynamic processes involved have to be
fultilled. The analysis given below is an abridged version of Jansen et al. (1979).

Basically the relevant scale relations can be derived in two ways

(i) By dimensional analysis the relevant dimensionless products (IT) can be
derived. For complete similarity each ll-value should be the same in model
and prototype
(ii) By analysing the mathematical equations describing the hydrodynamic
processes involved.
In Section A 11.2 details are given.

In fact the first method is not so powerful. This can be explained by the
reproduetion of the flow over a sill (the example in Annex I). It has to be remarked
that for the present purpose there is no danger of spurious correlation. Therefore,
the ll-values Il., ll2' Il,and Il,can be considered. From Il, and ll2 follows only
the trivial conclusion that all vertical parameters should have the same (depth)

scale. Moreover, Tln, = 1 and 1ln. = 1 is required.

Hence, the requirements are

lls = Froude number = _u_

[ia
and

II6 = Reynolds number = ua

JI

131
 should have the same value in model and prototype.

Thus

Tln = I or (Il.I)
•

lln. = I or n = n-) (Il.2) .

u a

Fulfilling both conditions gives only the trivial solution nu = na = I (i. e. full
scale). In practice for this simple case the outcome is the reasoning that, when the
model is not too small, viscous effects are not important. Hence, the condition
(Re), = (Re)mcan be dropped. This means that only the Froude condition remains

(11.3)

Generally , however, it is not so easy to judge beforehand which Il-value is of

minor importance so that the conditions following from it can be dropped. Hence,
as the trivial solution is not adequate, it cannot be predicted beforehand where

scale effects are present if (II)p = (II)m is not fulfilled.

I I

Consequently the scale determination via dimensional analysis does not give insight
into the magnitude of scale effects induced.
Scale effects are said to be present if the scale of a parameter varies in space
and/or time.

2. Determination of scale relations

By analysing the processes involved scale relations are deduced. There are two
types:
Scale conditions have to be fulfilled. Deviations cause scale effects. Examples are
nFr = I (Froude condition) and nRe = 1 (Reynolds condition).

Scale laws must be fulfilled. An example is that as L = u.t the scale law is

132
 nL = n.: n, (II.4)

To deduce sca1erelations from the hydrodynamic equations three simple rules can
be applied:
(i) Seale of a product
The scale of a product of two parameters is equal to the product of the
scales of these parameters. Equation (II.4) gives an example
(ii) Seale of a sum
Only if two parameters have the same scale, then the sum of the two
parameters has an identical scale. The sum of two parameters with a
different scale cannot be reproduced without scale effects
(iii) Seale of a function
The scale of a function of a parameter equals unity if the scale of the
argument equals unity.

To clarify the rules, the following examples can be taken. The rule for a product
has already been demonstrated in Eq, (11.4).
To demonstrate the rule for a sum the flow over a sill can again be taken. Here
Bernoulli law applies. The energy head (El) is the sum of the piezometric head (h)
and the velocity head (s)

H = h +s (11.5)

By applying some algebra it can be shown that

(11.6)

133
 So, in general

(11.7)

As smlhm will vary in space, scale effects are present for H unZess nh = n, is
selected. This selection implies that Froude condition is fulfilled (Bq. (II.3».

The ruZefor a function can be applied to the White-Colebrook expression for the
Chézy coefficient.

C = 1810g 121 (lI.8)

If the scale of alk is unity then nc is not varying in space although (a/kJmis likely
to vary. Thus

(11.9)

is a condition for the absence of scale effects in n.;

3. Reproduction of water movement

The reproduetion of the water movement in the case of a free-surface flow can best
be explained by the Zong-wave equation. It has to be recalled that this equation
applies for the case of a hydrostatic pressure-distribution. Otherwise speaking: if
vertical accelerations are negligible with respect to the acceleration of gravity the
equation reads:

au au aa az
--+u--+g--+g--+g---- u Iu I = 0 (11.10)
at ax ax Bx C2a

Now the rule of a sum implies that scale effects are absent if each term has the
same scale. This leads for the first two terms to the scale relation

134
 nu (11.11)
or nL = »: n,
n,

This is the scale law already given in Bq. (11.4).

Comparing the second and the fifth term gives (as obviously n& = 1)

n2 u n2 u (11.12)
=
nL nC2. na

or

nC2
nL (I1.13)
=
na

This is the roughness condition to be fulfilled in order to avoid scale effects.

Comparing the second and the third term gives the condition

or (11.14)

This is the Froude condition, already mentioned earlier.

Note that apparently the selection of na '# nL is possible, ('distorted model'). This
is because the presence of a hydrostatic pressure-distribution is postulated. If this
does not apply then na = nL has to be selected ('undistorted model'). In this case
the roughness condition becomes nc = 1 or as follows from Bq. (II.9) the
condition n, = na = nL •

Usually in river problems viscous effects do not play a role (Rep> 600 to 800).
It is then sufficient to replace the strict Reynolds condition (nu = na-I) by the
condition Rem > 600 to 800. Hence the model should not be too small.

In summary free-surface flow has to fulfil the following conditions

(i) Froude condition (nu = F:)

135
 (iii) No distortion ij the flow is three-dimensional

(iv) Reynolds conduion: Remshould be large enough.

Remark
The above given four conditions are deduced from the (one-dimensional) long-wave
equation, analysing the 2D-H case leads to the same conditions. The only
difference is that the roughness condition is in addition necessary to ensure that the
radius of curvature of the (horizontal) stream lines is reproduced on the horizontal
length-scale (nJ, (Bijker et al, 1957).

4. Reproduction of sediment movement

Reproduetion of the morphological processes in rivers requires obviously that the

water movement is reproduced correctly. So, the following conditions have to be
considered in addition.
Sediment transport (here bed-material transport) can be written as a functional
relationship between two dimensionless products

and o= u ai (11.15)
si:

From cPs = f(O) applying the scale of a function the condition for absence of scale
effects means that

no = 1 hence n = 1 (11.16)
"',

has to be selected.
From the requirement no = 1 follows

(11.17)

For na = 1 this demonstrates the conflict that may arise from the !Wo conditions
for selecting the velocity scale:
(i) Froude condition requires n,} = na
(ii) Transport condition requires n} = nD

136
For coarse gravel etc. the two conditions can be fulfilled at the same time by
selecting nD = na' However, for fine gravel and sand this would lead to an
unrealistic small value of the grain size in the model, in spite of selecting nt. > I
(i.e. light material in the model).
Preferenee is then given to fulfilling Eq. (Il.I?). The so derived velocity scale is
called the ideal velocity seale. Hence n,} ~ na is attained, leading to errors in the
reproduetion of the water levels.

These errors are corrected by tilting the model. This means nothing else than
constructing the fixed parts of the river model according to a sloping reference
level (slope iJ.

Apparently if r = »J».
(11.18)

or after some rearrangement

n2 C • na _ r] (11.19)
[ nu2

Note that i, = 0 if both Froude condition and roughness condition are fulfilled.
As the value of i, has to be known befare the construction of the scale model, it has
to be based on an estimate of the roughness of the model (Cme). This implies that
in spite of tilting an error (~ hm) in the water level may be present at both ends of
the model. If the correct water level is introduced in the middle of the model then
(model length Lm)

~h m = ~L (i -i ) (11.20)
2mmame

in which i; and ime represent the aetual model slope and the estimated model slope
respectively.
The relative error ~ hn/ a.; can after some algebra be expressed as

137
 (11.21)

Hence, this error depends on:

(i) The dimensionless length Ap = Lp i/ap of the prototype reach that has to
be reproduced.

(ii) The degree to which n,} < na .

(iii) The difference between Cma and Cme"

The latter depends on the quality of the available alluvial roughness data at the
design stage of the model.

In practice the sealing procedure consists of selecting from available bed material
(prototype data to be known) the scale combination that leads to the smallest scale
effects.
Moreover also the morphological time-scale (nim) is taken into consideration. The
value of (nim) follows from the continuity equation for the sediment:

= (11.22)

The optimal choice of nlm is between two extremes: (i) too small values lead to a
'slow' model so the tests may take too much time and (ii) too large values lead to
a 'quick' model; there may be not sufficient time to measure bed levels during
time-depending morphological processes.

Remarks
(i) The selection of the ideal velocity scale may lead to deviation from the
Froude condition and hence to an incorrect local reproduetion of the water
levels in spite of the tilt. However, the water depths are reproduced
correctly as can be demonstrated as follows (De Vries, 1993b).
With s = mu', thus ds/du = ns/u and assuming steady flow or Q = Bua =
= constant and S = Bs = constant, for non-uniform flow because of
B = B(x) it follows:

138
 àa au aB (11.23)
Bu-+ Ba-+ ua- = 0
ax Bx àx

and

B as + s aB = B ds au + s aB = 0 (II.24)
ax ax du Bx êx

From Eqs (11.23)and (11.24)it is possible to eliminate au/ax leading to

Bu -Ba + Ba [-u
- -aB] + ua-aB = 0 (11.25)
ax Bn ax ax

or

Ba = _o_o_
l-n a aB (11.26)
ax n B ax

Note that Bq. (11.26) is independent of the flow velocity. For a correct
reproduetion of aa/ax (and hence of a) it is required that the scale of the
factor (l-n)/n equals unity. This is, however, exactly the basis of the
concept of the ideal velocity scale i.e. in the (dimensionless) graph
<Ps = f«() the average value of <Ps and hence of () is at the same point for
the prototype and the model. Hence the scale of n equals unity; the same
holds then for the factor (l-n)/n.

(ii) The morphological time scale will in general differ from the time scale of
the water movement (nim). From Bq. (11.22)follows that only in case of an
undistorted model (na = nJ for which is selected nD = nL (only possible for
very coarse bed material in the prototype) and for nt., = 1 the result is n/'.
Hence nlm = n.; if in addition the ideal velocity scale is equal to the
velocity scale following from the Froude condition.

139
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