1.

Timber - is the oldest known structural material

KD means 2. Kiln drying

3. Hilatsya - filipino term for grain

It is present in Timber due to its 4. Moisture content

5. Checks 6. Shakes and 7. Splits are terms which refer to particular fiber descriptions which affect the
strength of timber by reducing 8. The cross sectional area of complete fibrous section

9. Knots is the obvious defect of timber. It is the part of branch which become enclosed in the trunk.

10. Polymers are giant chainlike molecules in the plastics

11. Polyolefins are most widely used plastics load

12. Nylon means polyamides

13. Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride – means uPVC

14. Polycarbonate – is the toughest of all plastics

15. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene is the means of ABS

16. Acrylic – is used in wind shield of automobiles

17. Parkesine are oldest of all plastics

18. Synthetic rubber is used in pneumatic tires. While 19. Leather are made from skin of animals

20. Suede is made from calfskin or goats. While 21. Chamois is a very flexible sheepskin dye or 22.
Tanning
 CHAPTER 5
TIMBER

Timber is one of the oldest known structural materials. In addition to its usefulness as a material for
structural and applied design, because of its relative cheapness timber has also fulfilled a role in the
capacity of temporary structure, allowing materials such as concrete to be erected in structural forms
which would otherwise have been vulnerable in the stage before it gained strength.

Source of Timber:
In knowing its behavior and limitations, it is important that a knowledge of the nature and
growth of its source – mature trees.

A tree has three subsystems:

1. Root system – the root has two functions: absorbing moisture containing minerals from the soil
and anchoring the whole system to the ground. With the roots, the growing tree can withstand wind
forces.
2. Trunk – the trunk provides rigidity, mechanical strength and height to maintain the crown level
above the ground at which it functions efficiently. It also contains and protects growth cells and
provides two-way transport system for moisture travelling up from the roots and sap travelling
down from the crown.
3. Crown – the function of the crown is to provide a catchment area covered with leaves that
produce the food of the tree for its growth.

CROSS SECTION OF TRUNK

Of the three subsystems, of course the trunk is the most important since it is from this part that
marketable timber is obtained. The cross-section of the trunk (see figure next page) provides perhaps
the easiest picture of those relevant components of the tree with which users need to be concerned:
1. Outer bark – the outermost periphery which is rough in texture and dense enough on
consistence to provide protective layer covering the vital food layers immediately inside it.
 2. Inner bark – soft, moist and spongy and transports the converted sap from the leaves to the
growing parts of the tree.
3. Cambium – is a thin layer of cells next to the inner bark. It is here that growth takes place by the
splitting of single cell into two cells.
4. Annual ring – is made of tubular cells inside the cambium called xylem which provides the
means of conducting and storing food and also provides mechanical support. The annual rings
consist of two layers: summerwood (darker) and springwood (lighter).
5. Medullary rays – run perpendicular to the main cells from the outer layers inward. These carry
food material by transporting the excess towards the center of the tree.
6. Heartwood – the wood from the inner rings which is composed of dead tissue, its cells being
completely filled.
7. Sapwood – the living layer which serves as ducts for the passage of sap.

Classification of Trees
Trees are classified into:
1. Softwoods or angiosperms
2. Hardwood or gymnosperms
It should be noted that the terms hardwood and softwood in relation to species of trees do not
necessary indicate relative hardness or density.

Characteristics of Timber
Timber has three main characteristics:
1. Strength
2. Durability
3. Finished appearance

The three factors affecting the strength of timber are:

1. Density – is certainly an indication of strength. The more dense the timber the stronger it is.
Although all timbers are made up of the same chemical constituents, but dense timber has thicker
walls which contribute to the strength of the timber.
In softwoods in particular this occurs with high proportion of summerwood in the growth rings. This
has major strength significance and for various species there are optimum growth rates relative to
strength and it has been shown that timber which has not matched or has exceeded these optima is
likely to be weaker.
2. Moisture content – the strength of timber decreases with the rise of moisture content. There is
optimum moisture content for species, and even with species, for particular use and an excessively
dried-out timber may have lower strength. A side aspect of moisture content is the support which
high moisture content might give to the germination and flourishing of fungal growth 0of to the
attraction of insects. In each of these cases there will be an indirect reduction in strength.
3. Grain structure – its significance in strength context and any disruption due to growth defects
will induce a reduction in strength from that of clear specimens of the same timber. Slope of grain in
any given timber member will affect the strength properties about the most significant axis.

TIMBER SEASONING
There are two methods of seasoning timber:
1. Air seasoning – the timber is stacked in open sided sheds in such a way as to promote drying
without artificial assistance. The advantage of this method is that it is a cheap method with very
 little loss in quality of timber if done properly. The disadvantage is that both timber and space are
immobilized for long periods, while very little control is possible.
2. Kiln drying – this method of seasoning employs a heated, ventilated and humidified oven kiln
drying must be used to reduce the moisture content below 17%. It is necessary to humidify the
circulating in order to control the rate of evaporation, and this humidity is reduced as the drying
proceeds.

The essentials of a kiln are:

1. Heat, under proper control and sufficient to raise the temperature to the maximum required;
2. Humidification, also under proper control and sufficient to meet all requirements;
3. Air circulation, uniform and sufficient velocity
4. Air interchange, control at will.

Timber infestation
Timber should be protected from infestation by proper specification and use, or by preservatives.
Timber infestations are done by:
1. Insects – beetles of one kind or another infest timber because of the organic nature of the
material is favorable to hatching and growing. The effect is to reduce the cross-sectional area of the
timber thus reducing its strength.
2. Marine borers – there are a number of marine organisms which can seriously degrade timber
used in salt water. The two most common organisms are ship worm which tunnels extensively
within affected timber and may completely destroy the strength of the timber with little external
evidence of attack, and the gribble which creates small tunnels in the near surface layers of exposed
timber.
3. Fungal growth – this may be destructive or nondestructive. Fungi are plants with no flowers or
foliage and require no chlorophyll or sunlight since they are able to consume organic matter such as
cellulose in timber.

DEFECTS IN TIMBER
Defects can occur in timber at various stages, principally during the growing period and during
the conversion and seasoning process. These defects as shown in the table below can reduce the
strength of timber or ruining its appearance.

SOURCES AND FORMS OF TIMBER DETERIORATION

Source Form of Deterioration
Bacteria Discoloration of surface
Chemicals Discoloration of surface with disintegration of cellular structure
Fire Charring of surface of thick sections
Fungi Discoloration of surface with disintegration of cellular structure
Insect Flight-holes at surface with tunneling causing disintegration of
structure
Mechanical Fracture on fibers and surface deterioration
Sunlight Discoloration and embrittlement of surface
Water Discoloration and erosion of surface, expansion and contraction
leading to cracking and splitting of cellular structure

NATURAL DEFECTS
The natural defects which occur during the growing period are as follows:
1. Cracks or fissures – these occur in various parts of the tree and are generally given specific
names to identify them more readily. Checks, shakes and splits are terms which refer to particular
fiber disruptions which affect the strength of the timber by reducing the cross-sectional area of
complete fibrous section. Heart shakes which occur at the center of the trunk may even indicate the
presence of decay or the beginning of decay. Resin pockets are fissures contain resin which
constitute a strength defect and also interfere with decorative treatment in the finished use.
2. Rind gall, burr and curl – these are defects arising from the overgrowth of one part of a tree
with another. Ring gall occurs where surface wounds or indentations are enclosed in subsequent
growth. A burr is a swelling resulting from severely twisted grain caused by undeveloped buds
emerging adjacent to a wound and then being enclosed by subsequent growth. A curl occurs at the
crotch where a large branch intersects with the truck.
3. Knots – these are perhaps the most obvious natural defects, and again they reduce the strength
by interrupting the continuity of the fiber. A knot is a part of a branch which becomes enclosed
within the growing trunk.
4. Fungal decay – this may occur in growing mature timber or even in recently converted timber.
Dote is an early stage in such decay.
5. Insect Damage – this can occur with the exit holes of beetles but these normally do not occur in
such profusion as to reduce the strength of timber in the immediate area.
6. Annual ring width – this can be critical in respect of strength in excess width of such rings can
reduce the density of the timber.
7. Grain defects – these can occur in the forms of twisted grain, cross-grain or spiral grain, all of
which can induce subsequent problems of distortion in use.

CHEMICAL DEFECTS
Chemical defects may occur in particular instances when timber is used in unsuitable positions
or in association with other chemicals. Some timbers corrode metals because they contain tannic acid
and other chemicals. In any timber, gums and resins can inhibit the working properties and interfere
with the ability to take adhesives.

CONVERSION DEFECTS
These are due basically to unsound practice in the use of milling techniques to undue economy
in attempting to use every possible piece of timber converted from the trunk (See figure next page). A
wane occurs where misplaced economy in conversion produces lengths of timber which contain, on one
or more faces, part of the bark or the rounded periphery of the trunk. Again this reduces the cross-
sectional area with consequent reduction in strength in the parts affected. Slope of grain may be
excessive enough to amount to a defect, and when pronounced may be due to spiral growth or to the
problem that occurs when conversion cannot always be parallel to the axis of the trunk.

SEASONING DEFECTS
These are directly related to the movement which occurs in timber due to changes in moisture
content. Excessive or uneven drying, exposure to wind and rain, and poor stacking and spacing during
seasoning can all produce defects or distortion in timber. Some of these defects are irreversible and
obviously require rejection of the timber, but others while equally serious, may appear to be less so, if
defective timber is used, the defects manifest themselves either by reversal or exaggeration of
distortion, resulting in loosening of fixings. Checks and splits similar to shakes may be induced in
endwood or faces exposed in the drying stack to excessive sun or wind action. Washboarding,
honeycombing and case hardening are all defects which can occur in the drying stack. Cupping occurs
when a sawn board curves in section away from the heart of the trees. Twisting occurs in the piece or in
board owing to differential drying out of distorted grain. Springing and bowing are due to errors in
accurate placing of the spacing sticks between timbers in the drying stack, resulting in uneven loading
while the seasoning timber is still green.
STRESS GRADING
In order to design a timber structure properly the following properties of the timber should be known:
1. Allowable bending stress (used also for tension)
2. Allowable shear stress parallel to grain
3. Allowable compressive stress perpendicular to the grain
4. Allowable compressive stress parallel to the grain
5. Modulus of elasticity

Tests on large numbers of comparatively small clear specimens that specimens clear of defects,
under short term loading conditions have shown that there is significant variation of strength of
apparently similar specimens. Factors affecting the strength of clear timber such as moisture content,
size and shape of specimen and sustained loading have also been investigated and estimates of their
effect on strength made. These factors together with a general factor of safety are all incorporated in
reduction factors which when multiplied by minimum strength give working stresses for clear timber.
However, in practice, timber as commercially converted is seldom free from defects and further
reductions in working stresses are required. This is accomplished by classifying timber into various
strength grades depending on the extent and likely effect of different strength reducing defects.
Visual stress grading may be carried out using stress grading rules such as those used in the
National Structural Code of the Philippines which specify the maximum size of defects acceptable in
each of the different stress grades. This limit of defects for different stress grades are shown in the table
below:

KIND OF DEFECT STRESS GRADE STRESS GRADE STRESS GRADE

80% 67% 56%
A. Natural Defects
1. Worm holes
Ave. Dia.
a. individual Not permitted 2 6
b. Qty. limit Not permitted Not clustered Not clustered
2. slope of grain (variation from 18mm 25mm 32mm
longitudinal axis per 300mm
within middle half of length)
3. Checks and Shakes
a. Size of each shake and check
or if in combination, the sum
of the sizes of all checks and
shakes within middle half of
depth of the piece shall not
exceed: ¼ of thickness ¼ of thickness 3/8 of thickness

WORKING STRESSES FOR 80% STRESS GRADEFflexi

Bending and Modulus of Compression Compression Shear parallel

tension elasticity in parallel to perpendicular to grain
Species
parallel to bending grain to grain
(Mpa)
grain
(Gpa) (Mpa) (Mpa)
 (Mpa)

Acacia 11.70 3.86 7.31 3.86 1.31

Agoho 25.90 12.40 14.60 6.90 1.83

Almaciga 11.70 7.72 6.55 1.72 0.91

Almon 13.80 8.62 8.14 2.31 0.91

Anang 19.30 9.65 11.00 3.28 1.38

Apitong 16.30 11.00 9.65 2.59 1.10

Bagtikan 17.20 9.10 10.30 2.31 1.27

Benguet pine 15.40 9.00 8.62 2.31 1.27

Binggas 21.70 10.30 15.40 5.86 1.83

Bitaog 16.30 9.10 9.65 2.93 1.24

Bok-bok 19.30 9.65 11.00 3.44 1.24

Dangula 31.00 13.80 21.70 11.70 2.07

Guijo 20.70 12.40 12.40 4034 1.46

Kamatong 21.70 11.00 12.40 4.62 1.54

Katilma 23.10 12.40 13.10 4.14 1.63

Lanipau 13.80 8.62 8.62 2.07 0.91

Mahogany 16.30 6.90 11.00 4.34 1.63

Malakatmon 9.30 10.20 11.70 5.86 1.54

Malungai 15.40 9.10 9.65 3.68 1.38

Manggachapui 23.10 12.40 14.60 4.34 1.54

Manggasinoro 12.40 7.31 7.72 1.63 0.91

Mayapis 13.10 8.62 7.31 1.63 0.73

Molave 23.10 8.62 16.30 7.31 1.83

Narig 23.10 12.40 15.40 5.86 1.54

Narra 18.30 8.62 8.14 2.76 1.03

Pahutan 16.30 9.65 9.65 2.76 1.31

Palcapia 13.80 8.62 8.62 2.93 1.03

Red lauan 13.10 8.14 6.90 1.72 0.91
 Tangile 15.40 9.10 8.62 2.07 1.03

White lauan 13.10 8.14 8.62 2.07 1.03

Yacal 27.60 15.40 18.30 9.10 1.72

WORKING STRESSES FOR 56% STRESS GRADE

Bending and Modulus of Compression Compression Shear parallel

tension elasticity in parallel to perpendicular to grain
Species
parallel to bending grain to grain
(Mpa)
grain
(Gpa) (Mpa) (Mpa)
(Mpa)

Acacia 8.14 3.28 5.27 3.10 1.10

Agoho 18.30 10.30 10.30 5.52 1.54

Almaciga 8.14 6.55 4.62 1.38 0.77

Almon 9.64 7.31 5.86 1.83 0.77

Anang 13.80 8.14 7.72 2.59 0.27

Apitong 11.70 9.10 6.90 2.07 0.92

Bagtikan 12.40 7.72 7.31 1.83 0.97

Benguet pine 11.00 7.72 6.21 1.83 0.96

Binggas 15.40 8.62 11.00 4.62 1.54

Bitaog 11.70 7.72 6.90 2.31 1.03

Bok-bok 13.80 8.14 7.72 2.76 1.03

Dangula 21.70 11.70 15.40 9.10 1.72

Guijo 14.60 10.30 8.62 3.45 1.24

Kamatong 15.40 9.10 8.62 3.65 1.31

Katilma 16.30 10.36 9.10 3.28 1.38

Lanipau 9.65 7.31 6.21 1.63 0.77

Mahogany 11.70 5.86 7.72 3.45 1.38

Malakatmon 13.80 8.62 8.40 4.62 1.31

Malungai 11.00 7.72 6.90 3.10 1.17

Manggachapui 16.30 10.30 10.30 3.45 1.31

 Manggasinoro 8.62 6.21 5.52 1.31 0.77

Mayapis 9.10 7.31 5.27 1.31 0.62

Molave 16.30 7.31 11.70 5.86 1.54

Narig 16.30 10.30 11.70 4.62 0.13

Narra 13.10 7.31 5.86 2.17 0.86

Pahutan 11.70 8.14 6.90 2.17 1.10

Palcapia 9.65 7.31 6.21 2.31 0.86

Red lauan 9.10 6.90 4.90 1.38 0.77

Tangile 11.00 7.72 6.21 1.63 0.86

White lauan 9.10 6.90 6.21 1.63 0.86

Yacal 19.30 13.10 13.10 7.31 1.46

WORKING STRESSES FOR 67% STRESS GRADE

Bending and Modulus of Compression Compression Shear parallel to

tension elasticity in parallel to perpendicula grain
Species
parallel to bending grain r to grain
(Mpa)
grain
(Gpa) (Mpa) (Mpa)
(Mpa)

Acacia 9.65 3.65 6.21 3.10 1.31

Agoho 21.70 11.70 12.40 5.52 1.38

Almaciga 9.65 7.31 5.52 1.38 0.91

Almon 11.70 8.14 6.90 1.83 0.91

Anang 16.30 9.10 9.10 2.59 1.38

Apitong 13.80 10.30 8.14 2.07 1.10

Bagtikan 14.60 8.62 8.62 1.83 1.27

Benguet pine 13.10 8.62 7.31 1.83 1.27

Binggas 18.30 9.65 13.10 4.62 1.83
 Bitaog 13.80 8.62 8.14 2.31 1.24

Bok-bok 16.30 9.10 9.10 1.76 1.24

Dangula 25.90 13.10 18.30 9.10 2.07

Guijo 17.20 11.70 10.30 3.45 1.46

Kamatong 18.30 10.30 10.30 3.65 1.54

Katilma 19.30 11.70 11.00 3.28 1.63

Lanipau 11.70 8.14 7.31 1.63 0.91

Mahogany 13.80 6.55 9.10 3.45 1.63

Malakatmon 16.30 9.65 9.65 4.62 1.54

Malungai 13.10 8.62 8.14 3.10 1.38

Manggachapui 19.30 11.70 12.40 3.45 1.54

Manggasinoro 10.30 6.90 6.55 1.31 0.91

Mayapis 11.00 8.14 6.21 1.31 0.73

Molave 19.30 8.14 13.80 5.86 1.83

Narig 19.30 11.70 13.10 4.62 1.54

Narra 15.40 8.14 6.90 2.17 1.91

Pahutan 13.80 9.10 8.14 2.17 0.73

Palcapia 11.70 8.14 7.31 2.31 1.83

Red lauan 11.00 7.72 5.86 1.38 1.54

Tangile 13.10 8.62 7.31 1.63 1.03

White lauan 11.00 7.72 7.31 1.63 1.03

Yacal 23.10 14.60 15.40 7.31 1.72

Preservation of timber
Types of preservative:
 1. tar-oil preservatives – these are very widely used particularly in the form of coal-tar creosote
for pressure impregnation and for brush application. This type is excellent for use on timbers which
are located on the exterior of buildings or otherwise to be exposed to the elements. Drawbacks with
this type include encouragement of flammability in painting treated timber all of which restrict
internal use.
2. Water-soluble preservatives – these are the generally odorless and nonstaining with no
restriction on decorative treatment, making timber so treated suitable for interior finishing work.
Because of waterborne nature of this type of preservative it may be necessary to dry the timber to
acceptable moisture content. Normally, such preservatives do not increase the flammability of
timber, and in some cases actually reduces it.
3. organic-solvent preservatives – these are generally poor in respect of nonflammability because
of volatile nature of the solvent. Such preservatives are generally noncorrosive, but may adversely
affect food. After painting, the treated timber is no more flammable than untreated timber similarly
painted.

Methods of Preservation
The following descriptions of methods of treatment are arranged in ascending order of efficiency and
effectiveness.
1. Brush or spray application – this is the least effective method but is better than none and
provided the preservative is flooded over the surfaces to encourage absorption, reasonable
penetration is possible in permeable timbers.
2. Deluging, dipping or steeping – these applications are often specified for a variety of
preservatives although the organic solvent type is most frequently used in one or other of the
methods. Depending on the preservative used, some preheating may assist penetration.
3. Open tank application – this can be extremely efficient in ensuring penetration in permeable
timbers. The method is simple and economic but provides little control. Accordingly, it is used to
ensure maximum penetration of preservative into softwoods which have been used for exterior
work. The application takes place in a large metal tank in which the preservative can be heated by
open fire or stream.
4. Pressure application – by far the most efficient and controllable method of preservation,
pressure application is widely and economically practiced. In the full cell process, the timber is
placed in a large enclosed pressure vessel and is subjected to a vacuum for about an hour. While the
vacuum is maintained, the preservative, usually preheated is introduced into the vessel until it is
filled. Pressure is then gradually increased until the required amount of preservative has been
introduced into the timber, after which pressure is reduced and the vessel is emptied of
preservative. A further vacuum is applied for a brief period only long enough to clean the surface of
the timber.
 CHAPTER 7
PLASTICS

A plastic material is defined as many one of the large and varied group of materials consisting
wholly or in part of combination of carbon with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and other organic and
inorganic elements which, while solid in the finished state, at some stages in the manufacture is made
liquid and thus capable of being formed into various shapes, most usually trough the application, either
singly or together of heat and pressure.

Two basic types of plastic

1. Thermoplastics

2. Thermosets

Thermoplastics – it is called so because of little or no cross bending between molecules softens when
heated and harden when cooled.

Thermosets – have strong intermolecular bonding. Hence, once the plastic is set into permanent shape
under heat and pressure, reheating will not soften it.

Characteristics of plastics

1. They are essentially noncrystalline in structure.

2. They are not conductor of electricity and relatively low in heat conductance.

3. They are with some important exceptions, resistance to chemical and corrosive

environment.

4. They have relatively low softening temperatures.

5. They are readily formed in complex shapes.

6. They exhibit viscoelastic behavior i.e. after an applied load is removed; plastics tend

Continue to exhibit strain or deformation with time.

Plastic is composed of millions of giants chainlike molecules (polymers) constructed of smaller

molecules called monomers. The atoms in both are held together by primary covalent bonding- that is
by sharing electrons with each other.

Plastic are not basically crystalline materials, they often contain regions in which the mixture of polymer
molecules has an ordered or regular pattern. Plastic crystallinity generally consists of thousands of
relatively crystalline islands called crystallinites, surrounded by amorphous regions in which the
polymers are randomly intermingled.
Additives use in plastic

1. Fillers – the most common of the additives. They are usually used to either provide bulk or modify
certain properties.

2. Plasticizer – these are added for either of two purposes: to improve flowability during processing
by reducing the glass transition temperature or to improve properties such as flexibility. Plasticizers
are usually liquids that have high boiling points such as phthallates.

3. Stabilizers – these are added to plastic to help prevent breakdown or deterioration during
molding. Stabilizer can be metal compounds, base on tin, lead, cadmium, barium and others.

4. Catalyst – these by controlling the rate of and extend of the polymerization process in the resin,
allow the curing cycle to be tailored to the processing requirements of the application. They also
affect the shelf life of plastic.

5. Colorants – these are widely used for decorative purposes. Colorants come in great variety of
pigments such as cadmium, leas and selenium

6. Fire retardant - these are added to plastic products that must meet fire retardant equipments, for
polymer resins are generally flammable, except for such notable exceptions polyvinyl chloride. In
general the function of the fire retardant is limited to the spread of fire. They do not normally
increase heat or prevent the plastic from charring and melting. Some fire retardant additives include
compounds containing chlorine or bromine, phosphate ester compounds antimony trihydrate and
zinc borate.

THERMOPLASTIC TYPES

A. POLYOLEFINS

-are the most widely used plastic today.

Group of polyolefins

1. Polyethylene - was the first of the olefins. They are one of the lowest costs and one of the
most widely used plastic. They are noted for toughness and excellent dielectric strength and
chemical resistance. Typical use of polythylenes include blow molded bottles and containers,
gaskets, paintbrush, handles and flexible film packaging.
 2. Polypropylenes – develop in 1957 in Italy and Germany. They are similar in many respects to
high density polyethylene’s. Their mechanical properties particularly strength and stiffness are
at a high end of polyethylene’s range. In color they are milky white and semitransluscent.

3. Olefin Copolymers

Three principal olefin copolymers

a. Polyalomers – are highly crystalline, can be formulated to provide high stiffness and
medium impact strength. They are softer than polypropylenes but have greater abrasion
resistance. They are used for such item as typewriter case, snap clasps, threaded container
closures, embossed language shell, and food containers.

b. Ionomers – are non rigid plastics characterized by low density, transparency and
toughness. Unlike polyethylene, density and other properties are not crystalline dependent.
Their flexibility resilience and high molecular weight combine to provide high abrasion
resistance. They have outstanding low temperature flexural properties but should not be
use as temperature above 160℉ . Resistance to attack from organic solvents and stress
cracking chemicals in high. Ionomers have high melt strength for thermoforming and
extrusion coating and broad temperature range for blow molding and injection molding.

c. Ethylene copolymers – there are four types of commercial ethylene copolymers of which
ethylene vinyl acetate and ethylene ethyl acrylate are the most common.

1. ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymers approach elastomers in flexibility and

softness. They are dependent. Softening temperature and modulus of elasticity
decrease as density increases, which is contrary to the behavior of polyethylene.

2. ethylene ethyl acrylate (EEA) is similar to ethylene vinyl acetate in its density-
property relationships. It is also similar to EVA in high-temperature resistance and like
EVA it is not resistant to aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons as well as chlorinated
versions thereof. However EEA is superior to EVA in environmental stress cracking and
resistance to ultraviolet radiation. Typical uses are household products such as trash
cans, dishwasher tray, flexible hose and water pipe and film packaging.

B. POLYSTYRENES

-are second only to polyethylene in volume of use. They are large family of thermoplastic base
on styrene monomers. Styrene resins are basically rigid, with low crystallinity and considerable
branching.
 Characteristics and Properties

1. Low in cost

2. exceptional in electrical insulating properties.

3. Have a high hardness and gloss and readily molded.]

4. Although they have relatively high tensile strength, they are subject to creep.

5. Since their maximum useful service temperature is about 160 deg- F, their use is chiefly for
room temperature.

6. Because of their low cost and ease of processing, they are used for consumer products.

7. Polystyrene frame are the highest in volume used in all plastics.

C. VINYLS

–are the third most highly used plastic. Like polyethylene and polyethylene, they are low in cost
and have wide versatility. Vinyls as a class are largely amorphous, branched polymers and thus generally
have low crystallinity and are basically stiff and rigid. However by various modifications and the use of
plasticizer, flexible rubbers like grades are produced.

Characteristics and properties:

a. because of excellent chemical resistance, they are used mainly in chemical and weathering
environments.

b. has a good electrical resistivity.

c. high abrasion resistance.

d. self extinguishing, but are not useful at temperature above 160 deg-F for long period of time.

The most widely used vinyls by far are:

a. polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

b. acetate copolymer.

They are both produced in both rigid and flexible forms. Rigid PVC is composed of unplasticized
vinyl homopolymers, and has a combination of high tensile strength modulus hardness and toughness,
however relatively low creep strength limits its use for load bearing applications. Rigid PVC is used
extensively in sheet form, chemical tanks, ducts and hoods and as architectural shapes such as molding,
gutter, down spouts and window frame parts. Rigid PVC pipe is used in water works, and in the oil,
chemical and food processing industries.

Flexible PVC - is composed of either homopolymers or copolymers with addition of plasticizers

and adding fillers makes the range of flexible vinyl almost unlimited. Flexible vinyl film and sheeting are
used in packaging, pipe works and upholstery. Flexible extrusions in many different shapes and forms
are used as electrical wire and cable insulation, gasket and weather stripping.

Vinylidene PVC – better known as saran and polyvinyl dichloride are important vinyl plastics.
Vinyledene chloride is flexible, transparent and has greater chemical and solvent resistance than PVC,
along with the heat resistance of up to 200 deg-F. Polyvinyl dichloride is rigid, has improved solvent
resistance and retains strength and stiffness up to 212 deg- F. it is used for rigid components such as hot
water pipes and fittings.

D. ACRYLICS

are well known by their trade names Lucite and Plexiglas. They are based on polymers of
methyl methacrylate which may be modified by copolymerizing or blending with other monomers.

Characteristics and Properties

1. It is known for their excellent optical properties, having a light transmission of about

92%.

2. Have a deep luster and high surface gloss.

3. They are slightly affected by sunlight, rain and corrosive atmospheres.

4. Thermal expansion is relatively high.

5. Hard stiff and strong.

6. Tensile strength ranges from 5000 to 11000 psi which is relatively high for plastics.

7. Regular grades and brittle.

E. CELLULOSICS

-are modified natural polymers produced from refined cellulose of wood pulp and cotton
linters.

Characteristic and properties

1. Very high toughness

 2. Low strength

3. Transparency

4. Excellent colorabililty

5. High surface gloss

6. Easily processed with addition of proper amount plasticizer

7. They have good dielectric properties.

Four major cellulosic plastics

1. Cellulose acetate - often simply called acetate is the lowest in cost. It has good toughness in
optical frames, pen barrels, transparent machine covers and small.

2. cellulose acetate butyrate – commonly called butyrate CAB is somewhat tougher, and has
lower absorption and a higher softening point than acetate, special formulation with good
weathering characteristic plus transparency are used for outdoor application such as sign, light
globes and lawn sprinklers.

3. Cellulose propionate – is similar to butyrate in both cost and properties. Some grades have
slightly higher strength and modulus of elasticity. Propionate has better molding characteristic
but lower weather ability than butyrate. Molded parts include steering wheels, fuel filter bowls
and appliance housings. Transparent sheeting is used for blister packaging and containers.

4. Ethyl cellulose – considered the toughest of the cellulose has high impact strength over wide
range of temperature. It has good impact resistance down to 40 deg- F. it is also the lightest and
the lowest water absorption of the cellulosic. It is used for helmets, rollers, slides, gears
flashlight housing and refrigerator parts.

F. POLYAMIDES (nylon)

Nylon is probably the best known of all synthetic materials. Although it’s extensive popular
recognition stems from its use as a fiber in consumer products, especially stockings, it is also an
important engineering plastic.

Characteristics and properties

1. It has good mechanical and friction properties and high chemical resistance.
2. It was the first load bearing plastic and widely used today for machine parts.
3. It has basically a linear polymer structure with a relatively high degree of crystallinity.
4. Have high tensile and fatigue strength and good impact resistance.
 5. Possesses high abrasion resistance and are resistant to most chemical solvents with the
exception of strong acids.

The most common types of nylon, designated 6/6.6 and 6/10, have the same structure differing
only in length of the polymer molecules, this structural difference accounts for the variation among
them in melting points, stiffness and water absorption.

Type 6/6 is most widely used, perhaps because it is the strongest over the widest range of
moisture and temperature. Unlike most plastic, it has a sharp melting point and exhibits no appreciable
creep below that point. Type 6 is quite similar in properties to types 6/6, but has greater water
absorption and retains less strength with increase in moisture and temperature. It has somewhat lower
melting point and slightly lower modulus.

Type 6/10 (also 6/11, 6/12) has substantially less moisture absorption than the other types and
therefore has a three to fourfold improvement in dimensional stability.

Nylons are processed mainly by molding and extruding. Sintering of nylon in powdered form is
often used for small to medium size material. Typical application are gears, cams, sleeve bearings, slide
fastener, door hinges, wire insulation, high pressure flexible tubing and a wide variety of parts in textile
and food handling machinery.

G. ACETALS

-are highly crystalline plastics that were specifically developed to compete with zinc and
aluminum die castings. The natural acetal resin is translucent white and can be readily colored.

Two basic types of acetals

1. Homopolymer (delrin)

2. Copolymer (celcon)

In general, the homopolymers are harder, more rigid and have a high tensile flexural and fatigue
strength, but lower elongation. The copolymers are more stable in long term high temperature service
and have better resistance to hot water. Special types of acetals are glass filled, providing higher
strengths and stiffness tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) filled, providing exceptional frictional and wear
properties.
 Characteristics and properties of acetals

1. among the strongest and the stiffest of the thermoplastics.

2. Tensile strength ranges from 8,000 – 13,000 psi.

3. Tensile modulus of elasticity is about 500,000 psi and fatigue strength at room temperature is
about 5,000 psi

4. Excellent creep resistance.

5. Low moisture absorption.

6. Low friction and high abrasion resistance.

7. Impact resistance is good and remains constant over a wide range of temperature

8. Attacked by some acids and bases, but have excellent resistance to all common solvents.

H. POLYCARBONATE

is a linear, low crystalline, transparent and high molecular weight plastic. It is generally
considered to be the toughest of all plastics.

Characteristic and properties

1. One of the hardest plastics.

2. It has also a good strength and rigidity, and because of its high modulus elasticity, is
resistant to creep.
3. Excellent electrical resistivity, are maintained over a temperature ranges of about 275-
250℉ .
4. It has a negligible moisture absorption, but it has also poor solvent resistance and in
stressed condition will craze or crack when exposed to some chemicals.
5. It is generally unaffected by greases, oil and acids.

Polycarbonate is easily process by extrusion, by injection, blow and rotational molding and by
vacuum forming. It has very low and uniform mold shrinkages. With a white light transmission of almost
90% and high impact resistance, it is a good glazing material. Other typical applications are safely shields
and lenses. Resides glazing polycarbonates high impact strength makes it useful for air conditioners,
housing, marine propellers and housing for small appliances and food dispensing machines.

I. ABS PLASTICS
 The letter ABS identifies a family of terpolymer plastics, composed of the monomers
acrylonitrile, butadiene, and styrene. Common trade names for these materials are cycolac, kralastic and
lustran.

They are opaque and distinguished by a good balance of properties, including high 9mpact
strength, rigidity and hardness over a wide temperature ranges (-40 - 230 deg- F). Compared with other
structural or engineering plastic, they are generally considered to fall at the lower end of the scale in
strength.

Medium impact grades are hard, rigid and tough and are use for appearance parts that require
high strength, good fatigue resistance and surface hardness and gloss. At stresses above their tensile
strength, ABS plastics usually yield plastically rather than rupturing and impact failures and ductile.
Because of their low creep, they have good long term load carrying for the stresses up to 1,000psi the
low creep plus low water absorption and relatively high heat resistance provides ABS plastics with good
dimensional stability.

ABS plastics are readily processed by extrusion, injection and blow molding calendaring and
vacuum forming. Special resins have been developed for cold forming or stamping for extruded sheet.

J. FLUOROPLASTICS

-are a group of high performance and high price engineering plastic. They are composed
basically of linear polymers in which some of all the hydrogen atoms are replace with fluorine and are
characterized by relatively high crystallinity and molecular weight.

Characteristic and properties

1. All fluoroplastics are natural white and have waxy feel.

2. Rank among the best of the plastics in chemical resistance and elevated temperature
performance.
3. Maximum service temperature ranges to about 500 deg- F.
4. Have excellent frictional properties and cannot be wet by many liquids.
5. Dielectric strength is high.
6. Relatively insensitive to temperature and power frequency.
7. Fair tensile creep and fatigue strength.

There are three major classes of fluoroplastics in order of decreasing fluorine replacement. They are:

1. Fluorocarbons
2. Blorotrifluoroethylene
3. fluorohydrocarbons

K. CHLORINATED POLYETHER
 This plastic has a good combination of mechanical and chemical properties. It has a tensile
strength of around 600psi and a good creep resistance and it maintains its mechanical properties in a
wide range of chemical and corrosive environment. However, its high price limits it to special high
performance parts chiefly in chemical - processing equipment.

L. POLYPHENYLENE OXIDE

–this is relatively new plastic hat is noted for its high strength and broad temperature resistance.

There are 2 major types

1. Phenylene oxide

2. Modified phenylene oxide

These materials have a deflection temperature ranging from 212-345 deg- F at 264psi. Their
coefficient of linear expansion is among the lowest of the engineering thermoplastics.

Room temperature strength and modulus elasticity are high and creep is low. In addition they have good
electrical resistivity. Their ability to with stand steam sterilization and their hydraulic stability make them
suitable for medical instruments, electric dishwashers and food dispensers. They are used in the
electrical and electronic fields and for business machine housing.

M. SUPERPOLYMERS

These are several plastics developed in the recent years that maintain mechanical and chemical
integrity above 400 deg - F for extended periods. They are polyimide, polysulfone and aromatic
polyester.

In addition to their high temperature resistance, superpolymers have in common high strength
and modulus of elasticity and excellent resistant to solvents, oils, and corrosive environments. Molding
temperatures and pressures are extremely high compared to conventional plastics. Some of them
include, polyimide and aromatic polyester, are not molded conventionally. Because they do not melt,
the molding process is more of a sintering operation. Their high price largely limits their use to
specialized application in the aerospace and nuclear energy fields.

THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
 As already explained, the major structural characteristic of thermosets is that the polymers
chains are bonded to each other by strong covalent bonds that prevail in thermoplastics. This primarily
crosses linking accounts from the major attributes of thermosets and their differences in behavior from
the thermoplastics.

Two major components of thermosets

1. Resin system - usually consists of polymer, curing agents, hardeners, inhibitors and plasticizers.

2. fillers - consist of one of the following minerals: mineral or organic particles, inorganic or organic
shopped cloth of paper.

Types of thermosets

1. Phenolics – the oldest of the thermosettings plastics, are known chemically as phenol
formaldehyde.

Characteristic and properties

1. Natural color is brown darkening with age.

2. Among the least costly of the thermosets.
3. Rank high in stiffness and impact resistance.
4. Widely used because of electrical insulating qualities.

Six groups of phenolics divided on the basis of major performance characteristics.

1. General purpose phenolics - are the low cost compound with fillers such as wood flour and flock.
They provide a balance of moderately good mechanical and electrical properties.
2. Impact resistance grades - are higher in cost. They are designed for use in electrical and
structural component subject to impact loads. The fillers are usually either paper, chopped fabric or
glass fibers.
3. Electrical grades – have high electrical resistivity. They retain resistivity other high temperature
and high humidity conditions.
4. Heat resistant grades – are usually mineral or glass filled compound that retain their mechanical
properties in the 375- 500 ℉ range.
5. Special purpose grades - are formulated for service application requiring exceptional resistance
to chemical or water or combinations of conditions such as impact loading and chemical
environment.
6. Non bleeding grades – compounded specially for use in container closures and cosmetic cases.
Polyester and Alkyds

1. Polyester – in a general sense covers three classes of commercial polymeric materials all similar in
chemical structure. They are:

a. saturated polyester- are usually produced in the form of films of fibers and are thermoplastic
products

b. unsaturated polyesters - thermosets composed of linear polyester polymers cross linked with
another monomer such as styrene, or diallyl phtallate.

c. liquid polyester resin – called simply polyester are converted to solid plastics simply by addition
of an organic peroxide plastics simply by addition of an organic peroxide catalyst that triggers curing
or polymerization.

2. Alkyds – are composed of polyester resins and usually diallyl phtallate monomers plus various
inorganic fillers depending on the desired properties. The raw material is produced in three forms: rope,
granules and putty and glass reinforced. As a class, the alkyds have excellent heat resistance up to 300
℉ . high stiffness and moderate tensile and impact strength. Their low moisture absorption combined
with good dielectric strength makes them particularly suitable for electronic and electrical hardware
such as insulator and parts for motor controllers and automotives ignition system. They are molded at
low pressures and cure rapidly.

3. Allylics - these are premium high priced plastics chiefly used in electrical and electronics hardware
because of theory exceptionally high insulation and dielectric values plus their very low moisture
absorption. The three principal types are diallyl phtallate (DAIP) and allyl dialycol carbonate

As a class besides good electrical resistance properties, they have good solvent and chemical
resistance, moderate strength and fair impact strength. The allyl carbonate, which is hard, water white
material, has exceptional high transparency and high stability of optical properties under lead and heat
and in many chemical environments.

4. Epoxies – perhaps known as adhesives, are premium thermosets and re generally employed in high
performance uses where their high cost is justified. They are available in wide variety of forms, both
liquid and solid, and are cured in the finished plastic by a catalyst or with hardeners containing
hydrogen’s.

Characteristic and properties

 a. excellent adhesive properties

b. low moisture absorption

c. excellent chemical resistance

d. ease of processing

e. maximum service temperature is about 525 deg-F

f. when used with glass fiber reinforced- they can achieve the highest strength possible with plastic
materials.

g. liquid epoxies are used for casting, for potting or encapsulation and for laminating.

5. Aminos – there are two major groups of amino plastics: melamines and urea.

The aminos are generally rated as the hardest of the plastics. They are relatively low in cost and are
noted for their good chemical resistance and unlimited colorability. These latter two characteristics
explain their wide use for dishes and tableware.

The base resin is water white and transparent, where color is not consideration, wood, flour,
asbestos, chopped fabrics and glass fibers are added to melamines for engineering and industrial uses.

Amino molded products are hard, rigid and abrasion resistant and do not come brittle down to
temperature of as low -70℉ . they are flames resistant but do not have exceptional heat resistance.
They have good electrical insulation values and are used in automotives ignition systems. As a class they
do not have good impact strength and are only fair in dimensional stability.
 CHAPTER 8
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS, RUBBER LEATHER AND ROPE

BITUMEN - a generic name applied to various mixtures of hydrocarbons. They maybe gaseous liquid,
semisolid or solid in nature and they are completely soluble in carbon disulphide.

Common Bitumens

1. Tar – is the resulting condensate when destructive distillation is carried out on such materials as
wood, coal, shale peat or bone.

2. Pitch – solid or semisolid residue which is produced from the partial evaporation of fractional
distillation of tar.

3. Asphalt – are dark brown or black solids which are found in natural state and are also produced
by the refining of petroleum.

Properties of Bitumens

1. Tendency to adhere to a solid surface.

2. Water resistance

3. Viscous

Tests measuring the consistency of Bitumens

1. Penetration test – measures the depth of penetration in 10ths of a millimeter of a weigh in a

needle in a bitumen after a given time at a known temperature.

2. Softening Point test – measure the temperature at which a steel ball falls a known distance
through the bitumen which the test assembly is heated at a known rate.
 Usually the test consist of 3/8 inch diameter steel ball, weighing 3.5 grams, which is allowed
to sink 1 inch trough 5/8 inch diameter, ¼ inch thick disk of bitumen held in a brass ring. The whole
assembly is heated at 3 ℉ / minute.

3. Ductility test – is conducted to determine the amount of bitumen which will stretch at
temperature below its softening point.

Three main groups of asphaltic products

1. Hot asphalt – those softened by heat.

2. Cutback asphalt – dissolve in mineral solvent

Three types:

a. straight run asphalt and solvent – with or without a small amount of fiber added.

b. heavily filled cutback – made by adding a large amount of filler and fiber to asphalt cut with
solvent.

c. primer type – cutback asphalt in solution with no filler or fiber.

3. Emulsion asphalt – those dispersed or suspended in a water base.

Three dimensions:

a. soap type – wherein soap is used in emulsifier

b. clay modified – combination of soap and clay emulsifier.

c. clay base type – with a mineral material usually clay as emulsifier. The clay most commonly
used is bentonite.

Uses if Bitumens

1. Provide water proof, crating for walls

2. Used in the manufacture of sealants, acoustical steel, paints, for tile and mastic flooring.
3. Used in road construction and maintenance.
4. Used as binder for aggregates.

RUBBER, LEATHER AND ROPE

NATURAL RUBBER
 An elastic substance obtained from the coagulated fluid (latex) which exudes from the outer
wood of several species of tropical trees and shrubs

Synthetic Rubber

A material which can be stretched at least 100% and which after such stretching returns
approximately to its original length in a short time.

The usefulness of rubber as an engineering material depends on the following characteristics.

1. Its value as an electrical insulator.

2. Its impermeability to water and gases
3. Its ability to withstand great deformation, without serious structural damage.
4. Its ability to absorb energy of shock by mechanical hysteresis.

As an electrical insulator, rubber is used in very large quantities for insulating covering for
electrical wires and for insulating bushing and plates, the water proof and gas proof quality of rubber
make it widely used for hose for water for compressed air and for gas. Its ability to withstand great
deformation, make it the material universally used for pneumatic tires for vehicles. Its ability to absorb
energy makes it useful in members whose function is to take up socks in machines and structures, such
as buffers.

Physical properties of rubber

1. Soft rubber is elastic. It stretches from 6 to 10 times its original length without breaking
2. Hard rubber is brittle as cast iron, although it may be made flexible by heating to moderate
temperature
3. Rubber in tension or compression does not have constant modulus of elasticity which means that
when rubber is very greatly stretched, will exhibit further resistance to further strain.
4. Its flexibility is big advantage in vibration isolators or other member which will be called on to
absorb considerable amount of energy.

LEATHER
Is made from the skins or hides of animals. It is called a skin if it comes from a small or young
animal such as calves, sheep, lamb, goats and pigs. It is called a hide if it comes from a large animal.
Some leathers are made from reptiles and wild animals.

Steps in leather making

1. Curing – first they are cured; the skins are covered with salt or placed in brine bath. This
treatment keeps them from spoiling until they are ready for the next step.
2. Tanning – at the tannary the skins are soaked in baths first of water and then of lime solutions.
Machined carefully removes the hairs. Next the skins are bathed, treated in chemical bath and later
in a salt and acid bath. The next is actual tanning, but only two of them are used much. The oldest
method is done with the bark or an extract of the woods and leaves of different trees. The skins are
placed in the tanks filled with the extract made from ground up bark. They are left in these vats as
longs three months. Scientists have developed a number of synthetic tanning materials. The
 synthetic material give the leather a fine smooth grain as well resistance to water, scuffing and
wear. The use of synthetics also makes tanning faster and makes it easier to produce light colored
leather. The second most popular method is used for glazed kid leather, glaze on the upper part of
shoes and many other leather. Chrome tanning produces the most lasting leather. It takes only a
few hours and is done in terms of paddle wheels.
3. Finishing – in this last stage, the leather is finished to give its softness and suppleness. The
treatment called staking works the leather to loosen the fibers and make it soft. Firmness is given to
shoe leather by rolling it beneath rollers. Design or special grains are made with big hydraulic press
that forms the design from an engraved plate onto the leather. Boarding is used to bring out the
grain. The leather is doubled with the grain side inside the pressure is applied to it by a cork covered
cylinder, the final surface finish may be sprayed or applied by and. The leather may be polished or
ironed. The modern finish is a fine film or plastic finishing material.

Leather use:

1. Leather is used for belting and for hydraulic pickings.

2. Cowhide leather – saddles, gloves, football etc.
3. Calfskin – purses, suitcase and book bindings.
4. Goatskin or sheepskin – morocco leather
5. Pigskin – saddled, luggage, gloves, shoes, wall tiles etc.
6. Hides of elephants – rhinoceros and hippopotamus – buffing wheels.
7. Skins of snakes, lizards, alligators, ostriches, whales and sharks are also useful.

Special kind of leather

Suede – a special kind of leather usually is made from calfskin or goatskin. Its velvety surface is
prepared by rubbing the inside of the leather. Gunmetal leather is produced by giving the leather
dull polish with revolving brushes.
Chamois – is very flexible leather made from sheepskin by oil tanning.
A glazed skin is made from skins of young goats and is given high polish.
Patent leather – is made by coating the leather with layer after layer of lacquer and then baking the
finish so that it is like enamel.

ROPE
A rope is a length of fibers, twisted or braided together to improve
strength for pulling and connecting. It has tensile strength but is too flexible to
provide compressive strength (i.e., it can be used for pulling, not pushing). Rope
is thicker and stronger than similarly constructed cord, line, string, or twine.

Construction

Common materials for rope include natural fibers such as Manila hemp,
hemp, linen, cotton, coir, jute, and sisal. Synthetic fibers in use for rope-making include polypropylene,
nylon, polyesters, polyethylene, aramids and polyaramids. Some ropes are constructed of mixtures of
several fibers or use co-polymer fibers. Ropes can also be made out of metal fibers. Ropes have been
constructed of other fibrous materials such as silk, wool, and hair, but such ropes are not generally
available. Rayon is a regenerated fiber used to make decorative rope. It was created by the great Jewish
inventor Solomon Sohn.

Usage

Rope is of paramount importance in fields as diverse as construction, seafaring, exploration,

sports and communications and has been since prehistoric times. In order to fasten rope, a large
number of knots have been invented for various uses. Pulleys are used to redirect the pulling force to
another direction, and may be used to create mechanical advantage, allowing multiple strands of rope
to share a load and multiply the force applied to the end. Winches and capstans are machines designed
to pull ropes.

Styles of rope construction

Laid or twisted rope

Laid rope, also called twisted rope, is historically the prevalent form of rope, at least in modern
western history. Most twisted rope consists of three strands and is normally right-laid, or given a right-
handed twist. Typically, a three strand laid rope is called a plain or hawser-laid rope. A four strand rope
is usually called shroud-laid, and a rope twisted out of 3 or more ropes is called cable-laid.

Rope making using the twisted rope method on a 1928 Metters Rope Making
Machine

Twisted ropes are built up in three steps. First, fibers are gathered and
spun to form yarns. A number of these yarns are then twisted together to form
strands. The strands are then twisted together to form the rope. The twist of the
yarn is opposite to that of the strand, and that in turn is opposite to that of the
rope. This counter-twisting helps keep the rope together. On the other hand, rope constructed in this
manner untwists under tension, which is the cause of spinning, kinking, hockling and stretching. Any
rope of this type must be bound at its end by some means to prevent untwisting. Twisted ropes have a
preferred direction for coiling. Normal right laid rope should be coiled with the sun, or clockwise, to
prevent kinking. Coiling this way imparts a twist to the rope. One of the drawbacks of this construction is
that every fiber is exposed to abrasion numerous times along the length of the rope. This means that the
rope can degrade to numerous inch-long fiber fragments, which is not easily detected visually.

Braided rope
 Braided ropes are generally made from nylon, polyester or polypropylene.
Nylon is chosen for its elastic stretch properties and good resistance to ultraviolet
light. Polyester is about 90% as strong as nylon but stretches less under load, is
more abrasion resistant, has better UV resistance, and has less change in length
when wet. Polypropylene is preferred for low cost and light weight (it floats on
water).

Single braid

consists of even number of strands, eight or twelve being typical, braided into a circular pattern
with half of the strands going clockwise and the other half going anticlockwise. The strands can interlock
with either twill or plain weave. The central void may large or small; in the former case the term hollow
braid is sometimes preferred. Double braid, also called braid on braid, consists of an inner braid filling
the central void in an outer braid, that may be of the same or different material. Often the inner braid
fiber is chosen for strength while the outer braid fiber is chosen for abrasion resistance. In solid braid
the strands all travel the same direction, clockwise or anticlockwise, and alternate between forming the
outside of the rope and the interior of the rope. This construction is popular for general purpose utility
rope but rare in specialized high performance line.

Kernmantle rope has a core (kern) of long twisted fibers in the center, with a braided outer
sheath or mantle of woven fibers. The kern provides most of the strength (about 70%), while the mantle
protects the kern and determines the handling properties of the rope (how easy it is to hold, to tie knots
in, and so on). In dynamic climbing line, the core fibers are usually twisted, and chopped into shorter
lengths which makes the rope more stretchy. Static kernmantle ropes are made with untwisted core
fibers and tighter braid, which causes them to be stiffer in addition to limiting the stretch.

Braided ropes (and objects like garden hoses, fiber optic or coaxial cables, etc.) that have no lay,
or inherent twist, will uncoil better if coiled into figure-8 coils, where the twist reverses regularly and
essentially cancels out.

Other types

Plaited rope

is made by braiding twisted strands, and is also called square braid. It is not as round as twisted
rope and coarser to the touch. It is less prone to kinking than twisted rope and, depending on the
material, very flexible and therefore easy to handle and knot. This construction exposes all fibers as well,
with the same drawbacks as described above.

Brait rope

is a combination of braided and plaited, a non-rotating alternative to laid three-strand ropes.

Due to its excellent energy-absorption characteristics, it is often used by arborists. It is also the most
popular rope for anchoring and can be used as mooring warps. This type of construction was pioneered
by Yale Cordage.

Handling rope

Rope made from hemp, cotton or nylon is generally stored in a cool dry
place for proper storage. To prevent kinking it is usually coiled. To prevent fraying or
unraveling, the ends of a rope are bound with twine, tape, or heat shrink tubing.
The ends of plastic fiber ropes are often melted and fused solid.

If a load-bearing rope gets a sharp or sudden jolt or the rope shows signs of
deteriorating, it is recommended that the rope be replaced immediately and should
be discarded or only used for non-load-bearing tasks.

Line

A piece of rope that has a specific purpose is called a line, especially in nautical usage. Examples
include clothesline, chalk line, anchor line, stern line, fishing line etc