Cultural evolution

If we define culture as "information capable of affecting individuals' behavior that they acquire
from other members of their species through teaching, imitation and other forms of social
transmission,” cultural evolution is fundamentally just the change of culture over time.

The core idea of cultural evolution is that cultural change constitutes an evolutionary process
that shares fundamental similarities with – but also differs in key ways from – genetic evolution.
As such, human behavior is shaped by both genetic and cultural evolution. The same can be
said for many other animal species; like the tool use of chimpanzees or Caledonian crows or the
complex social organization of hives for ants, bees, termites, and wasps.

The members of this society study culture change using the concepts and methods pioneered
by Darwin in the nineteenth century and subsequent evolutionary theorists. In this conception,
culture constitutes a system of inherited variation that changes over time in response to various
directional and non-directional processes. Societies can be thought of as a population of
individuals that we can characterize in terms of the frequency of the cultural variants
individuals express in the population at any point in time or as patterns of cultural variation
among individuals within groups.

As time progresses, many factors impinge upon the population to change the frequency of the
cultural variants expressed in the population, including selection-like transmission biases,
natural selection, migration, drift, transformation and invention. For example, someone in the
population may either invent or acquire from another society a new and better skill, such as a
new way to make string and rope that is faster than the currently common technique and
results in stronger cordage. This new skill will tend to increase in the population, perhaps
because (a) users can sell more cordage than competitors and use the resulting proceeds to
rear larger families who then perpetuate the new technique; and also because (b) unrelated
individuals become aware of the new skill and its success and imitate those who have this skill.

To study cultural evolution formally from this perspective means we must set up an analytical
accounting system to keep track of the increase or decrease in the frequency of cultural
variants in order to establish the causes of frequency change.  There are a variety of ways this is
done by researchers across the biological and social sciences, as well as the humanities.

The concrete reasons for cultural changes in a particular population are almost endlessly
complex and diverse. To achieve some generalizable knowledge, we typically impose a
taxonomy that collects the diverse concrete reasons into classes with similar dynamic
properties. The impact of skill on the size of family one can raise may be attributed to “natural
selection.” The processes of selectively imitating people who display a successful variant might
be attributed to “biased transmission” or “cultural selection.” Biases, in turn, come in many
varieties. A new form of speech, for example, might be acquired from someone we consider
prestigious or charismatic. Other processes may have no inherent direction, such as cultural
drift (by analogy to genetic drift).

Even good evolutionists sometimes speak in terms of evolutionary “forces,” such as natural
selection and biased transmission, as if they were similar to gravity. As an analogy, this usage is
harmless enough, but it certainly should not be taken literally. The force of gravity is a deep,
universal physical law. Evolutionary forces are the outcome of diverse processes which interact
to influence survival and reproduction. They have enough in common to permit a relatively
small set of mathematical models, with roughly similar structure, to fit the data. Under closer
examination, however, evolutionary forces have none of the universality and tidiness of the
inverse square law and universal gravitational constant, and are to this day the focus of ongoing
study. The forces of cultural evolution are no exception..

The “forces” usage often troubles humanists and scientific historians, who usually stick close to
the details of particular cases of cultural variation and cultural change. Past attempts to
formulate laws of history have had a checkered record, to say the least. Accordingly cultural
evolutionists are well aware of the differences between concrete instances of genetic or
cultural evolution and the abstraction involved in synthetic analyses based on the estimation of
evolutionary forces. Even if reasonably robust findings emerge from our collective efforts, they
are unlikely to fit any particular case perfectly.

As well as the study of changes in cultural variation within populations (cultural

‘microevolution’), we can also study cultural evolution over long time periods and at or above
the level of the society (cultural ‘macroevolution’). There are many methods for doing the
latter. Some cultural domains, such as languages, can form tree-like ‘phylogenies’ similar to the
ancestral lineage of a species. This is Darwin’s notion of ‘descent with modification’. The
comparative method can, given some quite stringent assumptions, be used to compare cultural
variation across societies taking into account shared history. Population-dynamic models from
ecology can be adapted to study the dynamics of human societies, and optimality modeling can
be used to identify behavioural optima as these shift over time and differ among individuals.
Ideally, micro-level and macro-level work will be pursued within the same framework as in the
biological sciences, rather than as separate endeavors as they so often are in the social sciences
and humanities.

Our membership is comprised of researchers and practitioners from a wide variety of fields. We
study cultural evolution using tools that look inward at cognitive and social learning processes
(as occurs in the cognitive and behavioral sciences), as well as those that look outward at
emergent social processes (as might be done in sociology, history, economics, or the
humanities). We strive to be inclusive of this diversity for methodologies, tools, and data sets
while recognizing the importance of a Darwinian approach to the change processes involved in
each circumstance.

Cultural evolution

cultural evolution is important beyond its academic value. Cultural evolution is a fundamentally
interdisciplinary field, bridging gaps between academic disciplines and facilitating connections
between disparate approaches. For example, the advent of technologies for revealing genomic
variation has led to a plethora of studies that measure association between DNA variants and
traits that have major cultural components, such as years of schooling, marriage choices, IQ test
results, and poverty. Perhaps because of the perceived greater precision of the genomic data,
these culturally transmitted components have been relegated to the deep background, creating a
misleading public portrayal of the traits as being predetermined by genetics

art and culture of various kinds and forms has been part of the evolution of our societies.
Festivals, handicrafts, food and songs are bringing stories and knowledge regarding the links
between human and nature, in and between generations, and are vital for the feeling of belonging
amongst people around the planet. Art and culture for many people in the world is also
intimately linked to spiritual belief systems, including locally based understanding of the
relationships between nature, humans and deities.
Cultural Evolution of Locally 
The gradual cumulative cultural evolution of locally adaptive technologies has played
a crucial role in our species’ rapid expansion across the globe. Until recently, human
artifacts were not obviously more complex than those made by organisms that lack
cultural learning and have limited cognitive capacities. However, cultural evolution
creates adaptive tools much more rapidly than genetic evolution creates morphological
adaptations. Human tools are finely adapted to local conditions, a fact that seems to
preclude explanations of cultural adaptation based on cognitive attractors. Theoretical
work indicates that culture can lead to cumulative adaptation in a number of different
ways. There are many important unsolved problems regarding the cultural evolution of
technology. We do not know how accurate cultural learning is in the wild, what
maintains cultural continuity through time, or whether cultural adaptation typically
requires the cultural transmission of causal understandings.

Characteristics of culture:
1. Culture is learned
Culture is not inherited biologically but it is leant socially by man in a society. It is not an inborn
tendency but acquired by man from the association of others, e.g. drinking, eating, dressing,
walking, behaving, reading are all learnt by man.

2. Culture is social
It is not an individual phenomena but it is the product of society. It develops in the society
through social interaction. It is shared by the man of society No man can acquire it without the
association of others. Man is man only among men. It helps to develop qualities of human
beings in a social environment. Deprivation of a man from his company is the deprivation of
human qualities.

3. Culture is shared
Culture is something shared. It is nothing that an individual can passes but shared by common
people of a territory. For example, customs, traditions, values, beliefs are all shared by man in a
social situation. These beliefs and practices are adopted by all equally.

4. Culture is transmitted
Culture is capable of transmitted from one generation to the next. Parents papas cultural traits
to their children and in return they pass to their children and son on. It is not transmitted
through genes but through language. Language is means to communication which passes
cultural traits from one generation to another.

5. Culture is continuous
It is continuous process. It is like a stream which is flowing from one generation to another
through centuries. “Culture is the memory of human race.”

6. Culture is accumulative
Culture is not a matter of month or a year. It is the continuous process and adding new cultural
traits. Many cultural traits are borrowed from out side and these absorbed in that culture which
adopt it, as culture is accumulative and combines the suitable cultural traits.
7. Culture is integrated
All the cultural aspects are inter-connected with each other. The development of culture is the
integration of its various parts. For example, values system is interlinked with morality,
customs, beliefs and religion.

8. Culture is changing
It remains changing but not static. Cultural process undergoes changes. But with different
speeds from society to society and generation to generation.

9. Culture varies from society to society

Every society has its own culture and ways of behaving. It is not uniform every where but
occurs differently in various societies. Every culture is unique in itself is a specific society. For
example, values, customs, traditions, ideologies, religion, belief, practices are not similar but
different in every society. However the ways of eating, drinking, speaking, greeting, dressing etc
are differs from one social situation to another in the same time.

10. Culture is responsive

Culture is responsive to the changing conditions of a physical world. It intervenes in the natural
environment and helps man from all dangers and natural calamities e.g. our houses are
responsible to give us shelter and safety from storm and heavy rains.

11. Culture is gratifying

It is gratifying and provide all the opportunities for needs and desires satisfaction. These needs
may be biological or social but It is responsible to satisfy it. Our needs are food, shelter, clothing
and desires are status, fame, money, sex etc are all the examples which are fulfilled according
to the cultural ways. In fact it is defined as the process through which human beings satisfy
their need.

12. Linked with society

Last but not the least one of the characteristics of culture that culture and society are one and
the same. But if we say that these turn two are twin sister, it would not be wrong. Society is a
composite of people and they interact each other through it.  It is to bind the people within the
society.

Culture is the shared characteristics of a group of people, which encompasses , place of birth,
religion, language, cuisine, social behaviors, art, literature, and music. Some cultures are
widespread, and have a large number of people who associate themselves with those particular
values, beliefs, and origins. Others are relatively small, with only a small number of people who
associate themselves with that culture. However, the value of culture cannot be defined by its
size. No matter if a culture is widespread or kept within a small region, is young or old, or has
changed over time or stayed the same, every culture can teach us about ourselves, others, and
the global community.

Cultural diversity in the classroom is on the rise. In 2014, U.S. public schools hit a minority
majority milestone with Latino, African-American, and Asian students having surpassed the
number of white students. In 2044, the U.S. Census predicts that over half of the nation’s
population will be people of color, so this trend will likely continue. In our increasingly diverse
and multicultural society, it’s more important than ever for teachers to incorporate culturally
responsive instruction in the classroom -- whether teaching elementary school, middle school
or high school students. And the increase of diversity doesn’t only relate to race and ethnicity;
it can include students of different religion, economic status, sexual orientation, gender
identity, and language background. Interested in becoming a teacher? Learn more about
Drexel’s Teacher Certification program. WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO ENCOURAGE DIVERSITY IN
SCHOOLS AND WORKPLACES? Fostering inclusion and awareness around multicultural
education and taking a culturally responsive approach to teaching benefits all students. Not
only does creating greater multicultural awareness and inclusion help students with different
backgrounds and needs succeed, but it encourages acceptance and helps prepare students to
thrive in an exponentially diverse world. Our Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Wellness
Certificate Program is a great opportunity for teachers to learn how to create positive
classroom environments and can serve as a foundation for understanding how to promote
diversity in your classroom. Diversity in and out of the classroom will continue to grow, so it’s
essential we prepare students to adapt to an evolving world and embrace those different from
themselves. Learn more how the programs at the Drexel School of Education are helping to
prepare more culturally-responsive educators today. HOW DO YOU MANAGE DIVERSITY IN THE
CLASSROOM? There are several ways teachers and administrators, such as principals and
coaches, can ensure that both the classroom environment and curriculum are responsive to the
increasing cultural diversity of our society. These strategies will encourage all students’ cultural
awareness, enhancing each student’s sense of identity, and foster inclusion in the classroom
community. Get to Know Your Students Ensuring that cultural awareness is promoted in the
classroom starts with the teacher understanding each individual student. Take the time to learn
about each student’s cultural background, hobbies, learning styles, and what makes them
unique. Demonstrating a genuine interest in learning about each student and their culture will
help establish trust and allow you to form a bond with them so they feel valued. If students feel
appreciated by and comfortable with the teacher, there’s a better chance they’ll feel
comfortable talking with and respect their peers in the class – and communication is the core to
a culturally aware and inclusive classroom. Maintain Consistent Communication Aside from
getting to know your students, teachers should also continue to maintain ongoing
communication throughout the semester or school year. Scheduling 1-on-1 meetings with
students to “check in” every so often will allow you to consistently improve how accessible the
classroom is to everyone. Students can talk about whether they felt included in the classroom
culture. This can help identify issues or ways to improve the overall experience. It’s also an
opportunity to discuss their progress in the class and offer guidance on how they can improve,
based on their individual needs as a student. Acknowledge and Respect Every Student It’s also
important for students to celebrate and respect their own diverse backgrounds, as well as each
other’s. When appropriate, teachers should encourage students to research and learn about
their own ethnic and cultural backgrounds. This allows them to better understand their own
culture as well as the differences and nuances with their peers. As a bonus, this can be a great
ice breaker assignment, allowing students to give presentations about their family traditions
and culture to help expose the class to concepts outside of their own familiar comfort zone.
Acknowledging these differences and creating a safe space for discussion helps promote
understanding in the classroom and beyond. Also, as you encourage students to learn about
their diverse backgrounds, remember to take the time to highlight what’s offensive and the
distinction between cultural celebration and appropriation. Learning how to talk about other
cultures in a respectful, mature way is essential for success in life outside the classroom.
Practice Cultural Sensitivity While it’s important to keep an open dialogue amongst students,
it’s equally as important to make sure you’re being sensitive to everyone’s culture, beliefs, and
language concerns. Take the time to understand each student’s cultural nuances – from
learning styles to the language they

Promoting diversity is a goal shared by many in American colleges and universities, but actually
achieving this goal in the day-to-day classroom is often hard to do. The goal of this teaching
module is to highlight a few of the key challenges and concerns in promoting diversity, and
illustrate ways to incorporate an understanding of diversity in the classroom and beyond.
Diversity is a term that can have many different meanings depending on context. This module
will not offer a comprehensive definition of the term, instead, this module will highlight two key
areas related to diversity: Identify how diversity affects the classroom Provide practical tips for
promoting an inclusive classroom How Diversity Affects the Classroom Much discussion about
diversity focuses on the following forms of marginalization: race, class, gender, and sexual
orientation — and rightfully so, given the importance of these forms of difference. In fact,
students come to the university classroom with different backgrounds, sets of experiences,
cultural contexts, and world views. Additionally, issues of diversity play a role in how students
and teachers view the importance of the classroom and what should happen there. For
example, assumptions about what a typical student should know, the resources they have and
their prior knowledge are extremely important. Students may perceive that they do not
“belong” in the classroom setting — a feeling that can lead to decreased participation, feelings
of inadequacy, and other distractions. Teachers may make flawed assumptions of students’
capabilities or assume a uniform standard of student performance. Teachers may themselves
feel out of place based on their own ascriptive traits (i.e. differences based on class, privilege,
etc.). Identifying and thinking through notions of difference and how they affect the classroom
allow both students and teachers to see the classroom as an inclusive place. Practical Tips for
Promoting an Inclusive Classroom While many discussions concerning diversity focus on talking
about the importance of diversity and recognizing difference, it is equally important to move to
the next step: incorporating specific tips for addressing differences and how they play out. One
way to form strategies for promoting an inclusive classroom is to use self-reflection and think of
potential classroom scenarios and how one might address them. The solutions to such
scenarios are ones that each teacher should consider for him- or herself, since there are no
immediate right or wrong answers.

Is it important to acknowledge students’ diversity in classroom settings? Why or why not? Page
1: Introduction to Diversity map representing diversityStudents in our nation’s classrooms
today are more diverse than ever. They represent different races, ethnicities, cultures, and
socioeconomic backgrounds, and they speak many different languages. Further, these students
often exhibit a wide range of academic, physical, and social abilities or skills. Consider the
following statistics: During the 2010–2011 school year, 54% of public school students were
White and 46% were students of color. It is estimated that students in the United States
represent more than 1,000 cultures. In 2011, 21% of school-age students lived in poor
households. About 4.7 million students in the United States have limited English proficiency,
and 11.2 million speak a language other than English at home. In many school districts, students
and families speak over 100 different languages. During the 2011–2012 school year,
approximately 11% of public school students ages 6–17 received special education services. Of
these students: 61% spent the majority of their school day (i.e., greater than 80%) in the
general education classroom. 20% spent a portion of their school day (i.e., 40% to 80%) in the
general education classroom. diversity graphicNor should teachers think, “I don’t teach in a big
city so my students will not be diverse.” Schools in suburban and rural areas, too, are enrolling
greater numbers of diverse students, particularly where local economies, such as those based
around agriculture and food processing, are dependent on immigrant labor. Even in a
classroom of students with apparently similar European-American backgrounds, teachers will
find that their students have highly diverse roots, traditions, and customs that trace back to
England, Italy, France, Germany, Austria, Denmark, or Holland. Additionally, students come
from backgrounds that include a wide range of family situations (e.g., two-parent, adoptive,
divorced, single-parent, households headed by grandparents or other relatives). The remainder
of this module will present information about some of the most important kinds of student
diversity: cultural, linguistic, that involving exceptionalities, and socioeconomic status. Before
we delve into these aspects, however, it is important for teachers to understand their
perceptions about students who come from backgrounds different from their own. Moreover,
they need to understand how these perceptions might influence their expectations for their
students and, subsequently, the ways in which they teach
Diversity in a classroom leads to better discussions among students. When there is more
diversity in the classroom, it lends itself to better, well-rounded discussions. Students of a
different ethnicity, racial, or cultural background will have a unique perspective to offer

Art and Culture

Most SwedBio partners with field based work, use cultural expressions as a natural part of their
work, since it is embedded in local communities cultures. SwedBio seeks to help make this work
more visible in order to acknowledge the power of these expressions, and also inspire other
partners and actors to integrate it into their work.
Throughout history, art and culture of various kinds and forms has been part of the evolution of
our societies. Festivals, handicrafts, food and songs are bringing stories and knowledge
regarding the links between human and nature, in and between generations, and are vital for
the feeling of belonging amongst people around the planet.
Art has a unique possibility to capture winds of change, simultaneously as it impacts the
formation and development of societies and the people living there. It has a potential to
perform and convey messages, ideas, expressions where words fall short. It can connect
directly to people´s heart and body, sometimes more than to the mind, which enables art to
actually shift mindsets in a more profound way than other forms of communication.
Art and culture for many people in the world is also intimately linked to spiritual belief systems,
including locally based understanding of the relationships between nature, humans and deities.
With this new functional area SwedBio intends to both make ongoing work among programme
partners related to art and culture in various forms more visible, and to recognize and learn
from their experiences and open up for sharing in order to inspire others in the development of
new perspectives. Art and cultural expressions can for example be in the form of theatre,
literature, painting, sculpture, poetry, music, dance, architecture, story telling, spirituality and
rituals.

Art and culture for many people in the world is also intimately linked to spiritual belief systems,
including locally based understanding of the relationships between nature, humans and deities
Art and culture are playing a crucial role in the work of SwedBio, and are recognised to:
Highlight the intrinsic value of art and culture in our partners’ work
Contribute to finding more creative solutions to global environmental change challenge
Stimulate a deeper understanding and demystifying complex and seemingly distant or abstract
issues concerning resilience and issues of global environmental change
Support change towards increased social ecological resilience
Contribute to the acceptance and recognition of the diversity of methods at hand for
generation of knowledge and to bring it onwards in practice in different culture
Illustrate the value of the diversity of cultures SwedBio collaborates with
Strengthen the connection between people – policy makers, practitioners, scientists and civil
society organisations – from different cultures and value systems
Propel transformational change in mindsets, institutions, organisations and decision making
processes
Act as instrument to voice the concerns of marginalised groups such as indigenous and local
communities
Analyse and investigate complex issues, requiring transdisciplinary training and thinking
Facilitate the co-design and co-creation of knowledge
Spur new thinking, creativity, imagination, innovations, provoking feelings, impacting the
development of values
Support a more equal treatment and valuation of different knowledge systems and cultures and
contribute to empowerment of marginalised groups
Increase the sense of responsibility for global environmental change issues
Stimulate the development of new methods to address problems
Stimulate hope
Inspire empathy, influencing behaviour change
Act as a tool to engage more people in issues of global environmental sustainability.

-evolution of culture and arts globally

2. HOW DO YOU MANAGE DIVERSITY IN THE CLASSROOM? There are several ways teachers and
administrators, such as principals and coaches, can ensure that both the classroom
environment and curriculum are responsive to the increasing cultural diversity of our society.
These strategies will encourage all students’ cultural awareness, enhancing each student’s
sense of identity, and foster inclusion in the classroom community. 1. Get to Know Your
Students Ensuring that cultural awareness is promoted in the classroom starts with the teacher
understanding each individual student. Take the time to learn about each student’s cultural
background, hobbies, learning styles, and what makes them unique. Demonstrating a genuine
interest in learning about each student and their culture will help establish trust and allow you
to form a bond with them so they feel valued. If students feel appreciated by and comfortable
with the teacher, there’s a better chance they’ll feel comfortable talking with and respect their
peers in the class – and communication is the core to a culturally aware and inclusive
classroom. 2. Maintain Consistent Communication Aside from getting to know your students,
teachers should also continue to maintain ongoing communication throughout the semester or
school year. Scheduling 1-on-1 meetings with students to “check in” every so often will allow
you to consistently improve how accessible the classroom is to everyone. Students can talk
about whether they felt included in the classroom culture. This can help identify issues or ways
to improve the overall experience. It’s also an opportunity to discuss their progress in the class
and offer guidance on how they can improve, based on their individual needs as a student.
3. Acknowledge and Respect Every Student It’s also important for students to celebrate and
respect their own diverse backgrounds, as well as each other’s. When appropriate, teachers
should encourage students to research and learn about their own ethnic and cultural
backgrounds. This allows them to better understand their own culture as well as the differences
and nuances with their peers. As a bonus, this can be a great ice breaker assignment, allowing
students to give presentations about their family traditions and culture to help expose the class
to concepts outside of their own familiar comfort zone. Acknowledging these differences and
creating a safe space for discussion helps promote understanding in the classroom and beyond.
Also, as you encourage students to learn about their diverse backgrounds, remember to take
the time to highlight what’s offensive and the distinction between cultural celebration and
appropriation. Learning how to talk about other cultures in a respectful, mature way is essential
for success in life outside the classroom. 4. Practice Cultural Sensitivity While it’s important to
keep an open dialogue amongst students, it’s equally as important to make sure you’re being
sensitive to everyone’s culture, beliefs, and language concerns. Take the time to understand
each student’s cultural nuances – from learning styles to the language they use – and use these
insights to design your lesson plans. For example, provide English language learners with
appropriate and relevant resources that help them improve their English comprehension skills.
Rather than teach with a traditional lecture style, create learning experiences that are more
interactive and require collaboration. These considerations will help ensure that every student
feels included, is given the space to learn in their own way and is given a chance to succeed.

5. Incorporate Diversity in the Lesson Plan The classroom environment is important for
fostering cultural awareness, but you also should ensure diversity is represented in your actual
lesson plan. For example, broaden history lessons so that they encompass the world beyond
United States history and culture. Or, use references and analogies to other cultures in your
lessons and assignments to help students with diverse backgrounds personally connect.
Another great strategy is bringing in diverse speakers to add varying points of view and real-life
context to different subjects.There are several ways you can ingrain cultural awareness and
diversity into your lesson plan, and it will vary depending on the cultures represented in your
classroom and the course you’re teaching. Regardless of the subject, always try to present and
connect lessons to real-world issues. It’s easier to promote cultural awareness within your
lessons when there’s a real example for students to relate to. 6. Give Students Freedom and
Flexibility Teachers often feel like they need to take on a strict, authoritative approach when it
comes to managing their classroom. The most valuable lessons are often learned through a
student’s own experiences, so giving them some freedom in the course encourages more
connection to the curriculum. Allow students to read and present their own materials that
relate to the fundamental lesson so they can approach the topic from their own perspective. As
a teacher, you can act as a facilitator and encourage conversation and healthy debate between
diverse opinions. Group assignments are also a great way to expose students to diverse
perspectives, allowing them to work together to explore and solve a problem. This will also help
prepare them for a diverse workforce where they’ll have to partner with a range of people to
accomplish their professional goals.

cultural identity
cultural identity is the feeling that you belong to a group of people like you. This is often
because of shared qualities like birthplace, traditions, practices, and beliefs. Art, music, and
food also shape your cultural identity.
What are the five cultural identities? Race, gender, sexuality, and ability are socially constructed
cultural identities that developed over time in relation to historical, social, and political
contexts. Race, gender, sexuality, and ability are cultural identities that affect our
communication and our relationships

Gender refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially
constructed. This includes norms, behaviours and roles associated with being a woman, man,
girl or boy, as well as relationships with each other. As a social construct, gender varies from
society to society and can change over time. Age is defined as a span of years during which
some event occurred. The number of years that ice covered most of the world is an example of
an ice age. ... The definition of age is the number of years something has been alive or in
existence. An example of age is being 16 years old. Socioeconomic status is the social standing
or class of an individual or group. It is often measured as a combination of education, income
and occupation. Examinations of socioeconomic status often reveal inequities in access to
resources, plus issues related to privilege, power and control.