Lab Manual

Government polytechnic for girls,
surat
under
Gujarat Technological University
3341601 INFORMATION COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY
RATIONALE : Laboratory manual for
This course is specially designed for the students to understand the DEC 2020 - APR 2021
information communication system i.e. hardware and software. At the end Term
of this course the students will be able to prepare computer system, install
and test various connectors and cables, cards file servers, print servers etc.
They will be able to install Internet and will be able to maintain network.
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that (Name) _____________________________________________,
Enrol. No. ___________________, of Diploma IT Sem IV has satisfactorily performed
his term work in the subject INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
within the four walls of Government Polytechnic for Girls, Surat for the Term ending
in APR 2021.
Date: ____________________ HOD_____________ Faculty________________
IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
Rough record and Fair record are needed to record the experiments conducted in the laboratory. Rough records are
needed to be certified immediately on completion of the experiment. Fair records are due at the beginning of the next lab
period. Fair records must be submitted as neat, legible, and complete.
INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS FOR WRITING THE FAIR RECORD
In the fair record, the index page should be filled properly by writing the corresponding experiment number, experiment
name , date on which it was done and the page number.
On the right side page of the record following has to be written:

1. Title: The title of the experiment should be written in the page in capital letters.
2. In the left top margin, experiment number and date should be written.
3. Aim: The purpose of the experiment should be written clearly.
4.Apparatus/Tools/Equipments/Components used: A list of the Apparatus/Tools /Equipments /Components used
for doing the experiment should be entered.
5. Principle: Simple working of the circuit/experimental set up/algorithm should be written.
6. Procedure: steps for doing the experiment and recording the readings should be briefly described(flow
chart/programs in the case of computer/processor related experiments)
7. Results: The results of the experiment must be summarized in writing and should be fulfilling the aim.
8. Inference : Inference from the results is to be mentioned.
On the Left side page of the record following has to be recorded:
1. Circuit/Program: Neatly drawn circuit diagrams/experimental set up.
2. Design: The design of the circuit/experimental set up for selecting the components
should be clearly shown if necessary.
3. Observations: i) Data should be clearly recorded using Tabular Columns.
ii) Unit of the observed data should be clearly mentioned
iii) Relevant calculations should be shown. If repetitive calculations are needed, only show a sample calculation
and summarize the others in a table.
4. Graphs : Graphs can used to present data in a form that show the results obtained, as one or more of the
parameters are varied. A graph has the advantage of presenting large
amounts of data in a concise visual form. Graph should be in a square format.
GENERAL RULES FOR PERSONAL SAFETY
1. Always wear tight shirt/lab coat , pants and shoes inside workshops.
2. REMOVE ALL METAL JEWELLERY since rings, wrist watches or bands, necklaces, etc. make excellent electrodes in
the event of accidental contact with electric power sources.
3. DO NOT MAKE CIRCUIT CHANGES without turning off the power.
4. Make sure that equipment working on electrical power are grounded properly.
5. Avoid standing on metal surfaces or wet concrete. Keep your shoes dry.
6. Never handle electrical equipment with wet skin.
7. Hot soldering irons should be rested in its holder. Never leave a hot iron unattended.
8. Avoid use of loose clothing and hair near machines and avoid running around inside lab .
TO PROTECT EQUIPMENT AND MINIMIZE MAINTENANCE:
DO: 1. SET MULTIRANGE METERS to highest range before connecting to an unknown source.
2. INFORM YOUR INSTRUCTOR about faulty equipment so that it can be sent for repair.
DO NOT: 1. Do not MOVE EQUIPMENT around the room except under the supervision of an instructor.

Name: Subject
Name:
ER No.: Subject
Code:
Index
Sr No. Name of Experimet CO Date (PU) (PP) (D) (SI) Total Sign
1 Measure modulation index of CO1
an AM signal.
2 Investigate the generation of CO1
Frequency Modulation &
Demodulation
3 Study about Computer CO2
Networks, Network Topologies
and Reference models.
4 Implement the cross-wired CO3
cable and straight through UTP
cable using clamping tool.
5 To study the Time Division CO3
Multiplexing (TDM) and draw
its waveforms
6 Study router, repeater & CO3
bridge.
7 Create Home group and set CO4
/change sharing options
8 To study network property of CO4
LAN card on windows and
machine. Study PING and
IPCONFIG / IFCONFIG
command.
9 Use TRACERT, ARP, NETSTAT, CO4
PATHPING commands on
windows.
10 To install and customize web CO5
browser and internet oprtions
11 Identify the different class of IP CO4
address.
12 Study the different types of CO3
transmission media.
13 To Connect the computers in CO2
Local Area Network.
PU - Problem Understanding PP - Problem/Task Practice D - Documentation / Presentation SI
- Student Involvement

Experiment - 1
Aim: Measure modulation index of an AM signal.
APPARATUS:
Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation Trainer kit, Function Generator, Oscilloscope, CRO probes, Wires
etc.
THEORY:
A message signal (audio or video signal) cannot be transmitted over long distances directly due to attenuation,
distortion, interference and noise in any medium either wired or wireless. A suitable high frequency signal
called carrier signal needs to be modulated by the low frequency message signal so that the message can be
transmitted efficiently over long distances. MODULATION: Modulation is a scheme which alters some
characteristics (amplitude, frequency or phase) of the high frequency signal, called the carrier signal in
accordance with the instantaneous value of the low frequency message signal called the modulating signal. The
resultant signal is called modulated signal. The carrier signal is periodic and Fig. AM Modulation continuous
wave, it is termed as Analog Modulation and when the carrier signal is in the form of pulse, it is termed as
Digital Modulation. When the amplitude of carrier signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value
of amplitude of the message signal, the resultant modulation is termed as Amplitude Modulation.
AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM): It is a process in which the maximum amplitude of the carrier wave is
varied linearly in accordance with instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal or base band signal. The waves
can be voltage or current signals. The waveforms of the carrier wave, modulating wave and the resultant
modulated wave are shown below. If the base band signal consists of single frequency it is called as single tone
modulation. If the base band signal consists of more than one frequency it is called as multi tone modulation.
EXPRESSION FOR AMWAVE AND FREQUENCY COMPONENTS :
Single tone modulating signal
X (t) = Vm Cos 2Πfm t = Vm Cos wmt……..(1)
Carrier signal C (t) = Vc Cos 2Π fct = Vc Cos wct …....... (2)
Then the modulated signal is given by
S (t) = (Vc + Vm Cos wmt) Cos wct……............ (3)
On simplification we get
S (t) = Vc {1+ (Vm / Vc )Cos wmt }Cos wct
= Vc {1+ ma Cos wmt }Cos wct ; ( ma = Vm / Vc ; Modulation Index)
= Vc Cos wct + Vcma Cos wmt Cos wct = Vc Cos wct + Vc/2ma Cos (wm + wc)t + Vc/2ma Cos (wm─
wc)t
= Vc Cos2Πfct + Vc/2ma(Cos 2Π (fc + fm)t +Cos 2Π (fc─ fm)t)

Figure 1:Waveforms ofModulating Signal, Carrier Signal and AM Signal
FREQUENCYSPECTRUM: It is evident from the equation (4) that the frequency spectrum of the resultant
modulated signal in case of single tone modulation consists of the original carrier frequency fc as well as
additional frequencies (fc + fm) called as upper side frequency and (fc─ fm) called as lower side frequency.
In case of multi tone modulation the base band contains a range of frequencies from ( fm +Δ fm) . In this case
the frequency spectrum of the resultant modulated signal consists of the original carrier frequency fc, an upper
side band of frequencies (fc + fm) to (fc + fm +Δ fm) and a lower side band of frequencies (fc─ fm) to
(fc ─ fm─Δ fm).

Figure 2: Frequency Spectrum (Carrier with two sidebands)
MODULATION INDEX: The ratio of maximum amplitude of the modulating signal to the maximum amplitude
of carrier wave is defined as the amplitude modulation index and denoted by ‘m’. The modulation index is also
known as depth of modulation or degree of modulation or modulation factor. Normally the value of ‘m’ lies
between 0 and 1. The modulation index is given by expression m = Vm / Vc whereVm =Maximum amplitude
of the modulating signal and Vc=Maximum amplitude of the carrier wave It can be seen from the resultant of
AM(single tone modulation) waveform
Vm = (Vmax-Vmin)/2…………………….(5)
Vc = (Vmax + Vmin)/ 2…………………..(6)
From (5) & (6)
m=.(Vmax – Vmin)/ (Vmax + Vmin)………………….(7)
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Figure 3: Block Diagram of AmplitudeModulation
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections according to the block diagram shown in Figure .
2. Connect 1 KHz, 2VAF Generator to CRO and note the frequency and amplitude of AF output.

3. Apply sinusoidal signal of 1 KHz frequency and amplitude 2 Vp-p as modulating signal and carrier
signal of frequency 11 KHz and amplitude 1.5 Vp-p.
4. Observe the carrier signal, modulating signal and AM signal in CRO.
5. Now slowly increase the amplitude of the modulating signal up to 7V in steps of 1V and note down
values of Vmax and Vmin.
6. Calculate amplitude modulation index ma=.(Vmax – Vmin)/ (Vmax + Vmin)
7. Change the amplitude of modulating voltage to different values keeping the carrier voltage constant.
8. Repeat step No.7 and tabulate the results.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. No. AF Signal RF Signal Vmax Vmin Modulation

Index (m)
Frequency Amplitude Frequency Amplitude
1
2
3
4
5
CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONS:
Q. 1. What is modulation?
Q. 2.Which are the three discrete frequencies in AM?
Q. 3. How many sidebands in AM?
Q. 4. True or false? The carrier frequency is usually lower than the modulating frequency
Q. 5. True or false? The carrier frequency remains constant during AM.

Experiment 2
Aim: Investigate the generation of Frequency Modulation & Demodulation
AIM:
APPARATUS: BCT-02 FM kit, CRO, CRO Probes, Wires etc.
PROCEDURE
1.Connect the AC Supply to the Kit
2.Make connections and settings as shown in block diagram No. 1.
3. Connect the MODULATING SIGNAL output from SINE WAVE GENERATOR BLOCK to the
MODULATING Input post of FM Modulator block. Trigger CRO w.r.t. CH1. Adjust amplitude of the
modulating signal unit we get undistorted FM output. It is difficult to trigger FM on analog CRO. That is
why you adjust modulating signal amplitude unit small distortion notified in FM output.
4. Switch ON the power
5. Connect the FM MOD O/P to the FM MOD I/P of FM DEMODULATOR section. In this
condition decrease the amplitude of the modulating signal generator until we get undistorted
demodulated output. Adjust the potentiometer in demodulation section until we get
demodulated output.
6. Observe the following waveforms on oscilloscope.

CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONS:
Q. 1 Define modulation. Give comparison between AM and FM in three points.
Q. 2 Derive mathematical equation for Frequency Modulation.
Q. 3 State two strengths and two limitations of FM.
Q. 4 Explain frequency modulation with necessary diagrams and equations.

Experiment 3
Aim: Study about Computer Networks, Network Topologies and Reference models.
[A] INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS

Sharing Resources
The fundamental purpose of computer networks is to provide access to shared resources, most
notably printers and data storage (both disk drives and tape drives). Local Area Networks (LANs)
involve several primary components:
• Network interconnection (for example, copper wire, fiber optic cable, infrared, or radio).
• Network Interface Circuitry (NIC) in the individual personal computers, connected to the
network. This circuitry may be part of the system motherboard or it may be on a separate
plug-in card.
• The shared resources themselves, each with their own NIC connected to the network.
• Software on the individual personal computers that uses the NIC to access the shared
resources. This software is typically arranged to present the appearance to the rest of the
operating system that these resources are directly connected. In the jargon, "emulating local
disks and printers."
• Software on the shared resource that coordinates with the software on the individual machines
to provide access to the shared resources for the users of the multiple individual personal
computers. This software is typically running on a computer system ("the server") to which
the shared resources are directly attached, and is a multi-user operating system.
The most common case is for the server to be the same sort of personal computer hardware
as the individual personal computers on the network (Intel or Macintosh). In this case, the
operating system is called a "network operating system" to emphasize the difference from the
single-user operating system of the personal computer. Novell is perhaps the most striking
example of this approach.
Alternatives include a laser printer with a microprocessor-controlled NIC that runs software
to manage the printer as a shared resource (e.g., the Jet Direct cards for HP laser printers),
and using a full-blown general-purpose multi-user server, with an operating system like VMS
or Unix. Windows NT Server is perhaps more accurately described as an example of this
latter class.
• But is usually a physical star, although some devices permit daisy-chaining).
• Arbitration mechanism: token-passing, collision-detection, guaranteed data rate, etc.
Network Protocols
The software on the individual personal computers and the software on the server have to cooperate
with each other to provide access to the shared resources. This is done by designing the software to
use an agreed set of conventions (a "protocol") that is standardized so that multiple vendors can
provide interoperable systems.
[B] Types of networks based on physical scope
Common types of computer networks may be identified by their scale.
Local area network

A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area
such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Each
computer or device on the network is a node. Current wired LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet
technology, although new standards like ITU-T G also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing
home wires (coaxial cables, phone lines and power lines).

Fig Typical library network, in a branching tree topology and controlled access to resources
All interconnected devices must understand the network layer (layer 3), because they are handling multiple
subnets (the different colors). Those inside the library, which have only 10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet connections
to the user device and a Gigabit Ethernet connection to the central router, could be called "layer 3 switches"
because they only have Ethernet interfaces and must understand IP. It would be more correct to call them
access routers, where the router at the top is a distribution router that connects to the Internet and academic
networks' customer access routers.
The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (Wide Area Networks), include their higher data
transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and no need for leased telecommunication lines. Current Ethernet
or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. This is the data transfer rate. IEEE
has projects investigating the standardization of 40 and 100 Gbit/s.[5]
Personal area network

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer and
different information technological devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in
a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game
consoles. A PAN may include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10
meters.[6] A wired PAN is usually constructed with USB and Fire wire connections while technologies such
as Bluetooth and infrared communication typically form a wireless PAN.
Home area network

A home area network (HAN) is a residential LAN which is used for communication between digital devices
typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal computers and accessories, such as
printers and mobile computing devices. An important function is the sharing of Internet access, often a
broadband service through a CATV or Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) provider. It can also be referred to as
an office area network (OAN).
Wide area network

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such as a city,
country, or spans even intercontinental distances, using a communications channel that combines many types
of media such as telephone lines, cables, and air waves. A WAN often uses transmission facilities provided
by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three
layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.
Campus network
A campus network is a computer network made up of an interconnection of local area networks (LAN's)
within a limited geographical area. The networking equipments (switches, routers) and transmission media

(optical fiber, copper plant, Cat5 cabling etc.) are almost entirely owned (by the campus tenant / owner: an
enterprise, university, government etc.).
In the case of a university campus-based campus network, the network is likely to link a variety of campus
buildings including; academic departments, the university library and student residence halls.
Metropolitan area network

A Metropolitan area network is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus.
Sample EPN made of Frame relay WAN Sample VPN used to interconnect 3 offices
connections and dialup remote access. and remote users
Enterprise private network

An enterprise private network is a network build by an enterprise to interconnect various company sites, e.g.,
production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops, in order to share computer resources.
Virtual private network

A virtual private network (VPN) is a computer network in which some of the links between nodes are carried
by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires.
The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled through the larger network when
this is the case. One common application is secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN
need not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example,
can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with strong
security features.
VPN may have best-effort performance, or may have a defined service level agreement (SLA) between the
VPN customer and the VPN service provider. Generally, a VPN has a topology more complex than point-
to-point.
Internetwork
An internetwork is the connection of two or more private computer networks via a common routing
technology (OSI Layer 3) using routers. The Internet is an aggregation of many internetworks, hence its
name was shortened to Internet.
Backbone network
A Backbone network (BBN) A backbone network or network backbone is part of a computer network
infrastructure that interconnects various pieces of network, providing a path for the exchange of information
between different LANs or sub networks. A backbone can tie together diverse networks in the same building,
in different buildings in a campus environment, or over wide areas. Normally, the backbone's capacity is
greater than the networks connected to it.
A large corporation that has many locations may have a backbone network that ties all of the locations
together, for example, if a server cluster needs to be accessed by different departments of a company that are
located at different geographical locations. The pieces of the network connections (for example: Ethernet,
wireless) that bring these departments together is often mentioned as network backbone. Network congestion
is often taken into consideration while designing backbones.
Backbone networks should not be confused with the Internet backbone.
Global area network

A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile communications across an arbitrary
number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is
handing off the user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this
involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.[7]
[C] NETWORK TOPOLOGY

It is the study of the arrangement or mapping of the elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a network,
especially the physical (real) and logical (virtual) interconnections between nodes. A local area network
(LAN) is one example of a network that exhibits both a physical topology and a logical topology. Any given
node in the LAN will have one or more links to one or more other nodes in the network and the mapping of
these links and nodes onto a graph results in a geometrical shape that determines the physical topology of
the network. Likewise, the mapping of the flow of data between the nodes in the network determines the
logical topology of the network. It is important to note that the physical and logical topologies might be
identical in any particular network but they also may be different. Any particular network topology is
determined only by the graphical mapping of the configuration of physical and/or logical connections
between nodes - Network Topology is, therefore, technically a part of graph theory. Distances between nodes,
physical interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ in two networks and yet their
topologies may be identical.
Network Topology is the arrangement of the nodes of the network. The biggest example of this is
LAN i.e. Local Area Network. In Computer Networking Topology refers to the layout of the connected
devices. Topologies can be physical or logical. The physical and logical topologies might be identical in any
particular network but they may be different also. The network topology is determined by the mapping of
the physical or logical connections between nodes graphically.
Following are different types of basic Topologies:
• Bus
• Ring
• Star
• Tree
• Mesh
When we think of the complex networks we can make use of more than two network topologies as Hybrids.
Bus Topology:
In this Topology the nodes are connected to a single common backbone. This common medium proves to be
a shared communication path for the nodes that are connected to it. A device which wants to communicate
to other device sends a broadcast message on to the communication path, this message is read by every node
in the network. It checks for which node it was intended and only the destination message actually accepts
that message and interprets it. This topologies are easy to install as it doesn’t require too much of cabling. It
works best when number of PC are less in the network. Performance is the issue when the nodes grow and
if the backbone fails the whole network fails.
Ring Topology:
In this mapping of network each device has two neighbors for communication purpose. The message travels
through the ring in either clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. A failure in the cable can breakdown the
whole network. To implement this kind of network FDDI or Token ring technology is used. found in some
offices and schools.
Star Topology:
This network topology introduces a new node called as HUB in the network. It can be Router,
Switch or a HUB. All the devices are connected to the central Hub by unshielded Twisted Pair Ethernet.
Compared to Bus it requires more cables, however the performance is better than bus and ring. The whole
network fails when only the central Hub fails. and the failure in a cable will take down only one PC and not
the entire network as in the bus or ring.
Tree Topology:
This topology integrates more than one star topologies onto a Bus. Only the Hub devices are connected to
the tree Bus, each Hub functions as the Root of the tree. This hybrid approach supports expandability of the
network. It is also called as Hierarchical topology
Mesh Topology:
Now, In this topology the concept of route is introduced. In this topology the data passed on to the network
can take several paths to reach the destinations, unlike the other topologies. Here every device is connected
to every other device called as Full Mesh. we can summarize this topologies, we can build a home or a small
business network without understanding of the topologies, however if we understand each topology in a
better way it can definitely help us in building a good network. A misconfigured network can result in a
waste of time and energy as well as a lots of troubleshooting methods to resolve the issue. So the basic
understanding of the network topologies and network devices is a must to build a good network.
[D] The OSI Reference Model

The OSI model is based on a proposal develop by ISO as a first step toward international standardization of
the protocols used in the various layers. The model is called ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
Reference Model. Open system is a system open for communication with other systems.

The OSI model has 7 layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers are as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally standardized
protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown together in
the same layer out of necessity, and small enough that the architecture does not become unwieldy.
Fig.. The OSI reference model.

The OSI model is not a network architecture - it does not specify the exact services and protocols. It just tells
what each layer should do. However, ISO has also produced standards for all the layers as a separate
international standards.
The Physical Layer

The main task of the physical layer is to transmit raw bits over a communication channel.
Typical questions here are:
• how many volts should be used to represent 1 and 0,
• how many microseconds a bit lasts,
• whether the transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions,
• how the initial connection is established and how it is turn down,

• how many pins the network connector has and what each pin is used for.
The design issues deal with mechanical, electrical, and procedural interfaces, and the physical transmission
medium, which lies below the physical layer.
The user of the physical layer may be sure that the given stream of bits was encoded and transmitted. He
cannot be sure that the data came to the destination without error. This issue is solved in higher layers.
The Data Link Layer

The main task of the data link layer is to take a raw transmission facility and transform it into a line that
appears free of undetected transmission errors to the network layer. To accomplish this, the sender breaks
the input data into data frames (typically a few hundred or a few thousand bytes), transmits the frames
sequentially, and processes the acknowledgment frames sent back by the receiver.
The issues that the layer has to solve:
• to create and to recognize frame boundaries - typically by attaching special bit patterns to the
beginning and end of the frame,
• to solve the problem caused by damaged, lost or duplicate frames (the data link layer may offer
several different service classes to the network layer, each with different quality and price),
• to keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data,
• if the line is bi-directional, the acknowledgment frames compete for the use of the line with data
frames.
Broadcast networks have an additional issue in the data link layer: how to control access to the shared channel.
A special sub layer of the data link layer (medium access sub layer) deals with the problem.
The user of the data link layer may be sure that his data were delivered without errors to the neighbor node.
However, the layer is able to deliver the data just to the neighbor node.
The Network Layer

The main task of the network layer is to determine how data can be delivered from source to destination.
That is, the network layer is concerned with controlling the operation of the subnet.
The issues that the layer has to solve:
• to implement the routing mechanism,
• to control congestions,
• to do accounting,
• to allow interconnection of heterogeneous networks.
In broadcast networks, the routing problem is simple, so the network layer is often thin or even nonexistent.
The user of the network layer may be sure that his packet was delivered to the given destination. However,
the delivery of the packets needs not to be in the order in which they were transmitted.
The Transport Layer

The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from the session layer, split it up into smaller units
if need be, pass them to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end. All
this must be done in a way that isolates the upper layers from the inevitable changes in the hardware
technology.
The issues that the transport layer has to solve:
• to realize a transport connection by several network connections if the session layer requires a high
throughput or multiplex several transport connections onto the same network connection if network
connections are expensive,
• to provide different type of services for the session layer,
• to implement a kind of flow control.

The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer, from source to destination. In other words, a program on the
source machine carries on a conversation with a similar program on the destination machine. In lower layers,
the protocols are between each machine and its immediate neighbors.
The user of the transport layer may be sure that his message will be delivered to the destination regardless
of the state of the network. He need not worry about the technical features of the network.
The Session Layer

The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them. A session allows
ordinary data transport, as does the transport layer, but it also provides enhanced services useful in some
applications.
Some of these services are:
• Dialog control - session can allow traffic to go in both directions at the same time, or in only one
direction at a time. If traffic can go only in one way at a time, the session layer can help to keep track
of whose turn it is.
• Token management - for some protocols it is essential that both sides do not attempt the same
operation at the same time. The session layer provides tokens that can be exchanged. Only the side
holding the token may perform the critical action.
• Synchronization - by inserting checkpoints into the data stream the layer eliminates problems with
potential crashes at long operations. After a crash, only the data transferred after the last checkpoint
have to be repeated.
The user of the session layer is in similar position as the user of the transport layer but having larger
possibilities.
The Presentation Layer

The presentation layer performs certain functions that are requested sufficiently often to warrant finding a
general solution for them, rather than letting each user solve the problem. This layer is, unlike all the lower
layers, concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.
A typical example of a presentation service is encoding data in a standard agreed upon way. Different
computers may use different ways of internal coding of characters or numbers. In order to make it possible
for computers with different representations to communicate, the data structures to be exchanged can be
defined in an abstract way, along with a standard encoding to be used "on the wire". The presentation layer
manages these abstract data structures and converts from the representation used inside the computer to the
network standard representation and back.
The Application Layer

The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed.
For example, there are hundreds of incompatible terminal types in the world. If they have to be used for a
work with a full screen editor, many problems arise from their incompatibility. One way to solve this problem
is to define network virtual terminal and write editor for this terminal. To handle each terminal type, a piece
of software must be written to map the functions of the network virtual terminal onto the real terminal. All
the virtual terminal software is in the application layer.
Another application layer function is file transfer. It must handle different incompatibilities between file
systems on different computers. Further facilities of the application layer are electronic mail, remote job
entry, directory lookup ant others.
[E] THE TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

TCP/IP reference model originates from the grandparent of all computer networks, the ARPANET and now
is used in its successor, the worldwide Internet.

The name TCP/IP of the reference model is derived from two primary protocols of the corresponding
network architecture.
The Internet Layer

The internet layer is the linchpin of the whole architecture. It is a connectionless internetwork layer forming
a base for a packet-switching network. Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have
them travel independently to the destination. It works in analogy with the (snail) mail system. A person can
drop a sequence of international letters into a mail box in one country, and with a little luck, most of them
will be delivered to the correct address in the destination country.
The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet Protocol). The job of the
internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to go. TCP/IP internet layer is very similar in
functionality to the OSI network layer (Fig.).
Fig.. The TCP/IP reference model.

The Transport Layer
The layer above the internet layer in the TCP/IP model is now usually called transport layer. It is designed
to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a conversation, the same as in the OSI
transport layer. Two end-to-end protocols have been defined here:
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a reliable connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte
stream originating on one machine to be delivered without error on any other machine in the internet.
It fragments the incoming byte stream into discrete messages and passes each one onto the internet
layer. At the destination, the receiving TCP process reassembles the received messages into the
output stream. TCP also handles flow control.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do not
want TCP's sequencing or flow control and wish to provide their own. It is also widely used for
one/shot, client/server type request/reply queries and applications in which prompt delivery is more
important than accurate delivery.
The Application Layer

The application layer is on the top of the transport layer. It contains all the higher level protocols. Some of
them are:

• Virtual terminal (TELNET) - allows a user on one machine to log into a distant machine and work
there.
• File transfer protocol (FTP) - provides a way to move data efficiently from one machine to another.
• Electronic mail (SMTP) - specialized protocol for electronic mail.
• Domain name service (DNS) - for mapping host names onto their network addresses.
The Host-to-Network Layer

Bellow the internet layer there is a great void. The TCP/IP reference model does not really say much about
what happens here, except to point out that the host has to connect to the network using some protocol so it
can send IP packet over it. This protocol is not defined and varies from host to host and network to network.
A Comparison of the OSI and TCP Reference Models

The OSI and the TCP/IP reference models have much in common:
• they are based on the concept of a stack of independent protocols,
• they have roughly similar functionality of layers,
• the layers up and including transport layer provide an end-to-end network-independent transport
service to processes wishing to communicate.
The two models also have many differences (in addition to different protocols).
Probably the biggest contribution of the OSI model is that it makes the clear distinction between its three
central concepts that are services, interfaces, and protocols.
Each layer performs some services for the layer above it. The service definition tells what the layer does, not
how entities above it access it or how the layer works.
A layer's interface tells the processes above it how to access it including the specification of the parameters
and the expected results. But it, too, says nothing about how the layer works inside.
The peer protocols used in a layer are its own business. It can use any protocol as long as it provides the
offered services.
These ideas fit with modern ideas about object-oriented programming where a layer can be understood to be
an object with a set of operations that processes outside the object can invoke.
The TCP/IP model did not originally clearly distinguish between service, interface, and protocol. As a
consequence, the protocol in the OSI model are better hidden than in the TCP/IP model and can be replaced
relatively easily as the technology changes.
The OSI reference model was devised before the protocols were invented. The positive aspect of this was
that the model was made quite general, not biased toward one particular set of protocols. The negative aspect
was that the designers did not have much experience with the subject and did not have a good idea of which
functionality to put into which layer (e.g. some new sub layers had to be hacked into the model).
With the TCP/IP the reverse was true: the protocols came first, and the model was just a description of the
existing protocols. As a consequence, the model was not useful for describing other non-TCP/IP networks.
An obvious difference between the two models is the number of layers. Another difference is in the area of
connectionless versus connection-oriented communication. The OSI model supports both types of
communication in the network layer, but only connection-oriented communication in the transport layer. The
TCP/IP model has only connectionless mode in the network layer but supports both modes in the transport
layer. The connectionless choice is especially important for simple request-response protocols.
CONCLUSION:

QUESTIONS:
Q. 1 Calculate following if the total number of PC in mesh topology is 19.
1. No of physical link required.
2. No of I/O port required in each PC.
Q. 2 Differentiate following topologies
1. Mesh v/s Star
2. Mesh v/s Ring
3. Star v/s Ring
4. Mesh v/s Bus
5. Star v/s Bus
Q. 3 Draw the OSI reference model and write down the function of each layer.
Q. 4 Compare OSI reference model and TCP/IP model.

Date : ___ / ___ /202
Experiment - 4
Aim: Implement the cross-wired cable and straight through UTP cable using clamping tool.
Cables
Cabling play an important role in networking and the type of network media used determines how
fast the data travels along the media, and also the maximum data rate that can be carried. The four main
types of networking media are:
• Shielded twisted-pair (STP)
• Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
• Coaxial cable
• Fiber-optic cable
Shielded twisted-pair:
This is a type of copper telephone wiring in which each of the two copper wires that are twisted together and
are coated with an insulating coating that functions as a ground for the wires.
Unshielded twisted-pair:
Unshielded Twisted-pair are not shielded and thus interfere with nearby cables.
They are used in LANs to bit rates of 100Mbps and with maximum length of 100m.
UTP cables are typically used to connect a computer to a network.
There are several classifications of cable used for twisted-pair networks. But, use of Category 5 (or CAT 5)
cable for all new installations is recommended. Likewise, there are several fire code classifications for the
outer insulation of CAT 5 cable. Use of CMR cable, or "riser cable," for most of the wiring is done. You
should also be aware of CMP or plenum cable (a plenum is used to distribute air in a building). You may be
required by local, state or national codes to use the more expensive plenum-jacketed cable if it runs through
suspended ceilings, ducts, or other areas, if they are used to circulate air or act as an air passage from one
room to another. If in doubt, use plenum. CMR cable is generally acceptable for all applications not
requiring plenum cable.
Stranded wire patch cables are often specified for cable segments running from a wall jack to a PC and for
patch panels. They are more flexible than solid core wire. However, the rational for using it is that the
constant flexing of patch cables may wear-out solid core cable--break it. I don't think this is a real concern
in the average small network. For example, I have one solid core cable going to my work bench. It has
probably flexed and average person's lifetime of flexes from the many times I have connected customer
computers to my network. Also, stranded cable is susceptible to degradation from moisture infiltration, may
use an alternate color code, and should not be used for cables longer than 3 Meters (about 10 feet).
Most of the wiring I do simply connects computers directly to other computers or hubs. Solid core cable is
quite suitable for this purpose and for many home and small business networks. I find it also quite
acceptable for use as patch cables. You might consider stranded wire patch cables if you have a notebook
computer you are constantly moving around.

Cable wire Pairs Crimping tool
CAT 5 cable has four twisted pairs of wire for a total of eight individually insulated wires. Each pair is
color coded with one wire having a solid color (blue, orange, green, or brown) twisted around a second wire
with a white background and a stripe of the same color. The solid colors may have a white stripe in some
cables. Cable colors are commonly described using the background color followed by the color of the stripe;
e.g., white-orange is a cable with a white background and an orange stripe.
The straight through and cross-over patch cables are terminated with CAT 5 RJ-45 modular plugs. RJ-45
plugs are similar to those you'll see on the end of your telephone cable except they have eight versus four or
six contacts on the end of the plug and they are about twice as big. Make sure they are rated for CAT 5
wiring. (RJ means "Registered Jack"). Also, there are RJ-45 plugs designed for both solid core wire and
stranded wire. Others are designed specifically for one kind of wire or the other. Be sure you buy plugs
appropriate for the wire you are going to use. Mostly plugs designed to accommodate both kinds of wire are
used.

CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONS:
Q. 1 Explain twisted pair cable.
Q. 2 Differentiate straight through and crossover UTP cable.
Q. 3 Compare STP and UTP.
Q. 4 Give the reason why the pair of cable are twisted in twisted pair cable.

Date : ___ / ___ / 202
Experiment – 5
Aim : To study the Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) and draw its waveforms
APPARATUS:: Computer, Matlab Software
THEORY:
Time division multiplexing (TDM) is the process of sending more than one source
information over a same channel in different time slot which helps in efficient channel utilization
and saves bandwidth.
PROCEDURE:
1. Open Matlab version R2014a.
2. Open new file and enter the program and save it.
3. Add the path to the location of the file in the system.
4. Compile the program and check for any error and debug it.
5. Note down the output.
MATLAB CODING:
n1=input ('Enter the length= ');
t=0:0.01:n1;
t1=1:0.01:n2;
t2=2:0.01:n3;
x=sin (2*pi*t);
y=sin (4*pi*t1);
z=sin (6*pi*t2);
subplot (4,1,1);
plot (t,x,'g');
title ('USER 1');
grid on;
Subplot (4, 1, 2);
Plot (t1, y,'r');
title ('USER 2');
gridon;
subplot(4,1,3);
plot(t2,z);
title('USER 3');
gridon;
subplot(4,1,4);
plot(t,x,'g',t1,y,'r',t2,z);
TITLE('TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING');
grid on;
INPUT:
Enter the length 1
Enter the length 2
Enter the length 3
OUTPUT WAVEFORM:

CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONS:
Q. 1 Write down the need of Multiplexing.
Q. 2 List out types of Multiplexing.
Q. 3 Explain time division multiplexing in brief.

Date : ___ / ___ / 202
Experiment – 6
Aim : Study router, repeater & bridge.
What are internetworking devices?

These are devices used in connecting individual networks to each other. Examples include:
Ø Cables
Ø Repeaters
Ø Hubs
Ø Bridges
Ø Switches
Ø Routers
Repeaters
A repeater connects two segments of your network cable. It retimes and regenerates the signals to proper
amplitudes and sends them to the other segments. When talking about, Ethernet topology, you are probably
talking about using a hub as a repeater. Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal.
This can cause a propagation delay which can affect network communication when there are several
repeaters in a row. Many network architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a row.
Repeaters work only at the physical layer of the OSI network model.
As a network grows, its cable can easily exhaust the network constraint, and any further loads on this network
can leads to attenuation and digital pulse distortion. To overcome these limitations, repeaters are used to
increase the maximum interconnection length, and may do the following:
• Reshape signal pulses
• Pass all signals between attached segments
• Boost signal power
• Possibly translate between two different media (such as between fiber-optic and twisted-pair cable)
• Transmit to more than one network. These are multi-port repeaters and send data frames from any
received segment to all the others. Multi-port repeaters do not filter the traffic, as they blindly send
received data frames to all the physical connected network segments.
Hubs
A hub is a repeater with multiple ports, and can be thought of as being the centre point of a star topology
network. It is often known as a multi-port repeater (or as a concentrator in Ethernet). Hubs can be active
(where they repeat signal sent through them) or passive (where they do not repeat, but merely split, signals
sent through them). Hub generally:
• Amplify signals.
• Propagate the signal through the network.
• Do not filter traffic. This is a major disadvantage with hubs and repeaters as data arriving at any of
the ports is automatically transmitted to all the other ports connected to the hub.
• Do not determine path.
• Centralize the connection to the network
Figure illustrate a star topology with hub as the central server and fig. 1b shows the real hub as used in
networking.

A pictorial hub A typical hub
Bridges
These examine the destination MAC address (or station address) of the transmitted data frames, and will not
retransmit data frames which are not destined for another network segment. They maintain a table with
connected MAC address, and do not forward any data frames if the MAC address is on the network that
originated it, else it forward to all connected segment. Thus a bridge does not actually determine on which
segment the destination is on, and blindly forwards data frames to all other connected segments.
Bridges are an excellent method of reducing traffic on network segment and it does this by examining the
destination address of the frame before deciding how to handle it. Consider the figure below; if the
destination address of a data frame (from segment 1) is that of station A or B, then there is no need for the
frame to appear on segment 2. But if the destination address (data frame from segment 1) is that of station C
or D, or if it is the broadcast address, then the bridge will transmit, or forward the frame on to segment 2. By
forwarding packets, the bridge allows any of the four devices in the figure to communicate.
A bridge reads the outermost section of data on the data packet, to tell where the message is going. It reduces
the traffic on other network segments, since it does not send all packets. Bridges can be programmed to reject
packets from particular networks. Bridging occurs at the data link layer of the OSI model, which means the
bridge cannot read IP addresses, but only the outermost hardware address of the packet. In our case the
bridge can read the Ethernet data which gives the hardware address of the destination address, not the IP
address. Bridges forward all broadcast messages. Only a special bridge called a translation bridge will allow
two networks of different architectures to be connected. Bridges do not normally allow connection of
networks with different architectures. The hardware address is also called the MAC (media access control)
address. To determine the network segment a MAC address belongs to, bridges use one of:

• Transparent Bridging - They build a table of addresses (bridging table) as they receive packets. If the
address is not in the bridging table, the packet is forwarded to all segments other than the one it came
from. This type of bridge is used on Ethernet networks.
• Source route bridging - The source computer provides path information inside the packet. This is
used on Token Ring networks.
Problems with Bridge

• They work well when there is not too much inter-segment traffic, but when the inter-segment traffic
becomes too heavy the bridges can actually become a bottleneck for traffic, and actually slow down
communication.
• They spread and multiply broadcast. A bridge forwards all broadcast to all other connected
segments. If there are too many broadcast, it can result in a broadcast storm.
Switches
A switch is a very fast, low-latency, multi-port bridge that is used to segment LANs. They are typically used
to increase communication rates between segments with multiple parallel conversation and also
communication between different networking technologies (such as between ATM and 100Base-TX). r
A vital difference between a hub and a switch is that all the nodes connected to a hub share the bandwidth
among themselves, while a device connected to a switch port has the full bandwidth all to itself. For example,
if 10 nodes are communicating using a hub on a 10-Mbps network, then each node may only get a portion
of the 10 Mbps if other nodes on the hub want to communicate as well. But with a switch, each node could
possibly communicate at the full 10 Mbps. [1]
Figure (a) below represent a typical switch and (b) illustrates a network using a switch.
Fig (a)
Fig (b)
Switches forwards received data frames in two ways;

• Cutting-through switching: the switch reads the destination address before receiving the entire
frame. The data is then forwarded before the entire frame arrives. This method has the advantage
that there is less delay (latency) between the reception and transmission of a data packet, but has
poor error detection, because it does not have a chance to detect any errors, before it has started to
transmit the received data frame.
• Store-and-forward switching: it involves reading the entire Ethernet frame, before forwarding it,
with the required protocol and at the correct speed, to the destination port. This has the advantage
of improved error check, protocol filtering and speed matching but has the disadvantage of system
delay, as the frames must be totally read before it is transmitted.
Routers
A router is used to route data packets between two networks. It reads the information in each packet to tell
where it is going. If it is destined for an immediate network it has access to, it will strip the outer packet,
readdress the packet to the proper Ethernet address, and transmit it on that network. If it is destined for
another network and must be sent to another router, it will re-package the outer packet to be received by the
next router and send it to the next router. The section on routing explains the theory behind this and how
routing tables are used to help determine packet destinations. Routing occurs at the network layer of the OSI
model. They can connect networks with different architectures such as Token Ring and Ethernet. Although
they can transform information at the data link level, routers cannot transform information from one data
format such as TCP/IP to another such as IPX/SPX. Routers do not send broadcast packets or corrupted
packets. If the routing table does not indicate the proper address of a packet, the packet is discarded.
Brouter
There is a device called a brouter which will function similar to a bridge for network transport protocols that
are not routable, and will function as a router for routable protocols. It functions at the network and data link
layers of the OSI network model.
These are network devices that examine the network address (IP address) field and determine the best route
for a data packet, and will only transmit it out of a network segment if it is destined for a node on another
network. Routers do the following:
• Do not forward broadcast
• Do not forward traffic to unknown addresses
• Modify data packet header
• Build tables of network addresses.
Gateway
A gateway can translate information between different network data formats or network architectures. It can
translate TCP/IP to AppleTalk so computers supporting TCP/IP can communicate with Apple brand
computers. Most gateways operate at the application layer, but can operate at the network or session layer
of the OSI model. Gateways will start at the lower level and strip information until it gets to the required
level and repackage the information and work its way back toward the hardware layer of the OSI model. To
confuse issues, when talking about a router that is used to interface to another network, the word gateway is
often used. This does not mean the routing machine is a gateway as defined here, although it could be.
CONCLUSION:

QUESTIONS:
Q. 1 Explain following network component.
1. Router
2. Hub
3. Switch
Q. 2 List the types of hub and explain it in brief.
Q. 3 Compare Hub and Switch.

Date : ___ / ___ / 202
Experiment – 7
Aim : Create Home group and set /change sharing options
A homegroup makes it easier to share files and printers on a home network. You can share pictures, music,
videos, documents, and printers with other people in your homegroup. Other people can't change the files
that you share, unless you give them permission to do so.
When you set up a computer with this version of Windows, a homegroup is created automatically if one
doesn't already exist on your home network. If a homegroup already exists, you can join it. After you
create or join a homegroup, you can select the libraries that you want to share. You can prevent specific
files or folders from being shared, and you can share additional libraries later. You can help protect your
homegroup with a password, which you can change at any time.
⚫ Sharing folders on Windows 7

1. Go to Control Panel / Network and Sharing / Advanced sharing options
2. Turn on file and printer sharing in (current profile)
3. Turn off [Password protected sharing] in [All Networks]
4. Choose a folder to be shared
5. To share with password enabled, add corresponding login name to the dialog, and press [Share] button.
6. To share without password, add “Guests” to the dialog, and press [Share] button
7. You should now be able to see the new Shared Folder. 1) If you chose to use password, login/password
dialog will appear. 2) If you added “Guests”, login/password dialog will not appear.
⚫ Sharing folders on Windows 8
1. The procedure on Windows 8 is almost identical to Windows 7, except that “Password protected
sharing” option is located in the same setting group with “File and printer sharing”
2. It is advised to change the “128 bit encryption” to the “40- or 56-bit encryption”.
3. Users can choose to use advanced sharing options.
1) Be sure to add “Guests” in “Security” tab, and give at least “Read” access, to access without password
2) You might have to reset all permission, using “Advanced” security dialog.
4. Don’t forget to add “Guests” in “Sharing” tab
CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONS:
Q.1 What is Homegroup?
Q.2 How to configure windows for joining the homegroup.
Q.3 How to change homegroup password?

Q.4 How to access what’s shared on the Homegroup?
Q.5 How to leave a Homegroup in Windows?
Q.6 What is the Network and Sharing Center?

Date : ___ / ___ / 202
Experiment – 8
Aim : To study network property of LAN card on windows and machine. Study PING
and IPCONFIG / IFCONFIG command.
PING: The Ping command is a network tool used to determine if you are able to send packets between
your network computer on the internet to another computer without losing packets along the way. By
doing this you can determine if you're online or if a website is down. It also calculates round trip time and
Time to Live. This can let you know if your NIC card is working properly and if you're able to reach your
router or modem. Hence it can be used as a network tool for troubleshooting.
Usage: ping [-t] [-a] [-n count] [-l size] [-f] [-i TTL] [-v TOS] [-r count] [-s count] [[-j host-list] | [-k host-
list]] [-w timeout] [-R] [-S srcaddr] [-4] [-6 target_name
Options:
-t: Pings the specified host until stopped.

-a Resolve addresses to hostnames.
-n count Number of echo requests to send.
-l size Send buffer size.
-f Set Don't Fragment flag in packet (IPv4-only).
-I TTL Time To Live.
-v TOS Type Of Service (IPv4-only. This setting has been deprecated and has no effect on the type of
service field in the IP Header).
-r count Record route for count hops (IPv4-only).
-s count Timestamp for count hops (IPv4-only).
-j host-list Loose source route along host-list (IPv4-only).
-k host-list Strict source route along host-list (IPv4-only).
-w timeout Time out in milliseconds to wait for each reply.
-R Use routing header to test reverse route also (IPv6-only).
Per RFC 5095 the use of this routing header has been deprecated. Some systems may drop echo requests
if this header is used.
-S srcaddr Source address to use.
-4 Force using IPv4.
-6 Force using IPv6.
Example:
ping yahoo.com
ping -r 3 192.168.230.1
ping –n 25 www.gtu.ac.in
ping –l 2000 www.google.co.in
ping –n 20 –l 1000 www.edrawsoft.com
ping -4 www.gtu.ac.in
Note: For loopback address, you can ping it and get returns even when you are offline (not connected to
any network). If you don't get any valid replies, then there's a problem with the computer's Network
settings.
• Configure of LAN Card:

i.) For Windows:
1. First go to network places then right click on connected network and go to properties:

2. Click on Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) and view properties and set the setting as shown in figure:
3. Open Internet Explorer and go to Tools-›Internet Option-›Connection-›LAN Setting
• Ping Command:

i.) For Windows:
1. ping /?
• The ping command is useful for determining the status of the network and various foreign hosts, tracking and
isolating hardware and software problems, and testing, measuring, and managing networks
Usage: ping [-t] [-a] [-n count] [-l size] [-f] [-i TTL] [-v TOS]
[-r count] [-s count] [[-j host-list] | [-k host-list]]
[-w timeout] target_name
Options:
-t Ping the specified host until stopped.
To see statistics and continue - type Control-Break;
To stop - type Control-C.
-a Resolve addresses to hostnames.
-n count Number of echo requests to send.
-l size Send buffer size.
-f Set Don't Fragment flag in packet.
-i TTL Time To Live.
-v TOS Type Of Service.
-r count Record route for count hops.
-s count Timestamp for count hops.
-j host-list Loose source route along host-list.
-k host-list Strict source route along host-list.
-w timeout Timeout in milliseconds to wait for each reply.
2. ping –t 172.16.11.56
• Specifies that ping continue sending Echo Request messages to the destination until interrupted.
• To interrupt and display statistics, press CTRL-BREAK. To interrupt and quit ping, press CTRL-C.
Pinging 172.16.11.56 with 32 bytes of data:
Reply from 172.16.11.56: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=128


Ping statistics for 172.16.11.56:
Packets: Sent = 19, Received = 19, Lost = 0 (0% loss),
Approximate round trip times in milli-seconds:
Minimum = 0ms, Maximum = 0ms, Average = 0ms
3. ping -a 172.11.16.56
• Specifies that reverse name resolution is performed on the destination IP address.

• If this is successful, ping displays the corresponding host name.
Pinging eccserver.electronics.scet.in [172.16.11.1] with 32 bytes of data:

Reply from 172.16.11.1: bytes=32 time=2ms TTL=128

4. ping –n 6 172.16.11.56
• It will set the number of echo (=6) for request to send.

• Its by default value is 4.

5. ping –n 2 172.16.11.56
• It will set the number of echo (=2) for request to send.

• Its by default value is 4.
6. ping –l 64 172.16.11.56
• Specifies the length, in bytes, of the Data field in the Echo Request messages sent.
• The default is 32. The maximum size is 65,527.

7. ping –l 128 172.16.11.56

• Set buffer size as 128 byte
8. ping –i 255 172.16.11.56

• Specifies the value of the TTL field in the IP header for Echo Request messages sent.
• The default is the default TTL value for the host. For Windows XP hosts, this is typically 128. The maximum TTL
is 255.

9. ping 127.0.0.1(Loopback Address)
• The IP Address 127.0.0.1 always refers to the local computer.

• If the local computer does not respond, you can assume there is a problem with the TCP/IP configuration.
10. ping 192.168.0.37
• When Ethernet Cable of 192.168.0.37 is unplugged
Request timed out.

Request timed out.
Request timed out.
Request timed out.
11. Ping 172.16.11.69
• Pinging Host Its self
12. ping www.google.com
• To identify the IP address of the particular website.
Pinging www.l.google.com [74.125.236.146] with 32 bytes of data:

13. ping www.yahoo.com
Pinging any-fp3-real.wa1.b.yahoo.com [98.139.183.24] with 32 bytes of data:
IP related command
1. ipconfig
Windows IP Configuration
Ethernet adapter Local Area Connection:
Connection-specific DNS Suffix . :

IP Address. . . . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.100.101
Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 255.255.255.0
Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . :
PPP adapter YOU:

IP Address. . . . . . . . . . . . : 123.201.164.147
Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 255.255.255.255
Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . : 123.201.164.147
2. ipconfig /all

Windows IP Configuration
Host Name . . . . . . . . . . . . : ecc56

Primary Dns Suffix . . . . . . . : electronics.scet.in
Node Type . . . . . . . . . . . . : Unknown
IP Routing Enabled. . . . . . . . : No
WINS Proxy Enabled. . . . . . . . : No
DNS Suffix Search List. . . . . . : electronics.scet.in
Ethernet adapter Local Area Connection:

Description . . . . . . . . . . . : Atheros L1 Gigabit Ethernet 10/100/1000Base-T Controller
Physical Address. . . . . . . . . : 00-24-8C-56-AD-50
Dhcp Enabled. . . . . . . . . . . : No
IP Address. . . . . . . . . . . . : 172.16.11.56
Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 255.255.255.0
Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . : 172.16.11.254
DNS Servers . . . . . . . . . . . : 172.16.11.1
CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONS:
1. Ping can _________

a) Measure round-trip time
b) Report packet loss
c) Report latency
d) All of the mentioned
2. Ping sweep is a part of _________

a) Traceroute
b) Nmap
c) Route
d) Ipconfig
3. ICMP is used in _________

a) Ping
b) Traceroute
c) Ifconfig
d) Both Ping & Traceroute
4. __________ command is used to manipulate TCP/IP routing table.

a) route
b) Ipconfig
c) Ifconfig
d) Traceroute

5. If you want to find the number of routers between a source and destination, the utility to be used is
___________
a) route
b) Ipconfig
c) Ifconfig
d) Traceroute
6. Which of the following is not related to ipconfig in Microsoft Windows?

a) Display all current TCP/IP network configuration values
b) Modify DHCP settings
c) Modify DNS settings
d) Trace the routers in the path to destination
7. __________ allows checking if a domain is available for registration.

a) Domain Check
b) Domain Dossier
c) Domain Lookup
d) Domain registers
8. Choose the wrong statement from the following.

a) Nslookup is used to query a DNS server for DNS data
b) Ping is used to check connectivity
c) Pathping combines the functionality of ping with that of route
d) Ifconfig can configure TCP/IP network interface parameters

Date : ___ / ___ / 202
Experiment – 9
Aim : Use TRACERT, ARP, NETSTAT, PATHPING commands on windows.
LOGIN
Purpose of login is to invoke your login script for a particular file server and access that server
Login [ / option][ file server]/[name][parameter]
Options : /script / No- attach, / Clear screen
LOGOUT
Purpose is to log you out of file server you were attached to
Logout [ file server]
SLIST
Lists file servers on your network Slist [ file server] [/c]
NVER Network Version
Cast on/ cast off to enable/ prevent messege reaching your station
Rights List your effective rights on a directory / file Rights [path]
Help Invokes help Help[/ command name]
WHOAMI List your file name / server name/software version/ login date and time/ groups you belong to,
rights and security equivalences
IPCONFIG:
Ipconfig is a utility that can be used to display the network settings currently assigned and given by a
network. This command can be utilized to verify a network connection as well as to verify your network
settings. It is used to find out your current TCP/IP settings. With IPCONFIG you can find out your IP
Address, find your Default Gateway and find your Subnet Mask. This is a very handy network tool for
finding your local IP address.
Syntax
ipconfig [/? | /all | /release [adapter] | /renew [adapter] |/displaydns |/showclassid adapter | /setclassid
adapter [classidtoset] ]
/all Display full configuration information.

/release Release the IP address for the specified adapter.
/renew Renew the IP address for the specified adapter.
/displaydns Display the contents of the DNS Resolver Cache.
/showclassid Displays all the dhcp class IDs allowed for adapter.
/setclassid Modifies the dhcp class id.
Nslookup: nslookup is like a Domain Name Lookup from the IP Address. You can also do a reverse
lookup from Domain Name to IP Address. It can be a way to find out if your DNS is properly working or
if the site is having problems. You can obtain an IP from a site and try to visit the IP directly, bypassing
the Domain Name Servers that would usually resolve the Domain name to IP name.
nslookup yahoo.com
nslookup xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx
NETSTAT: netstat can be used to view active network connections and TCP/IP connections. You can
determine what ports are open and being used, what programs are using your ports and what kind of TCP
and UDP connections are present.
Syntax NBTSTAT [-a RemoteName] [-A IP address] [-c] [-n] [-r] [-R] [-RR] [-s] [-S] [interval]
-a (adapter status) Lists the remote machine's name table given its name
-A (Adapter status) Lists the remote machine's name table given its IP address.
-c (cache) Lists NBT's cache of remote [machine] names and their IP addresses
-n (names) Lists local NetBIOS names.
-r (resolved) Lists names resolved by broadcast and via WINS
-R (Reload) Purges and reloads the remote cache name table
-S (Sessions) Lists sessions table with the destination IP addresses
-s (sessions) Lists sessions table converting destination IP addresses to computer NETBIOS names.
-RR (ReleaseRefresh) Sends Name Release packets to WINs and then, starts Refresh
RemoteName Remote host machine name.
IP address Dotted decimal representation of the IP address.
Interval Redisplays selected statistics, pausing interval seconds between each display. Press Ctrl + C to
stop redisplaying statistics.
Example:
netstat -a
netstat -e
netstat -r --> try to find out which network card your PC is actually using. [routing table]
Note: always use -a so as to see UDP packets also. When you are offline, you shouldn't see any connection
data!
Open a broswer connection to http and ftp server and see 'netstat -an'. Can be while offline and online.
Getmac DOS command used to show both local and remote MAC addresses. When run with no
parameters (ie. getmac) it displays MAC addresses for the local system. When the /v parameter is used, it
also displays the associated connection name and network adapter name. When run with the /s parameter it
displays MAC addresses for the remote computer.
NET Command: net /?

net accounts --> details ... normally used in domain set-up
ARP: Address Resolution Protocol

ARP -s inet_addr eth_addr [if_addr]
ARP -d inet_addr [if_addr]
ARP -a [inet_addr] [-N if_addr]
-a Displays current ARP entries by interrogating the current protocol data. If inet_addr is specified, the IP
and Physical addresses for only the specified computer are displayed. If more than one network interface
uses ARP, entries for each ARP table are displayed.
-g (Same as -a)
inet_addr Specifies an internet address.
-N if_addr Displays the ARP entries for the network interface specified by if_addr.
-d Deletes the host specified by inet_addr.
-s Adds the host and associates the Internet address inet_addr with the Physical address
eth_addr. The Physical address is given as 6 hexadecimal bytes separated by hyphens. The entry is
permanent.
eth_addr Specifies a physical address.
if_addr If present, this specifies the Internet address of the interface whose address translation
table should be modified. If not present, the first applicable interface will be used.
nbtstat: Net Bios Stats [NetBios over TCP/IP]

Displays protocol statistics and current TCP/IP connections using NBT
NBTSTAT [-a RemoteName] [-A IP address] [-c] [-n] [-r] [-R] [-s]
[S] [interval]
-a (adapter status) Lists the remote machine's name table given its name.
-A (Adapter status) Lists the remote machine's name table given its IP address.
-c (cache) Lists the remote name cache including the IP addresses.
-n (names) Lists local NetBIOS names.
-r (resolved) Lists names resolved by broadcast and via WINS
-R (Reload) Purges and reloads the remote cache name table
-S (Sessions) Lists sessions table with the destination IP addresses.
-s (sessions) Lists sessions table converting destination IP addresses to host names via
the hosts file.
RemoteName Remote host machine name.
IP address Dotted decimal representation of the IP address.
interval Redisplays selected statistics, pausing interval seconds between each
display. Press Ctrl+C to stop redisplaying statistics.
Example:
nbtstat -a ics-ibm-srv --> gives information about each card, its services and mac address.
nbtstat -A 192.168.230.251 --> gives information about that concern that ip address along with mac
address.
nbtstat -c --> finding cache entries for NetBios
nbtstat -S --> gives NetBios session information.
Result:
(a) For Windows Machine.
(1) arp/?
ARP is used to map IP addresses to physical, MAC addresses.

Options for ARP
arp –a Displays IP and MAC address of the hosts and servers to which the pc is connected
and displays the type of connection.

arp –s To enter IP and MAC address of any PC(host/server) in the connection table of a PC
statically.
(2) nbtstat/?
It is designed to help troubleshoot NetBIOS name resolution problems.

Options for nbtstat
nbtstat –a Displays the type of connections and status that a host/server has to a PC
specified by its name.
nbtstat –A Displays the type of connections and status that a host/server has to a PC specified
by its IP address.

(3) netstat/?
Netstat displays protocol statistics and current TCP/IP connections.
Options for netstat

netstat Shows the active connections and their status for the TCP protocol of that PC.
netstat –a Shows the active connections and the listening ports and their status for the
TCP and UDP protocol of that PC.
netstat –r Shows the route table, MAC address, Default gateway, netmask and interfaces
of the PC.

netstat –e Shows the interface statistics, number of packets sent and received and the
errors during transmission for the PC.
netstat –n Shows the IP addresses of the active connections for the PC without resolving
their names.
netstat –s Shows the statistics for protocols at network and transport layer.

(4) tracert /?
Tracert is a route tracing utility that displays a list of near-side router interfaces of the routers
along the path between a source host and a destination.

Options for tracert
tracert Traces the route to a given IP address from the PC.
tracert -d Traces the route to a given IP address from the PC without resolving the host
names.
tracert -h Traces the route to a given IP address from the PC with the maximum number
of hops specified.
(5) nslookup/?
Nslookup is a useful tool for troubleshooting DNS problems, such as the host name resolution.
nslookup Troubleshoot the DNS problems

(6) route/?
Route is used to view and modify the IP routing table.

Options for route
route print Displays the list of current routes that the host knows.
(7) pathping
Pathping tool is a route tracing tool that combines features of ping and tracert with additional
information that neither of those tools provides.

Options for pathping
Pathping Pings to an IP address and traces the path also.
(8) Hostname
To identify the name of the host you are working on.
CONCLUSION

Date : ___ / ___ / 202
Experiment – 10
Aim: To install and customize web browser and internet oprtions
While there are many Internet browsers such as Internet Explorer, Firefox and Google Chrome that can be
downloaded and installed on your computer for free, creating web browsers yourself gives you more control
over how you want to browse the Internet. With a custom web browser you can not only decide how the
appearance should be but also add custom buttons and features. Visual Basic is 1 of the most common
programs used to make a web browser.
BrowsingMadeEasyMozilla-Firefox
Gotohttp://www.mozilla.org/en-US/products/download.html?product=firefox-stub&os=win&lang=en-US
Get to your favorite sites quickly – even if you don’t remember the URLs. Type your term into the location
bar (aka the Awesome Bar) and the autocomplete function will include possible matches from your
browsing history, bookmarked sites and open tabs.
Google Chrome
Go to https://www.google.com/intl/en_uk/chrome/browser/
Opera
Make Opera your own — customize it
The Opera browser is highly customizable, so you can change a lot of the settings to suit you. This section
shows some of the more common ways you can customize Opera.
The topics in this section are listed below. Select the arrow to view each topic, or select the Expand
All button to view all topics at once.
You can set Opera as your default browser so that Opera automatically opens when you request any
information from the Internet. Choose your operating system below to display the steps to follow.
Windows
The second time you run Opera, it displays a dialog asking if you want Opera to be your default browser.
Select OK to confirm.
If you have cancelled this dialog previously, follow these steps to set Opera as the default browser:
1. Go to Preferences > Advanced > Programs.
2. Check the Check if Opera is default browser on startup option.
3. The next time you start Opera, answer Yes when the dialog asks you if you want Opera to be the
default browser on your computer.
Internet Options:
General: In this tab options of Home page setting, start up option, browsinh history and appearance of the
webpage are available.

Security: Security level setting for various websites can be set using options available in this tab.

Privacy: Under this tab options to set privacy level for various websites are available.
Content: Access control such as parental control can be set using this tab.

Connections: LAN setting can be made using options available in this tab.
Programs: Default programs for opening various types of web content can be set here.

Programs: Under this tab options for advance setting such as accessibility, browsing, security, multimedia
content etc. are available.
CONCLUSION

Date : ___ / ___ / 202
Experiment – 11
Aim: Identify the different class of IP address.
Introduction of Classful IP Addressing
IP address is an address having information about how to reach a specific host, especially outside the LAN.
An IP address is a 32 bit unique address having an address space of 232.
Generally, there are two notations in which IP address is written, dotted decimal notation and hexadecimal
notation.
Dotted Decimal Notation:
Hexadecimal Notation:
Some points to be noted about dotted decimal notation:
1. The value of any segment (byte) is between 0 and 255 (both included).
2. There are no zeroes preceding the value in any segment (054 is wrong, 54 is correct).
Classful Addressing
The 32 bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes. These are:
• Class A
• Class B

• Class C
• Class D
• Class E
Each of these classes has a valid range of IP addresses. Classes D and E are reserved for multicast and
experimental purposes respectively. The order of bits in the first octet determine the classes of IP address.
IPv4 address is divided into two parts:
• Network ID
• Host ID
The class of IP address is used to determine the bits used for network ID and host ID and the number of
total networks and hosts possible in that particular class. Each ISP or network administrator assigns IP
address to each device that is connected to its network.
Note: IP addresses are globally managed by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority(IANA) and regional
Internet registries(RIR).
Note: While finding the total number of host IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are not counted and are
therefore, decreased from the total count because the first IP address of any network is the network number
and whereas the last IP address is reserved for broadcast IP.

Class A:
IP address belonging to class A are assigned to the networks that contain a large number of hosts.
• The network ID is 8 bits long.

• The host ID is 24 bits long.
The higher order bit of the first octet in class A is always set to 0. The remaining 7 bits in first octet are
used to determine network ID. The 24 bits of host ID are used to determine the host in any network. The
default subnet mask for class A is 255.x.x.x. Therefore, class A has a total of:
• 2^7-2= 126 network ID(Here 2 address is subracted because 0.0.0.0 and 127.x.y.z are special
address. )
• 2^24 – 2 = 16,777,214 host ID
IP addresses belonging to class A ranges from 1.x.x.x – 126.x.x.x
Class B:
IP address belonging to class B are assigned to the networks that ranges from medium-sized to large-sized
networks.

The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class B are always set to 10. The remaining 14 bits
are used to determine network ID. The 16 bits of host ID is used to determine the host in any network. The
default sub-net mask for class B is 255.255.x.x. Class B has a total of:
• 2^14 = 16384 network address

• 2^16 – 2 = 65534 host address
IP addresses belonging to class B ranges from 128.0.x.x – 191.255.x.x.

Class C:
IP address belonging to class C are assigned to small-sized networks.

The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class C are always set to 110. The remaining 21
bits are used to determine network ID. The 8 bits of host ID is used to determine the host in any network.
The default sub-net mask for class C is 255.255.255.x. Class C has a total of:
• 2^21 = 2097152 network address

• 2^8 – 2 = 254 host address
IP addresses belonging to class C ranges from 192.0.0.x – 223.255.255.x.
Class D:
IP address belonging to class D are reserved for multi-casting. The higher order bits of the first octet of IP
addresses belonging to class D are always set to 1110. The remaining bits are for the address that interested
hosts recognize.
Class D does not posses any sub-net mask. IP addresses belonging to class D ranges from 224.0.0.0 –
239.255.255.255.
Class E:
IP addresses belonging to class E are reserved for experimental and research purposes. IP addresses of
class E ranges from 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.254. This class doesn’t have any sub-net mask. The higher

order bits of first octet of class E are always set to 1111.
Range of special IP addresses:
169.254.0.0 – 169.254.0.16 : Link local addresses

127.0.0.0 – 127.0.0.8 : Loop-back addresses
0.0.0.0 – 0.0.0.8 : used to communicate within the current network.
Rules for assigning Host ID:
Host ID’s are used to identify a host within a network. The host ID are assigned based on the following
rules:
• Within any network, the host ID must be unique to that network.

• Host ID in which all bits are set to 0 cannot be assigned because this host ID is used
to represent the network ID of the IP address.
• Host ID in which all bits are set to 1 cannot be assigned because this host ID is
reserved as a broadcast address to send packets to all the hosts present on that
particular network.
Rules for assigning Network ID:
Hosts that are located on the same physical network are identified by the network ID, as all host on the
same physical network is assigned the same network ID. The network ID is assigned based on the
following rules:
• The network ID cannot start with 127 because 127 belongs to class A address and is
reserved for internal loop-back functions.
• All bits of network ID set to 1 are reserved for use as an IP broadcast address and
therefore, cannot be used.
• All bits of network ID set to 0 are used to denote a specific host on the local network
and are not routed and therefore, aren’t used.

Summary of Classful addressing :
Problems with Classful Addressing:
The problem with this classful addressing method is that millions of class A address are wasted, many of
the class B address are wasted, whereas, number of addresses available in class C is so small that it cannot
cater the needs of organizations. Class D addresses are used for multicast routing and are therefore
available as a single block only. Class E addresses are reserved.
Since there are these problems, Classful networking was replaced by Classless Inter-Domain Routing
(CIDR) in 1993.
Observation Table
IP Address Class Net ID No of Host ID No of bit Network Address

bit in in Host ID Address Mask
Net ID
24.46.8.95
112.46.15.154
192.16.45.140
175.45.47.96
128.78.65.129

223.45.49.168
127.16.15.78
221.52.16.221
132.7.21.84
221.46.75.64
172.16.45.140
172.16.47.159
195.145.129.45
220.129.154.78
45.15.189.76
79.87.254.13
CONCLUSION

Date : ___ / ___ / 202
Experiment – 12
Aim: Study the different types of transmission media.
Transmission Media:
A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information from a source
to a destination. For example, the transmission medium for two people having a dinner conversation is the
air. The air can also be used to convey the message in a smoke signal or semaphore. For a written message,
the transmission medium might be a mail carrier, a truck, or an airplane.
data communications the definition of the information and the transmission medium is more specific.
The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic cable. The information is
usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of data from another form.
In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad categories: guided and
unguided. Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. Unguided medium
is free space.

Figure: Classification of Transmission Media
GUIDED MEDIA:
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-
pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and
contained by the physical limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper)
conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts
and transports signals in the form of light.
Twisted-Pair Cable:
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation,
twisted together, as shown in Figure.
One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference.
The receiver uses the difference between the two.
In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both
wires and create unwanted signals.
If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both wires because
they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources (e.g., one is closer and the other is farther).
This results in a difference at the receiver. By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained.
Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable:
The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded twisted-
pair (UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called shielded twisted-pair
(STP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided – mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors.
Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is
bulkier and more expensive. Figure shows the difference between UTP and STP.

Categories
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed standards to classify unshielded twisted-
pair cable into seven categories. Categories are determined by cable quality, with 1 as the lowest and 7 as
the highest. Each EIA category is suitable for specific uses.

Connectors:
The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack), as shown in Figure. The
RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in only one way.

Performance:
One way to measure the performance of twisted-pair cable is to compare attenuation versus frequency
and distance. A twisted-pair cable can pass a wide range of frequencies. However, Figure shows that with
increasing frequency, the attenuation, measured in decibels per kilometer (dB/km), sharply increases with
frequencies above 100 kHz. Note that gauge is a measure of the thickness of the wire.
Applications:
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. The local loop-
the line that connects subscribers to the central telephone office---commonly consists of unshielded twisted-
pair cables.
The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high-data-rate connections also
use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
Local-area networks, such as lOBase-T and lOOBase-T, also use twisted-pair cables.

Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted – pair cable,
in part because the two media are constructed quite differently. Instead of having two wires, coax has a
central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is,
in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The outer metallic
wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor, which completes the circuit.
This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a
plastic cover.
Coaxial Cable Standards:
Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio government (RG) ratings. Each RG number denotes a
unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and type
of the inner insulator, the construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing. Each cable
defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized function.

Coaxial Cable Connectors:
To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most common type of
connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNe), connector. Figure shows three popular types
of these connectors: the BNC connector, the BNC T connector, and the BNC terminator.
Performance:
As we did with twisted-pair cables, we can measure the performance of a coaxial cable. We notice
in Figure that the attenuation is much higher in coaxial cables than in twisted-pair cable. In other words,
although coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth, the signal weakens rapidly and requires the frequent
use of repeaters.

Applications:
Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single coaxial network could
carry 10,000 voice signals. Later it was used in digital telephone networks where a single coaxial cable could
carry digital data up to 600 Mbps. However, coaxial cable in telephone networks has largely been replaced
today with fiber-optic cable.
Cable TV networks (see Chapter 9) also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV network, the
entire network used coaxial cable. Later, however, cable TV providers replaced most of the media with fiber-
optic cable; hybrid networks use coaxial cable only at the network boundaries, near the consumer premises.
Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.
Fiber-Optic Cable:
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. Optical fibers
use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less
dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving
through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it.

Propagation Modes:
Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for propagating light along
optical channels, each requiring fiber with different physical characteristics. Multimode can be implemented
in two forms: step-index or graded-index.
Multimode: Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through the
core in different paths. How these beams move within the cable depends on the structure ofthe core, as shown
in Figure.
In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center to the edges.
A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of the core
and the cladding. At the interface, there is an abrupt change due to a lower density; this alters the angle of
the beam's motion. The term step index refers to the suddenness of this change, which contributes to the
distortion of the signal as it passes through the fiber.
A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this distortion of the signal
through the cable. The word index here refers to the index of refraction. As we saw above, the index of

refraction is related to density. A graded-index fiber, therefore, is one with varying densities. Density is
highest at the center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge.
Single-Mode: Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits
beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal. The single – mode fiber itself is manufactured
with a much smaller diameter than that of multimode fiber, and with substantially lower density (index of
refraction). The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 90° to make the
propagation of beams almost horizontal. In this case, propagation of different beams is almost identical, and
delays are negligible. All the beams arrive at the destination "together" and can be recombined with little
distortion to the signal.
Fiber Sizes
Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to the diameter of their cladding,
both expressed in micrometres. Note that the last size listed is for single-mode only. The common sizes are
shown in Table.

Cable Composition:
The outer jacket is made of either PVC or Teflon. Inside the jacket are Kevlar strands to strengthen
the cable. Kevlar is a strong material used in the fabrication of bulletproof vests. Below the Kevlar is another
plastic coating to cushion the fiber. The fiber is at the center of the cable, and it consists of cladding and core.
Fiber – Optic Cable Connectors:

There are three types of connectors for fiber-optic cables. The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used
for cable TV. It uses a push/pull locking system. The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to
networking devices. It uses a bayonet locking system and is more reliable than SC. MT-RJ is a connector that is
the same size as RJ45.

Performance:

The plot of attenuation versus wavelength in Figure shows a very interesting phenomenon in fiber-
optic cable. Attenuation is flatter than in the case of twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable. The performance
is such that we need fewer (actually 10 times less) repeaters when we use fiber-optic cable.
Applications:
Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is cost-effective.
Today, with wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), we can transfer data at a rate of 1600 Gbps.
Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial cable, thus creating a hybrid
network. Optical fiber provides the backbone structure while coaxial cable provides the connection to the
user premises.
Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and 1000Base-X also use fiber-
optic cable.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber:
Advantages Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted – pair or coaxial).
Higher bandwidth. Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths (and hence data
rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable. Currently, data rates and bandwidth utilization over fiber-
optic cable are limited not by the medium but by the signal generation and reception technology available.
Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than that of other
guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need repeaters every 5 km for
coaxial or twisted-pair cable.
Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber-optic cables.
Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than copper.
Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
Greater immunity to tapping. Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping than copper cables.
Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.
Disadvantages There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.
Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its installation and
maintenance require expertise that is not yet available everywhere.
Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need bidirectional

communication, two fibers are needed.
Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other guided media.

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS:
Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast through free
space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
Figure shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to 900 THz, used for
wireless communication.
Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways: ground propagation, sky
propagation, and line-of-sight propagation.
In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the
earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the transmitting antenna and follow the
curvature of the planet. Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The greater the power, the
greater the distance. In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere
where they are reflected back to earth. This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower
output power.
In line-or-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly
from antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional, facing each other, and either tall enough or close
enough together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth. Line-of-sight propagation is tricky because
radio transmissions cannot be completely focused.

The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio waves and microwaves is divided into eight
ranges, called bands, each regulated by government authorities. These bands are rated from very low frequency
(VLF) to extremely high frequency (EHF).
We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups: radio waves, microwaves, and infrared
waves.
Radio Waves:
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio
waves; waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves. However, the
behaviour of the waves, rather than the frequencies, is a better criterion for classification.
Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they
are propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.

A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna. The omnidirectional property
has a disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by
another antenna that may send signals using the same frequency or band. Radio waves, particularly those
waves that
propagate in the sky mode, can travel long distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for
long-distance broadcasting such as AM radio.
Omnidirectional Antenna:
Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all directions. Based on the
wavelength, strength, and the purpose of transmission, we can have several types of antennas.
Applications:
The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting, in which there is
one sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are
examples of multicasting.
Microwaves:
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves. Microwaves are
unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be narrowly focused. This means that the
sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair
of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas. The following describes
some characteristics of microwave propagation:
Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas need to be in direct
sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall. The curvature of the earth as well as other
blocking obstacles do not allow two short towers to communicate by using microwaves. Repeaters are often
needed for long distance communication.

Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a disadvantage if
receivers are inside buildings.
The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore wider subbands can be assigned, and a
high data rate is possible
Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.
Unidirectional Antenna:
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction. Two types of antennas are used
for microwave communications: the parabolic dish and the horn.
A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geometry of a parabola: Every line parallel to the line of symmetry (line
of sight) reflects off the curve at angles such that all the lines intersect in a common point called the focus. The
parabolic dish works as a funnel, catching a wide range of waves and directing them to a common point. In this
way, more of the signal is recovered than would be possible with a single-point receiver.
Outgoing transmissions are broadcast through a horn aimed at the dish. The microwaves hit the dish and are
deflected outward in a reversal of the receipt path.
Applications:
Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when unicast (one-to-one) communication is
needed between the sender and the receiver.
Infrared:
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used
for short-range communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This
advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and another; a short-range communication
system in one room cannot be affected by another system in the next room. When we use our infrared remote
control, we do not interfere with the use of the remote by our neighbours. However, this same characteristic
makes infrared signals useless for long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside
a building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.
Applications:
Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-of-sight propagation.

The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data transmission. Such a wide bandwidth can
be used to transmit digital data with a very high data rate. The Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an association
for sponsoring the use of infrared waves, has established standards for using these signals for communication
between devices such as keyboards, mice, PCs, and printers. For example, some manufacturers provide a special
port called the IrDA port that allows a wireless keyboard to communicate with a PC. The standard originally
defined a data rate of 75 kbps for a distance up to 8 m. The recent standard defines a data rate of 4 Mbps.
CONCLUSION
QUESTIONS:
1. Which of the following is not a type of guided or wired communication channel?

1. Twisted Pair
2. Coaxial
3. Fibre Optic
4. WiMax
2. Which of the following is not a type of unguided or wireless communications channel?
1. Microwave
2. Radiowave
3. Ethernet
4. Sattelite
3. In the __________ cables, the cables are twisted together in pairs of two wires wrapped together in helix
form.
4. The twisted-pair cables provide high-speed data transmission compared to other cables. (True/False)
5. _____________ is a disturbance caused by the electric or magnetic fields of one
telecommunication signal affecting a signal in an adjacent circuit.
6. Which one of the following is one of the types of twisted pair cable?
1. SMTP
2. UTP
3. MTP
4. SUTP
7. _____________ cables are mostly used in telephone lines , DSL lines, and LAN.
8. The ethernet cables offer data transmission speed ranging from 10 Mbps to 1000 Mbps. (True/False)
9. Which of the following cable consist of a solid wire core surrounded by one or more foil or wire shields?
1. Ethernet Cables
2. Coaxial Cables
3. Fibre Optic Cables
4. Power Cable
10. The ___________ cables are capable of carries 10,000 voice signals, digital telephone network with 600
Mbps data transfer rates, in cable TVs, ethernet LANs and MANs.

11. The coaxial cables are best fitted in LANs. (True/False)
12. The _____________ cables use frequency modulation for data transfer.
13. Which of the following is not a part of fibre optic cable?
1. The cladding
2. The Core
3. Foil or Shield
4. The proactive coating
14. The _____________ types of cables are very exepensive.
15. Unguided media refers to wireless communication channels. (True/False)
16. The ____________ type of unguided media is used for long distance network.
17. Which of the following wireless medium consists of a parabolic antena mounted on towers?
1. Sattelite
2. Radiowave
3. Microwave
4. Infrared
18. The ____________ type of unguided media use Radio Frequency Modulation for data transmission.
19. The ______________ is considered as a relay system of microwave.
20. The ___________ type of unguided media generally found in homes which uses special kinds of light for
data transmission with a point to point attachment.
21. The ____________ unguided media requires light-of-sight.
22. Bluetooth cannot penetrate the walls. (True/False)

Date : ___ / ___ / 202
Experiment – 13
Aim: To Connect the computers in Local Area Network.
Procedure:
❖ On the host computer
On the host computer, follow these steps to share the Internet connection:
1. Log on to the host computer as Administrator or as Owner.
2. Click Start, and then click Control Panel.
3. Click Network and Internet Connections.
4. Click Network Connections.
5. Right-click the connection that you use to connect to the Internet. For example, if you
connect to the Internet by using a modem, right-click the connection that you want under
Dial-up / other network available.
6. Click Properties.
7. Click the Advanced tab.
8. Under Internet Connection Sharing, select the Allow other network users to connect
through this computer's Internet connection check box.
9. If you are sharing a dial-up Internet connection, select the Establish a dial-up connection
whenever a computer on my network attempts to access the Internet check box if you
want to permit your computer to automatically connect to the Internet.
10. Click OK. You receive the following message:
When Internet Connection Sharing is enabled, your LAN adapter will be set to use IP address
192.168.0.1. Your computer may lose connectivity with other computers on your network. If

these other computers have static IP addresses, it is a good idea to set them to obtain their IP
addresses automatically. Are you sure you want to enable Internet Connection Sharing?
11. Click Yes.
The connection to the Internet is shared to other computers on the local area network (LAN).
The network adapter that is connected to the LAN is configured with a static IP address of
192.168.0.1 and a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0
❖ On the client computer
To connect to the Internet by using the shared connection, you must confirm the LAN adapter
IP configuration, and then configure the client computer. To confirm the LAN adapter IP
configuration, follow these steps:
1. Log on to the client computer as Administrator or as Owner.
2. Click Start, and then click Control Panel.
3. Click Network and Internet Connections.
4. Click Network Connections.
5. Right-click Local Area Connection and then click Properties.
6. Click the General tab, click Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) in the connection uses the
following items list, and then click Properties.
7. In the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Properties dialog box, click Obtain an IP address
automatically (if it is not already selected), and then click OK.
Note: You can also assign a unique static IP address in the range of 192.168.0.2 to
192.168.0.254. For example, you can assign the following static IP address, subnet mask, and
default gateway:
8. IP Address 192.168.31.202

9. Subnet mask 255.255.255.0
10. Default gateway 192.168.31.1
11. In the Local Area Connection Properties dialog box, click OK.
12. Quit Control Panel.
CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONS:
1. A LAN (Local Area Network) can cover a distance of ___ KM.

A) 2
B) 8
C) 16
D) 32
2. What is internet?
a) a single network
b) a vast collection of different networks
c) interconnection of local area networks
d) interconnection of wide area networks
3. To join the internet, the computer has to be connected to a _________

a) internet architecture board
b) internet society
c) internet service provider
d) different computer
4. Internet access by transmitting digital data over the wires of a local telephone network is provided
by _______
a) leased line
b) digital subscriber line
c) digital signal line
d) digital leased line
5. ISP exchanges internet traffic between their networks by __________

a) internet exchange point
b) subscriber end point

c) isp end point
d) internet end point
6. Which of the following protocols is used in the internet?

a) HTTP
b) DHCP
c) DNS
d) DNS, HTTP and DNS
7. Ethernet frame consists of ____________

a) MAC address
b) IP address
c) Default mask
d) Network address
8. MAC address is of ___________

a) 24 bits
b) 36 bits
c) 42 bits
d) 48 bits
9. High speed ethernet works on _________

a) coaxial cable
b) twisted pair cable
c) optical fiber
d) unshielded twisted pair cable
10. _____________ allows LAN users to share computer programs and data.
a) Communication server
b) Print server
c) File server
d) Network
11. With respect to physical media, STP cables stands for _________
a) Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
b) Spanning Tree Protocol Cable
c) Static Transport Protocol Cable
d) Shielded Two Power Cable
12. A standalone program that has been modified to work on a LAN by including concurrency
controls such as file and record locking is an example of ___________
a) LAN intrinsic software
b) LAN aware software
c) Groupware
d) LAN ignorant software

13. The __________ portion of LAN management software restricts access, records user activities
and audit data, etc.
a) Configuration management
b) Security management
c) Performance management
d) Recovery management
14. What is the max length of the Shielded twisted pair cable?
a) 100 ft
b) 200 ft
c) 100 m
d) 200 m
15. What is the max data transfer rate of STP cables?

a) 10 Mbps
b) 100 Mbps
c) 1000 Mbps
d) 10000 Mbps
16. Which connector does the STP cable use?

a) BNC
b) RJ-11
c) RJ-45
d) RJ-69
17. What is the max data transfer rate for optical fiber cable?
a) 10 Mbps
b) 100 Mbps
c) 1000 Mbps
d) 10000 Mbps

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Government polytechnic for girls,

3341601 INFORMATION COMMUNICATION

Date: ____________________ HOD_____________ Faculty________________

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS FOR WRITING THE FAIR RECORD

On the right side page of the record following has to be written:

GENERAL RULES FOR PERSONAL SAFETY

TO PROTECT EQUIPMENT AND MINIMIZE MAINTENANCE:

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

Figure 3: Block Diagram of AmplitudeModulation

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

Sr. No. AF Signal RF Signal Vmax Vmin Modulation

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

[A] INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS

Local area network

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

Personal area network

Home area network

Wide area network

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

Metropolitan area network

Enterprise private network

Virtual private network

Global area network

[C] NETWORK TOPOLOGY

[D] The OSI Reference Model

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

Fig.. The OSI reference model.

The Physical Layer

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

The Data Link Layer

The Network Layer

The Transport Layer

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

The Session Layer

The Presentation Layer

The Application Layer

[E] THE TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

The Internet Layer

Fig.. The TCP/IP reference model.

The Application Layer

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

The Host-to-Network Layer

A Comparison of the OSI and TCP Reference Models

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

Q. 1 Calculate following if the total number of PC in mesh topology is 19.

1. No of physical link required.

2. No of I/O port required in each PC.

Q. 2 Differentiate following topologies

1. Mesh v/s Star

2. Mesh v/s Ring

3. Star v/s Ring

4. Mesh v/s Bus

5. Star v/s Bus

Q. 4 Compare OSI reference model and TCP/IP model.

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

IT Dept, GPG, Surat DYV

Date: ______________ HOD_ Faculty__________