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THINKING
Course Outline
Logical Reasoning
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
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1. BASIC CONCEPTS.
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2. CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS.
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3. CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS.
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4. SYMBOLIC LOGIC.
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6. INFORMAL FALLACIES.
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Definition of Logic
▪ The term “logic” came from the Greek word logos, which is
sometimes translated as “sentence”, “discourse”, “reason”
“rule”, and “ratio”.
▪ The science of reasoning.
▪ A study of the principles and methods used to distinguish good
from bad reasoning.
▪ The study of the principles of correct reasoning.
Sentences
Examples:
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Proposition
▪ Some sentences can be verified by sense experience
▪ A statement that expresses a concept that can be true of false.
Examples:
a) It is raining outside.
b) Today is Sunday
c) Mamnoon Hussain is the President of Pakistan.
d) 2 + 2 = 4
e) Human beings are mortal.
Premise / Premises
Examples:
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▪ Since
▪ Because
▪ Although
▪ And
▪ But
▪ For
▪ Follows from
▪ As shown by
▪ In as much as
Conclusion
Examples:
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▪ Therefore
▪ Whence
▪ Hence
▪ So
▪ Consequently
▪ As a result
▪ It can be concluded.
▪ Proves that
▪ Thus
ARGUMENT
▪ No mango is sweet
Therefore, no sweet is mango.
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REASONING
Example: 2 + 2 = 4
Kinds of Reasoning
▪ Deductive Reasoning
▪ Inductive Reasoning
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Deductive Argument
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Inductive Reasoning
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INFERENCE
▪ A process of reasoning …
Types of Inference
▪ Immediate inference
We draw conclusion from a single premise.
▪ Mediate Inference
Premises can be two (minimum) or more than two…
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TRUTH
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VALIDITY
SOUNDNESS
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Categorical Proposition
4 Categorical Propositions
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Quality
Quantity
Examples:
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Distribution
Examples:
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
A BIRD EYE VIEW
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Diagram:
Every S is P No S is P
A contraries E
I sub-contraries O
Some S is P Some S is in not P
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CONTRARIES
Examples:
Sub-Contraries
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Sub-alternation
With sub-alternation, you should remember that you can go down with
true i.e. if A is true, then I is true as well and up with false i.e. If I is
false, then A is false as well. But not vice versa.
Contradictories
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