NASA CR-174923

VOLUME II
LIGHTWEIGHT TWO-STROKE CYCLE AIRCRAFT DIESEL
ENGINE TECHN3LOGY ENABLEMENT PROGRAM

FINAL REPORT

P.D. fRtEW, 3.6. BERENYI, A.P. BROUWERS

M.L. MOYMIHAN

PREPAREDFOR
NATIONAL AERONAUTIC3 AND SPACE a,OMINISTRATION
NASA LEWIS RISLEARCH C E N T I R

CONTRACT NAS3-2221S

National Aermdutics
and Space Administration

Sciontltic and Technical

Information Onice
 LIGHTWLICHT mO-STROKE CYCLE AIRCRAFT
! DLESEL ENGINE TECHNOLOGY ENABLEMENT PROCRAM
1
1 August, 1985
6 PYrormW ~ l m t o Caaa
n
1
I' 7 &mmW
505-40-62
aPrromnnoGgurp.tmRgonNO
I
j P. D. FREEN, S. c. BERENYI, and A. P. BPOUWEBS,
1 M. E. MOYNIHAN - t
io. w& mn (1r0 i
I

1l.CannorOrmna
TELEDYNE CONTINENTAL MOTORS
76 GETTY STREET -
NAS 3 222 18 I

XIISKEGON, HICHICAN 49442

- '
ia tmd ~ o o n m apros c0-a
Contract Report i
-s@umw~*orrN.mmo*Ob.C1
12/79 -
8/85 1
'4rIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTBATION
WASHINGTON D.C. 20546
II r*Spocl.arng*g.n).-
NASA LEWIS BESEACH C E N E R i
I
I
+15. suoomnq N a u
!
I
FINAL REPORT. PROJECT M N A G E R , JOHN J. MCFADDEN, S U ENGINE PROPULSION I
BRANCE, NASA-LEWIS RESEARCH CENTER, CLEVELAND, Oh10 I
I 1
I
iAo8mc:
I I
An experimental Single Cylinder Test Engine Program vas conducted to confirm the j
analytically projected performonce of a two-stroke cycle diesel engine for aircraft !
applications. The test engine delivered 78kW indicated power from 1007cc dis- j
placement, operating at 35G3 RPM on Schnuerle loop scavenged two-stroke cycle. I
I
Testing confirmed the ability of a proposed 4-cylinder version of such an engine 1
I to reach the target pomer at altitude, in a highly turbocharged configuration.
The experimental program defined all necessary parameters to permita detailed
t design of a multicylinder engine for eventual flight applications; including
injection system requirement, turbocharging, heat rejcc:ion, breathing, scavenging,
i and i
I
structural requirements.
i
I The multicylinder engine concept is configured to operate vith an augmented
! turbocharger, but vith no primary scavenge blover. The test program vas oriented I:
I to provide a balanced turbocharger compressor to turbine pcver balance without
an auxiliary scavenging system. Engine cylinder heat rejection to the ambient
air has been significantly reduced and the minimum overall turbocharger efficiency
I
i
required is within the range of commercially available turbochargers.

Analytical studies and finite element modeling was made of insulated configurations 1
i
I
1
of the engine -
including both ceramic and metallic versions. A second generation 1

10. SICumr c l u r f . (of ma noon) 8 S W m Y -1. (

O t
m we.) 21. No. of mgea 9. PnC.' I

UNCLASSIFIED L'NCLASSI F I D I
 VOLUME I1

This final r e p o r t is s u b d i v i d e d i n t o three s p e c i f i c volumes.

yolu_ple I contains
’ a e followinca m a t e r i a l ;

0 Lists Pigu res, Tables, a n d

of Appendicies; and
Metric System C o n v e r s i o n Table.

0 S e c t i o n 1.0 Summary

0 S e c t i o n 2.0 I n t r o d u c t i o n

0 S e c t i o n 3.0 E n g i n e Design and C y c l e A n a l y s i s

Volume I1 of t h e r e p o r t covers:

0 Lists of
F i g u r e s , T a b l e s , and Appendicies; and
Metric System C o n v e r s i o n Table.

e S e c t i o n 4.0 Development T e s t i n g

a S e c t i o n 5.0 Multicylinder Performance Projections

0 S e c t i o n 6.0 C o n c l u s i o n s

0 S e c t i o n 7.0 Recommendations

@ S e c t i o n 8.0 References

Volume I11 of t h e r e p o r t covers:

0 Lists of P i g u r e s , Tables, a n d Appendicies; and

Wetric System C o n v e r s i o n Table.

0 S e c t i o n 9.0 A p p e n d i c i e s

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE NUMBLR
VOLUME

. .1.0 U S ............................................. 1

2.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................ 2

2.1 .CKGR(3UM) ................................. 2
2.2 PREVIOUS AIRCRAFT DIESEL ENGINES ........... 3
2.3 SCOPE OF WORK & PROGRAM :.LAN ............... 3
2.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS PR(MECT ............... 7
3.0 ENGINE DESIGN h A N .qLYSIS........................
CYCLE 9
3.1 PR&IMINARY DESIGN h CYCLE ANALYSIS ........ Y
3.2 MULTJCYLINDER CYCLE SIMULATION AND ......... 11
SINGLE CYLINDER TEST ENGINE DESIGN
3.2.1 CYCLE SIMULATION ........................... 11
3.2.1.1 PERFORMANCE A.YSIS ....................... 12
3.2.1.1.1 PORT DESIGN ................................ 12
3.2.1.1.2 CYCLE CALCULATIONS ......................... 12
3.2.1.2 DISCUSSIOK OF CYCLE SIMULATION RESULTS ..... 14
3.2.1.3 CYCLE CALCULATIONS ......................... 15
3.2.2 FIRST GENERATION SCTE DESIGN. .............. 18
3.2.2.1 CYLINDER ASSEMBLY .......................... 18
3.2.2.2 COMBUSTION CHAMBER INSERT .................. 19
...
3 2 2 3 MANIFOLD MUFF .............................. 20
3.2.2.4 CYLINDER TO CRANKCASE ADAPTER .............. 20
3.2.2.5 FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM ...................... 20
3.2.2.6 PISTON AND PISTON RINGS .................... 21
3.2.2.4 CONNECTING ROD ............................. 21
3.2.2.8 CRANKSHAFT... .............................. 21
3.2.2.9 LABECO TEST BASE ........................... 22
ii
 PAGE NUMBER
YoLUME I (CONTINUED)
3.3 CYCLE SIMULATION COMPUTER PROGRAM......... 22
3.3.1 U K S T CYCLE ANALYSIS DESCRIPTION .......... 22
3.3.2 rNSOLATXON EFFECTS ........................ 22
3.3.3 CGFIBUSTXON EFFECTS ........................ 25
3.3.4 MANIFOLD EFFECTS .......................... 26
3.3.5 PORT TIMING OPTIMIZATXON .................. 29
3.3.6 REED VALVE EVALUATION ..................... 30
3.3.7 CONCLUSIONS OF CYCLE ANALYSIS STUDIES .....31
3.4 FUEL INJECTION ............................ 32
3.4.1 INJECTION REQUIREMENTS .................... 32
3.4.2 BOSCH APF INJECTION SYSTEM ................ 33
3.4.3 CAE-X INJECTION SYSTEM .................... 34
3.4.4 BENDIX INJECTIONME.YS ................... 34
3.5 FINITE ELEMENT THERMAL AND ............... 36
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
3.6 SECOND GENERATION SINGLE CYLINDER ......... 37
TEST ENGINE
3.6.1 DESIGN GOALS .............................. 37
3.6.2 FINITE ELEMENT THERMAL AND STRUCTURAL ..... 38
ANALYSIS OF SECOND GENERATION ENGINE
3.6.3 SUMMARY OF CERAMIC INSULATED DESIGNS ...... 39

4.0 DEVELOPMENT TESTING .................................. 1

4.1 TEST FACILITIES ........................... 1
4.1.1 TEST CELL DESCRIPTION ..................... 1
4.1.2 INSTRUMENTATION ........................... 1
4.1.3 MEASUREMENT PRECISION ..................... 7
4.1.4 DATA REDUCTION .G
O
R
P .................... 7
4.2 POWER COMPONENT DEVELOPMENT ............... 7
4.2.1 CONFIGURATIONS 1. 2. AND 3 ................ 7
(ALULMINUM PISTON. ORIGINAL MANIFOLD.
BOSCH APF INJECTION PUMP)

iii
 PAGE NUMBER
1
4.2.2 CONFIGURATION 4.~......................... 8
(ALUMINUM PISTON, ORIGINAL MANIFOLD,
CAE-X INJECTION PUMP)
4.2.3 CONFIGURATION 5 AND 6 . 0 . . ~ . 0 0 0 . . 0 0 ~ 0 . . . . ~ 0 12
(STEEL CAPPED ALUMINUM PISTON, CAE-X
INJECTION PUMP, ORIGINAL MANIFOLD)
4.2.4 CONFIGURATION 7, 8 AND 9.................. 13
(CAST IRON PISTON, CAE-X INJECTION
PUMP, NEW INTAKE MANIFOLD)
4.2.5 CONFIGURATION 10.....................~..~. 15
(BIG PORT CYLINDER, CLOSE COUPLED
CAE-X INJECTION PUMP, STAINLESS
CAPPED' CAST IRON PISTON, NEW
INTAKE MANIFOLD)
402.6 CONFIGURATION l! ANTI 12................... 16
(OPTIMUM PORTED CYLINDER CLOSE
COUPLED CAE-X PUMP, STAINLESS CAPPED,
CAST IRON PISTON, NEW INTAKE MANIFOLD)
4.2.7 OPTIMUM HARDWARE CONFIGURATJONS........... 18
4.3 INJECTION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE.............. 19
4.3.1 BOSCH APF PUMP..o.o..o..o.....ooomoooooooo 19
4.3,2 CAE-X INJECTION SYSTEM.................... 20
4.3.3 ELECTRONICALLY CONTROLLED HIGH............ 21
PRESSURE FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
4.3.4 FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS.................... 21
SELECTION SUMMARY
4.4 ENGINE PERFORMANCE................^....... 22
4.4.1 ENGINE PERFORMANCE TESTING................ 22
WITH CONFIGURATIONS 1, 2, AND 3 0
4.4.2 CONFIGURATIONS 4 THROUGH 9 ~ 0 0 0 0 ~ . 0 ~ ~ 25
0 ~ ~ ~ 0 0

4.4.3 CONFIGURATIONS 1 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 . . 0 ~ 0 ~ 0 . 0 0 . . 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 . 26
4.4.4 CONFIGURATIONS 11 AND 120u.000...0..0..0.. 27
4.4.5 ENGINE PERFORMANCE SUMMARY..ooom........o. 28

iv
VOLUME I11

.
9 0 APPENDICES

V
 LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE NUMBEE

3.1.2 SCHEMATIC 2-STROKE ENGINE W I T E ~ o o o ~ o o o o o ~ o o o o ~ o43o o

INDEPENDENT TURBO LOOP
3.103 COMPARISON OF SCHNUERLE AND C U R T f S o o o ~ o ~ o o o o ~ ~ o44o o
LOOP SCAVENGE SYSTEMS
3.201 GEOMETRICAL PORT AREAS VERSUS CRANK ANGLEo.oo000. 45

3.202 FLOW COEFFICIENTS VERSUS CRANK ENGINE............ 46

3.i.3 EFFECT OF A/F ON qtc, TURBOCHARGER.............. 47
INLET TEMPERATURE, AND ISFC
3.2.4 EFFECT OF SCAVENGE RATIO ON SCR'iENGE.,...
EFFICIENCY FOR LOOP SCAVENGEXI ENGINE
..,..... 48
3.2.5 HIGH PRESSURE DIAGRAM F@R TAXE-dFF POWER......... 49
3.2.6 LOW F R E S S C X DIAGRAM FOR TAKE-OFF POWER.......... 50
3.2.7 EXCd P R E S 3 U U DIAGRAM FOR FULLo..o..o~..o~o.o.~.o 51
PO'dER CRUISE
3.2.8 LOW PRESSURE DIAGRAM F03 FULL........^........... 52
POWER CRUISE
3.2.s HIGH PRESSURE DIAGRAM FOR ECO~OMY~.........o.ooo. 53
CRUISE POWER
3.2.10 LO% PFESSURE PIAGRAM FOR ECONOMY................. 54
CRUILZ POWER
3.2.11 FIRST GENERATION SINGLE CYLINDER
TEST ENGINE (SCTE)
-............... 55
3.2.12 LAYOUT OF SCTE CYLINDER COMPONENTS............... 56

302.15 CYLINDER PORTING 59

A R R A N G E M E N T ~ o o o o ~ o ~ o ~ ~ ~ o o ~ o ~ o o o ~

3.2.16 COMBUSTION BOWL INSERTI...................e....o. 60

3.3.1 TEMPERTURE ZONES USED FOR THERMAL MODEL.ooooo.o.0 61

vi
 L I S T OF FIGURES (2)
PAGE NU MBER
VOLUME I (CCiJT I NUED)
303.2 SEAT RELEASE CURVE ASSUWD I N INITIAL............ 62
CYCLE ANALYSIS

3.3.3 COMPUTER PREDICTED EFFECT OF COMPONENT........... 63

INSULATION AT POWER CRUISE

3.3.4 COMPUTER PREDICTED EFFECTS OF ENGINE............. 64

INSULATION -
TAKE-OFF POWER

3'3.5 COMPUTER PREDICTED ENGINE PERF'ORMANCE............ 65

VERSUS AVERAGE CHAMBER WALL TEMFERATURE
3.3.6 HEAT REJECTION AS A FUNCTION OF AVERAGE.......... 66
CHAMBER WALL TEXPERATURE FOR FOUR LOAD
POINTS AT 3500 R P M

3.3.7 ABSOLUTE HEAT REJECTION AS A FUNCTION............ 67

OF AVERAGE CHAMBER WALL TEMPERATURE AT
FOUR LOAD POINTS AT 3500 .RPM

3.3.8 COMPUTER PREDICTED TURBOCHARGER POWER............ 68

BALANCE COMPARISON VERSUS HEAT LOSS AT
TARE-OFF POWER -
SEA LEVEL
3.3.9 COMPUTER PREDICTFO TURBOCHARGER POWER............ 69
BALANCE COMPARISON VERSUS HEAT LOSS AT
POWER CRUISE AT 7800 METERS ALTITUDE

3.3.10 COMPUTER PREDICTED TURBOCHAqGER POWER............ 70

BALANCE COMPARISON VERSUS H m T LOSS AT
50% POWER AT 7800 METERS ALTITUDE
3.3.11 COMPUTER PREDICTED TURBOCHARGER POWER............ 71
BALANCE COMPARISON VERSUS HEAT LOSS AT
25% POWER AT 7800 METERS ALTITUDE
3.3.12 COMPUTER PREDICTED EFFECT OF COMBUSTION.....,.... 72
DURATION ON THERMAL EFFICIENCY AND PEAK
CYLINDER PRESSERE 3 5 0 0 RPM TAKE-OFF POWER

3.3.i3 COMPUTER ? h - J I C T E D EFFECT OF COMBUSTION.

TIMING ON THERMAL EFFICIENCY AND PEAK
......... 73
CYLiNDEH PRESSURE 3500 RPM TAKE-OFF POWER

3.3014 COMPUTER PREDICTED EFFECT OF EFFECTIVE........... 74

COMPRESSION RATIO ON THERMAL E F F I C I E X Y
AND PEAK CYLINDER PRESSURE 3500 RPM
TAKE-OFF POWER

3.3.15 MASS FLOW RATE/CYLINEER PRESSURE RATIO........... 75

VERSUS MANIFOLD AREA

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES (3)
Eiiwamm
OLUMF: I (CONTINUED)
z.3.16 TRAPPED MASS/CYLINDER PRESSURE RATIO.............. 76
VERSUS MANIFOLD AREA
3.3.17 AIR-FUEL RATIO VERSUS CYLINDER PRESSURE......e.eo. 77
RATIO FOR THE OPTIMIZED MANIFOLDING
CONFIGURATION
3.3.18 EXPERIMENTAL VERSUS PREDfCTED INLET.........c..... 78
M N I F O L D PRESSURE AT ?RESSURE TRANSDUCER
LOCAT ION
3.3.19 EXPERIMENTAL VSRSUS PREDICTED EXHAUST............. 79
MANIFOLD PRESSURE AT PRESSURE T M N S D U C E R
LOCATION
3.3.20 PORT TIMING OPTIMIZATION AT TAKE-OFF.............. 80
POWER CONDITION
3.3.21 PORT TIMING OPTIMIZATION AT POWER................. 81
CRUISE CONDITION
3.3.22 PORT TIMING VERSUS ............................... b2
3.3.23 AIR FUEL RATIO VERSUS CYLINDER PRESSURE........... 83
RATIO FOR THE OPTIMIZED LdRTING AND
MANIFOLDING CONFIGURATION
3.3.24 EFFECT OF REED VALVES ON CYLINDER................. 84
AIRFLOW AT TAKE-OFF POWER (SAME TIMING
FOR INTAKE AND EXHAUST PORTS)
3.3.25 PREDICTED PERFORMANCE FOR OPTIMIZED............... 85
CONFIGURATION
3.3.26 TEMPERATURE INPUTS AND PREDICTED HEAT............. 87
LOSS THROUGH CYLINDER ZONES AT TAKE-OFF POWER
3.4.1 FUEL INJECTION CAMSHAFT PROFILE..........O........ 88
3.4.2 CAE-X PUMP CROSS SECTION.......................... 89
3.4.3 CAMSAAFT PROFILE, VELOCITY, AND................... 90
ACCELERATION FOR AVCR-1360 TYPE CAM
3.4.4 ADVANCE MECHANISM FOR CAE-X PGMP.O................ 91
(SCTE-CONFIGURATION)
3.4.5 COOLED INJECTION NOZZLE HOLDER AND ADAPTER........ 92
3.4.6 BENDIX DCX-3-28 FUEL INJECTOR..................... 93

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES (4)
PAGE NUMRER
ME I !CONTINUEDl
3.4.7 FUEL ZNJECTOR EVENTS WITH A BENDIXooo~oooooooooo~9 4
DCX-3-28 INZECTOR
3.408 FUEL INJECTION CONTROLLER BLOCK DIAGRAM.......... 35
FOR BEhIIX DCX-3-28 SYSTEM
~.6. SECOND GENERATION SINGLE CYLINDERoooooo...o...ooo 96
TEST ENGINE --.COOLEDCONFIGURATION
3.6.2 SECOND GENERATION SINGLE C Y L I N D E R o 97
o o ~ o o o o ~ o ~ o ~ ~ ~ o
TEST ENGINE -INSULATED CONFIGURATION

VOLUME I1
4.1.1 ENGINE TEST CELL 41
L A Y O U T o ~ ~ ~ o o o o ~ ~ o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ~

4.1.2 SCTE TEST CELL CONTROL 42

R O O M o ~ o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ~ o ~

4.1.3 TEST CELL 3IL SUPPLY 43

S Y S T E M o ~ o ~ ~ o o o o o o ~ o ~ o o o ~ o ~ o o

4.1.4 TEST CELL FUEL....r.oo~o~ooMETSY 44

4.1.5 TEST CELL COMBUSTION AIR SUPPLY SYSTEM.....-00.0. 45
4.1.6 CYLINDER TEERMGCOUPLE 46
L O C A T I O N ~ o o o o o o o o o ~ o o ~ ~ ~ o ~ o

4.1.7 INJECTOR ASSEMBLY AND ~ R 47

E S S U R E o o o o o o o o o o o o o ~ ~ o o o ~
TRANSDUCER INSTALLATION
4.1.8 INJECTOR NOZZLE HOLDER ASSEMBLY ANDo.oooo.o.oom0. 48
COMBUSTION 2OWL INSERT
4.1.9 IMPACT SAMPLING V U V E INLTALLATfON............... 49
4.1.10 COMPOSITION OF EXHAUST GASES FROM................ 49
DIESEL AND SPARK IGNITION ENGINES
4.1.11 CHECK VALVE IN EXEAUST SAMPLING ASSEMBLY......... 50
4.1.12 EXHAUST SAMPLING VALVE INSTALLED IN.ooe.o..o...o. 51
INTAKE/EXHAUST MUFF
4.1.13 SAMPLE INPUT DATA FOR DATA REDUCTION.o..o....o.o. 52
PROGRAM
4.1014 SAMPLE OUTPUT DATA FROM DATA R E D U C T I O N ~ o ~ ~ o o o o ~53o o
PROGRAM
402.1 POWER COMPONEIJTS FOR M R C R A F T ENGINE (SCTE)...... 54
4.2.2 LABEC3 ENGINE TEST BASE FOR AIRCRAFT.oooo..o.oo.. 55
ENGINE (SCTE)

ix
VOLUME 11 (CQ
4.2.3

4.2.4
l!t€uuu
LIST OF FIGURES (51

..... 56
CYLINDEF. ASSEMBLY ‘‘OR AIRCRAFT ENGINE (SCTE)
INITIAL INTAKE MANIFOLD MUFF CONFIGURATION .......
.57
FOR AIRCRAFT ENGINE (SCTE)
4.2.5 ASSEMBLED FIRST GENERATION SINGLE CYLINDER ....... 58
TEST ENGINE (SCTE)
4.2.6 ENGINE CONFIGURATION WITH CAE-X PUMP ............. 59
4.2.7 INTAKE MANIFOLD MODIFICATION FOR ................. 60
CONFIGURATION 4

4.2.8 CONNECTING ROD FOR CONFIGURATION ............... 61

4

4.2.9 PISTON SKIRT WITH KNURLING FOR ................... 62

LUBRICANT RETENTION
4.2.10 PISTON PROFILE DEVELOPED TOR ALUMINUM
PISTON
............ 63
4.2.11 SCUFFEI? PISTON REMOVED FROM CONFIGURATION 4 ...... 54

4.2.12 CONNECTING ROD REMOVED FROM CONFIGURATION ...... 65

4

4.2.13 STEEL CAPPED ALUMINUM PISTON ASSEMBLY. ........... 66

4.2.16 ALUMINUM PISTON AND SCREWED ON ST52L CAP ......... 67
4.2.- COMBUSTION CHAMBER AND INJECTION NOZlLE .......... 68
COMPONENTS
4.2.16 ASSEMBLED COMBUSTION CHAMBER
INJECTION NOZZLE
AM............... 69
4.2.17 EFFECT OF IMPROPER GROOVE ANGLL ON ............... 75
RING POSITION
4.2.18 DUCTILE IRON .ISTONS ............................. 71
FOR CONFIGURATIONS 6. 7 AND 8
4.2.19 COMBUSTION CHAMBER ‘OR USE WITH .................. 72
DOMED PISTON - CONFIGURATIONS 7. 8AND 9

402.20 “BOKOR” FINISH OF PISTON SKIRT ................... 73

FOR OIL RETENTION
4.2021 PISTON PROFILE DEVELO2ED FOR CAST ................ 74
IRON PISTON
4.2.22 MANIFOLD CONFIGURATION FOR CONFIGURATION ......... 75
10 THROUGB 12

x
 LIST OF 'IGORES (6)
PAGE NUMBER
Y0LUr.E
4.2.23
-
TI (CONTINUED 1
NEN CONNECTING ROD WITE "V" DRILLED.............. 76
3IL SUPPLY
4.2.24 INTERIOR VIEW OF CYLINDER AF'TER 60 HOURS......... 77
OP RUNKING ON CCNFIGURATION 10
4.2.25 AIR GAP INSULATED PISTON AND COMBUSTION.......... 78
BOWL ASSEMBLED IN CYLINDER
4.2.26
4.2.27 INSIDE DIAMETER PROFILE TRACE OF CYLINDER,....... 80
6.35 MH ABOVL FGRTS
4.2.28 INSIDE DIAMETER PROFILE TRACE OF................. 81
CYLlNDER NO. 3, 6.35 M M BELOW PORTS
4.3.1 INTEXTION CHARACTERISTICS FOR CAE-X.............. 82
PCMP AT 1325 PUMP RPM
4.3.2 INJECTION CHARACTERISTICS FOR CAE-X.............. 83
PUMP AT 1750 PUMP RPM
4.3.3 CAE-X PUMP WITE A 71.1 CM INJECTION..........,... 84
LINE AS INSTALLED ON TEE SCTE
4.3.4 CAE-X PUMP WITE A 17.8 CM INJECTION.............. 85
LINE AS INSTALLED ON TEE SCTE
4.3.5 INJECTION DURATION VERSUS INJE~TED............... 86
VOLUME FOR TEREE INJECTION PUMP
CONFIGURATIONS TESTED AT 3500 RPM
4.3.6 IGNITION c s m y VERSUS INJECT VOLUME.............. 87
FOR TEREE PUME CONFIGURATION AT 3500 RPM

4.3.7 DYNAMIC PRESSURE A3D NEEDLE LIFT..O.......O...... 88

C U B A C T E R I STICS
4.4.;. CGMPARISOL OF @VERALL FLOW COEFFICIENTS.......... 91
USING ORIGINAL MANIFOLD AT 3500 R P M
4.4.2 CCMPAR'SON OF OVERALL FLOW COEFFICIE:~.'S.......... 92
USING ORIGINAL MANIFOLD AT 2650 RPh
404.3 ENGINE FERFORMANCE VERS'JS ENGINE SPZSD........... 93
FOR CYLLNt.Z!? NO. 1 FOR CONFIGURATIONS
1, 2 P*ND 3
4.4.4

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES ( 7 )
PAGE NU MBER

CYLINDER 3 9T 3500 RPM FOR CONFIGURATION 4

4.4.6 PISTON TOP CONFIGURATIONS EVALUATED.............. 97
FOR PORT FLOW COEFFICIENTS
4.4.7 INTAKE PORT FLOW COEFFICIENT..................... 98
4.4.8 EXHAUST PORT FLOW COEFFICIENT.......,.......^.... 99
4.4.9 AVERAGE OVERALL PORT FLOW COEFFICIENT............lOO
WITH OPTIMIZED MANIFOLDING A T 3500 RPM
4.4.10 AVERAGE OVERALL PORT FLOW COEFFICIENT............100
WITH OPTIMIZED MANIFOLDING A T 2650 RPM
4.4.11

4.4.12 DYNAMIC EXHAUST MANIFOLD PRESSURE............... 102

A T 3500 RPM
4.4.13 ENGINE PERFORMANCE FOR C O N F I G U R A T I O N o . o . o o o o o o o o 103
10 A T 3500 RPM
4,4014 ENGINE PERFORMANCE COMPARISONS AT............... 105
3500 RPM FOR CONFIGURATIONS 10 AND 12
4.4.15 CYLINDER TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION FOR...s....... 107
CONFIGURATION 10 AT 3500 X P M AND
9.6 BAR IMEP
4.4.ib CYLINDER TEMPERATURE D I S T R I B U T I O N S o o . . . . . o o o o * o o 108
FLR CONFIGURATION 12 AT 3500 RPM AND
9 . 6 BAR IMEP
4.4.17 ENGINE PERFORMANCE COMPAFUSON FORb.....4........ 109
CONFIGURATIONS 11 AND 12 AT 3500 RPM
4.4.18 CALCULATED TRA?PING EkFIXENCIES. .............. 111
4.4.19 REQUIRED OVERALL TURBOCHARGER EFFICIENCY,....... 112
AT 6 . 9 0 BAR IMEP AND 3500 RPM FOR FIVE
ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS
4.4.20 ENGINE HEAT BALANCE AT 6.9 BAR IMEP............. 113
AND 3500 RPM FOR FIVE ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS
4.4.21 REQUIRED OVERALL TURBOCBARCER EFFICIENCY........ 114
AT 9 . 0 BAR IPEP AND 3500 R P M FOR FOUR
E NG INE CO NF IG U Pka.T I0NS

xii
 L I S T OF FIGURES ( 8 )
PAGE NUMBER
VOLUME I1 fCCNT INUED)
4.4.22 ENGINE H U T BALANCE AT 9.0 BAR IMEP............. 115
AND 3500 RH!
4.4.23 MASS FRACTION BURN RATES FOR THREE....*......... 116
SELECTED POINTS FOR CONFIGURATION 1 2
404.24 SINGLE CYLINDER AIRCRAFT DIESEL................. 13.8
PERFORMANCE OF CONFIGURATION la,
3/4 LOAD PROPELLER CURVE
4.4.25 SXNGLE CYLINDER AIRCRAFT DIESEL................. 120
PERFORMANCE OF CONFIGURATION 12,
FULL LOAD PROPELLER CURVE

4.4.26 AIRFLOW PARXMETERS FOR CONFIGURATION 12A0....... 122

4.4.27 PREP VERSUS RPM AND PISTON SPEED FOR SCTE....... 123
5.1.1 FMEP VERSUS PISTON SPEED FOR GTDR 246........... 124
AND OTHER S1MIXA.R ENGINES

5.1.2 PREDICTED GTDR 246 FUEL MAP..................... 125

5.1.3 PREDICTED ALTITUDE PERFOPMNCE OFO.............. 126
MULTICYLINDER ENGINE

5.2.1 COMPRESSOR FLOW REQUIREMENT PLOTTED ON.......... 127

AN ADVANCED COHPRESSOR MAP GENERATED FOR
NASA UNDER CONTRACT NAS3-22750

5.3.1 PISTON SPEED OF ELEVEN SELECTED AIRCRAFT........ 128

ENGINES

5.3.2 BMEP OF ELEVEN SELECTED AIRCRAFT ENGINES........ 129

5.4.1 GTDR-246 DIESEL AIRCRAFT ENGINE (WITH........e.. 130
VERTICAL CYLINilERS) FULL SCALE MOCKUP
5.4.2 GTDR-246 DIESEL AIRCRAFT ENGINE (WITH........... 131
HORIZONTAL CYLINDERS) FULL SCALE MOCKUP

xiii
 LIST OF TABLES

If SPECIFIC DATA OF FREVIOllS AIRCRAFT.o.oo....o..ooe 4

DIESEL ENGINES

V COMPARISON OF SCAVENGING RATIOS..........o....... 17

VI SCTE FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM REQUIREMEiJTSSr.... ... 33
VI I COMPARISCN OF ALTERNATE INSULATIV2 CONCEPTS...... 40

VOLUME I1
VI11 ESTIHATED W L E R A N C E OF PRIMARY VARIABLES.......... 5

X AVAILABLE CYLINDER PORT CONFIGURATIONS....o.ooooo 23

XI PROJECTED MAXIMUM HEAT REJECTION RATE............ 34
FOR GTDR-246
XI1 GTDR-246 ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS................... 36

xiv
 LIST OF APPENDICES
VOLUME 111
I. ENGINE CYCLE SIMULATION A N D DETAILED
HEAT TRANSFER ANALYSIS OE THE SINGLE
CYLINDER TEST ENGIiIE WITH CORRELATION
TO TEST MEASUREXENTS.

If. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS dF I'dE SINGLE CYLINDER

TEST ENGINE

111. SECOND GENEMTION SINGLL: CYLINDER TEST

ENGINE PARTS LIST

IV, FEASIBILITY ASSESSYENT i F LOW HEAT

REJECTION CONFIGURATION OF THE TELEDYNE
LIGHTWEIGHT DIESEL ENGIirE.

v. PROJECT SUMMARY HEPC'KT CN ELECTRONICALLY

CONTROLLED FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM FOR
GENERAL AVIATION DIESEL. ENGINE,

VI. EVALUATION OF K - 1 O O O F PISTON RING SET

FROM TWO CYCLE AIRCR?PT ENGINE,

VI10 EVALUATION OF TELEDYN' T-IXGS AND PISTON

WITH STEEL CROWN AND ALCMLNUM S K T Y

VIII. FUEL AND OIL SPECIFICATIOKS

xv
 Metric Conversion Factors
FRONS: MuLnPw BY: To: FROM:

km 0.62141 mi bar 100 kPa

km 3281 ft bar 1.01972 kglcm'

m 3281 n bar 14- psi

m 39.37 in MPa lo00 kPa

dm 3.937 in MPa 10.1972 kglcd

mm 0.03937 in MPa 145.0377 psi

d 3531 ff kPa 0.14504 psi

d 61,023 in3 kglcn? 9.812 Nice

d 2642 gallons kg/cn? 14223 psi

1 0.0353 fF N-m 0.10197 kgm

I 61 -02 i+ N-m 0.73759 ft-lb

1 u64 B k€?m 72333 ft-lb

rr? 10.76 fF d/kW 26.331 W/H?

mamc ton 2205 Ib dlkg 16.0165 ft'llb

kg 22046 Ib kWl1 O.Ml98 HPlin3

MN z4,aio Ib kg/kW 1.644 IWHP

kN 224.81 Ib k d 0.03613 ib/i$

N 0.102 kg kcal 3.9683 BTU

N 022481 Ib kcaUkg 1.a BTUllb

'K 1.8 'R kcaUkg-'C 1 ETU/Ib"F

'C 1.8% + 32 'F @kWh 0.00164 IWHP-hr

kW 1.341 HP

xvi
4.0 DEVELOPMENT TESTING
Previous sections in Volume I of this three volume report
have discussed the analysis, design, and hardware
configuration of the single cylinder test engine (SCTE).
Section 4 provides a detailed discussion of the actual
development testing that was Conducted, and the
experimental results that were obtained durinq this test
program. The test facilities used are described first,
followed by discussions of:
0 Power component development (detailed by engine
configurations)
0 Injection system development
0 Engine performance description (detailed by engine
configurations)

4.1 T
All engine testing was conducted at TCM'S facilities in
Muskegon, Michigan. Special test equipment was provided to
the project on an "as required" basis. The facilities used,
their configuration, their limitations, and projected
accuracies are described in this Section 4.1. The fuel and
lube oil specifications used in this program are tabulated
in Appendix VIII.

4.1.1 Test Cell Description. The engine test cell

facilities are shown in Figures 4.1.1 through 4.1.5. The
engine output power is absorbed by a 45kW motoring electric
dynamometer in series with a 75 kW water brake dynamometer.
Speed and torque are controllable from the control room. An
engine overspeed safety is provided which shuts off the fuel
for an engine overspeed condition or in the event of an
electrical power failure.
Pressurized engine oil is supplied to the engine by a
separate oil system. Figure 4.1.3 shows a diagram of the
oil system. The oil pressure and temperature is feedback
controlled so that constant controlled conditions can be
maintained. An oil weigh scale is used to measure the
engine oil consumption. The oil is filtered by three, full
flow filters.
The fuel system is shown in Figure 4.1.4. Fuel temperature
is feedback controlled from the control room and fuel
pressure is open loop controlled.

4.1.2 Instrumentation. The torque absorbed by the

trunnion bearing mounted electric dynamometer was measured
by a precision balance scale. The force that, the scale
measured was converted to torque by multiplying it by the
torque arm length. The torque absorbed by the water brake
was measured by a strain gage load cell and was read out
digitally on an electronic display.
1
Temperatures were measured by a forty channel digital data
logger. This data logger scanned the forty channels every
second and decided which channels were in an alarm
situtation.
An alarm situation existed when a channel temperature was
above a preset high limit or below a preset lower limit.
When an alarm situation existed, a light alerted the
operator of the situation. The temperatures that were
measured are shown in Table VI11 and Figure 4.1.6. These
included: fourteen cylinder temperatures, all oil inlet and
outlet temperatures, four air intake temperatures, three
exhaust temperatures, cooling air inlet and outlet
temperatures, fuel temperatures, and cell ambient
temperature.
Steady state pressures were measured by three different
means. Very low pressure and differential pressures were
measured by water filled manometers. Accurate measurement
of low pressures were recorded by precision bourdon - tube
pressure gages. Oil, water, and fuel pressures were
measured by bourdon -tube pressures gages,
Fuel flow was measured by a volumetric fuel flow meter.
This unit accurately measured (by quartz timer) the amount
of time it took for the engine to consume a specified volume
of fuel from a precision calibrated burrette. The timer was
actuated by light sensitive sensors located at the
calibration points on the fuel burrette. Various fuel
volumes could be selected from the meter's control box
located in the control room in order to select the time
frame desired for the fuel flow measurement.
The measured volumetric flow race was converted to mass flow
rate by a density correcting factor which is a function of
fuel temperatGze in the burrette. Fuel density was measured
every time fuel tank delivery was made so that variances in
fuel density were accounted for.
Combustion air flow was measured by either a 25.4mm or a
76.2m1n subsop' 2 nozzle. The small nozzle was used to
measure air f - j w s between .40kq/hr and 200 kg/hr. The large
nozzle measu.?d ' i flows between 136kg/hr and 820kg/hr.
The temperatures and pressure before the nozzles were
recorded so that density effects could be accounted for.
The pressure diffeEentia1 across each nozzle was measured by
water filled manometers. Oil flows were measured using
turbine meters. These meters provide output electrical
frequency proport.ona1 to volume flow rate. The frequency
was measured by a precision frequency counter with a one
second gate time, The €requency was then converted to
volume flow :ate by the calibratior. curves. These curves
required oil viscosity as a gage factor. The oil viscosity
versus temperattire curve and the oil density versus oil
temperature curvo were supplied by the oil supplier. Oil
density was required to calculate the oil mass flow rate.
2
The c o o l i n g a i r f l o w was measured by a c a l i b r a t e d b e l l mouth
f l w met.er. T h i s flowmeter r e q u i r e d t h e measurement of
p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l a c r o s s t h e meter and t e m p e r a t u r e a t
t h e f l o w u e t e r e n t r a n c e t o e v a l u a t e a i r mass f l o w r a t e from
t h e c a l i b r a t i o n zurve. P r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l was measured
by a water filled manometer and t e m p e r a t u r e by a
thermocouple.
Cylinder pressure was measured by a water c o o l e d
p i e z o e l e c t r i c p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r screwed i n t o t h e removable
combustion chamber, and s e a l e d a g a i n s t a f l a t b r o n z e
washer. The p a s s a g e from t h e t r a n s d u c e r t o t h e combustion
chamber was f o u r millimeters i n d i a m e t e r and f o u r and
one-half millimeters long. T h i s s h o r t p a r s a g e minimized
p h a s i n g and r i n g i n g problems w h i c h h i n d e r dynamic p r e s s u r e
measurements. T h e r e a s o n a n t f r e q u e n c y of t h e t r a n s d u c e r was
250 k i l o h e r t z .

Dynamic i n t a k e and e x h a u s t p r e s s u r e s were a l s o measured by

water cooled p i e z o e l e c t r i c transducers. Their natu ral
f r e q u e n c y das 2 5 0 k i l o h e r t z . T h e i n t a k e p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r
was f l u s h mounted t o t h e i n s i d e diameter of t h e l e f t i n t a k e
manifold, f i f t y millimeters from t h e i n t a k e p o r t s . T h e
e x h a u s t t r a n s d u c e r was s i m i l a r l y mounted f i f t y millimeters
from t h e exhaust ports. T h e s e t r a n s d u c e r s were v e r y
r e l i a b - e and no problems were e n c o u n t e r e d w i t h them.
Injection pressure was measured by a piezoelectric
t r a n s d u c e r c a p a b l e of measuring 2ressures up t o 2070 b a r .
F i g u r e 4.1.7 shows a photograph of t h e t r a n s d u c e r a s i t was
i n s t a l l e d i n t h e i n j e c t i o n h o l d e r . Its n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y
was 250 k i l o h e r t z .
This t r a n s d u c e r was a new p r o d u c t and r e l i a b i l i t y problems
were e n c o u n t e r e d w i t h i t . Consequently, much e n g i n e running
was done without injection pressure data. Problems
encountered with t h e t r a n s d u c e r s i n c l u d e d t h e housing
c r a c k i n g and t h e m i c r o e l e c t r o n i c s f a i l i n g . Toward t h e end of
t h e program, t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r had r e p a i r e d t h e s e n s o r s and
t h e y a p p e a r e d t o work r e l i a b l y .
The i n j e c t o r n e e d l e l i f t was measured by a m i n i t u r e 1.5mm
d i a m e t e r Hall e f f e c t s e n s o r i n s t a l l e d i n t h e n o z z l e h o l d e r .
T h i s s e n s o r r e q u i r e d a t t a c h i n g a c o b a l t s a m a r i a n magnet t o
t h e s p r i n g s e a t , T h e s e n s o r i s shown a l o n g w i t h t h e e n t i r e
n o z z l e and combustion bowl assembly i n F i g u r e 4.1.8.
The dynamic v a r i a b l e s o f c y l i n d e r p r e s s u r e , i n t a k e and
e x h a u s t p r e s s u r e , i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e , and n e e d l e l i f t were
d i s p l a y e d o on two, s i x c h a n n e l o s c i l l o s c o p e s . Timing marks
e v e r y 1 0 CA and t o p dead c e n t e r marks were i n d e c t e d on t h e
engine flywheel . These t i m i n g marks were s e n s e d by two
v a r i a b l e r e l u c t a n c e t r a n s d u c e r s and d i s p l a y e d on t h e two

3
oscilloscopes. A camera was a v a i l a b l e f o r p h o t o g r a p h i n g t h e
o s c i l l i s c o p e traces. Later i n t h e development prcgram, a
h i g h speed d i g i t a l a c q u i s i t i o n s y s t e m was used f o r d a t a
acquisition and r e d u c t i o n o f t h e s e h i g h speed dynamic
parameters.
Exhaust smoke was measured by a smoke intensi..y meter. T h i s
u n i t measures t h e i n t e n s i t y of b l a c k smoke i n Bosch u n i t s .
T h e e x h a u s t sample is drawn from t h e e x h a u s t p i p e a f t e r t h e
back p r e s s u r e b u t t e r f l y v a l v e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e s y s t e m was
n o t v e r y r e l i a b l e and therefore, n o t much u s a b l e smoke data
was o b t a i n e d i n t h e program.
Many attempts were made t o measure c y l i n d e r t r a p p i n g
efficiency. The method t h a t was used had been done
successfully by Taylor and Kannappan. T h i s method
d e t e r m i n e s t h e t r a p p e d mass i n t h e c y l i n d e r of a two s t r o k e
e n g i n e by u s i n g a n impact s a m p l i n g v a l v e . I t uses a
s a m p l i n g v a l v e wnich samples o n l y t h e f i r s t e x h a u s t blowdown
gases before t h e i n t a k e p o r t s open. The sample c o n s i s t s
o n l y of combusted a i r arid f u e l which was t r a p p e d i n t h e
cylinder. Chemical a n a l y s i s of t h e C02 and 0 c o n t e n t
i n t h i s sample w i l l r ? v e a l t h e t r a p p e d a i r - f u z i r a t i c
S i n c e t h e mass f l o w r a t e of f u e l i s known, t h e t r a p p e d a i
mass flow r a t e c a n be calculated. From t h i s , t r a p p i n g
e f f i c i e n c y can be evaluated.
F i g u r e 4.1.9 shows t h e l a y o u t of t h e s a m p l i n g v a l v e . T h e
sample v a l v e c o n s i s t s of a f l a t check v a l v e and s e a t . A
back p t e s s u i e is m a i n t a i n e d on t h e c h e c k v a l v e a p p r o x i m a t e l y
130 Kpa h i g h e r t h a n t h e i n t a k e p r e s s u r e . When t h e e x h a u s t
p o r t s are f i r s t uncovered by t h e p i s t o n , t h e h i g h p r e s s u r e
e x h a u s t g a s e s impinge on t h e s a m p l i n g v a l v e . T h e s e g a s e s a t
h i g h e r p r e s s u r e t h a n t h e back p r e s s u r e cause t h e check v a l v e
t o open, a l l o w i n g t h e g a s e s t o e n t e r t h e sample v a l v e . T h i s
c o n t i n u e s u n t i l t h e blowdown p r e s s u r e f a l l s LZ.!OW t h e back
pressure. The c h e c k v a l v e t h e n closes p r e v e n t i n g t 5 e sample
from e s c a p i n g .
The back p r e s s u r e i s m a i n t a i n e d by a p r e s s s u r e r e l i e f v a l v e
i n s t a l l e d a t t h e r e c e i v i n g t a n k . As e x h a u s t sample f l o w s
i n t o t h e t a n k , t h e r e l i e f v a l v e b l e e d s o f f a n e q u a l amount,
m a i n t a i n i n g a c o n s t a n t back p r e s s u r e . T h e b l e d o f f sample
f l o w s i n t o an e m i s s i o n s a n a l y z i n g c a r t and t h e c o n t e n t of
co and O2 are determined. The CO and 0
c o z c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e sample d e t e r m i n e d t h e a i $ - f u e l r a t i z
of t h e t r a p p e d mass when t h e m i x t u r e is l e a n as shown i n
F i g u r e 4.1.10.
F i g u r e s 4.1.11 and 4.1.12 show d e t a i l s c;f t h e s a m p l i n g v a l v e
and its i n s t a l l a t i o n .
The problems e n c o u n t e r e d w i t h t h e impact s a m p l i n g v a l v e were
p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e s e a l i n g of t h e f l a t c h e c k v a l v e . The
s e a t would g e t e x h a u s t c a r b o n and d i r t on it and t h e s e a l
was l o s t . T h i s would make t h e a n a l y z e d sample u s e l e s s .
4
 ....
0000
............
cooooooooooo
d 4 d - t N N d - O m . + d n i + d d l N

0
..... .....
4 - 4 0 4 4
4 4 4 4 r?

5
 n
OPrn-4
k-l
....
+1+1+l+l41+1+l+1 +I+( +I+lCI

a
\
a&
3 4

6
Several different configurations were tried in order to
resolve this problem, but no reliable solution was found
within the time frame of the development program. As a
result, measured trapping efficiencies were not recorded.

4.1.3
. .
Measurement Preclslon. The primary variables that
were measured by each engine run are shown in Table VII.
Also shown in this table are the estimated primary variables
accuracy .The tabluated basic accuracies were used to
estimate the uncertainty of the calculated results.

4.1.4 Data Reduction Proaram. For each engine run, a

computer program was used to reduce the measured data to
give the useful calculated data. This computer program
memory .
contained all calibration curves and fluid properties in
Figures 4.1.13 and 4.1.14 show the measured inpat
and calculated output, respectively. The trapped air data
shown should be ignored because of the sampling valve
problems discussed before. This input data was not used.
The heat balance data is calculated from the oil and air
flows along with their respective temperature changes as
they flow through the engine.

4.2. Po'-er ComRonents DeveloPmCnL

This S e c t i m 4.2 aives a chronological description of the
mechanical develcpment activity throughout the program.
Performance parameters are not covered here and are
discussed in detail in Sections 4.3 and 4.4.

4.2.1 Co nfiauration One, ?.wo, and Thrie. Configurations

1, 2 and 3 featured the engine hardware zs initially
designed. Power component Aevelopment centered around
initial shakedown tests and durability evaluation.

The hardware shown in Figures 4.2.1 thru 4.2.5 was assembled

with few problems. Initial motoring and firing tests
however, revealed several problems. The piston-to-cylinder
bore clearances, as well as the piston cam grind side
contour and ring land diameters were not correct and caused
scuffing problems. Also, the top piston ring experienced
excessive wear in a very short time due to an
incompatibility between the "Nikssil"' cylinder coating and
the chrome top ring. The three compression rings, which
were pinned to prevent rotation sheared off their respective
pins in their ring groove. Severe wear ot the two wrist pin
bushings in the piston and the one bushins in the connectin?
rod was experienced. The two piston bushings, which were

7
i n i t i a l l y i n s t a l l e d with an i n t e r f e r e n c e f i t , r o t a t e d i n
t h e i r b o r e s and pushed o u t p a s t t h e p i s t o n o u t s i d e d i a m e t e r
and caused s e v e r e c y l i n d e r s c u f f i n g . The c o n n e c t i n g rod
bushing o v e r h e a t e d b e c a u s e of lack o f l u b r i c a t i o n . The
s p l a s h o i l i n g system, f o r t h i s bushing was n o t a d e q u a t e .
The c y l i n d e r hold down n u t e x p e r i e n c e d f r e t t i n g between t h e
n u t and t h e c y l i n d e r f l a n g e . F i n a l l y , t h e combustion
chamber i n s e r t was d i f f i c u l t t o s e a l , a s was t h e i n t a k e
manifold muff.
The p i s t o n cam g r i n d and s i d e c o n t o u r were r e v i s e d by t r i a l
and e r r o r . The e n g i n e was run a s h o r t time and where t h e
p i s t o n showed heavy wear, m a t e r i a l was removed from t h i s
area. The p i s t o n p r o f i l e o p t i m i z a t i o n p r o c e s s wzs n o t q u i t e
c o m g l e t e a t t h e , e n d of C o n f i g u r a t i o n 3. The chrome t o p r i n g
was replaced with a plasma coated molybdenum and
chromium-carbide f a c e d r i n g t o r e d u c e r i n g wear. The
se-.ond, t h i r d , and f o u r t h r i n g s were r e p l a c e d w i t h s t r a i g h t
f a c e d r i n g s i n s t e a d of t a p e r f a c e d r i n g s t o i n c r e a s e o i l
l u b i i c a t i o n &C t h e upper p o r t i o n of . h e c y l i n d e r ,
No m a t e r i a l changes were made f o r t h e s e r i n g s o r t o t h e o i l
control r ing . T h e e n g i n e was run w i t h t h i s r i n g pack w i t h
t h e r i n 5 s unpinned. The r i n g g a p s were r a d i u s e d s l i g h t l y t o
prevent ring c l i p p i n g . T h i s r i n g pack r e s u l t e d i n a
s i g n i f i c a n t improvement i n r i n q wear: b u t t h e wear was
s t i l l t o o high. The r i n g s d i d n o t e x p e r i e n c e r i n g t i F
clipping.
V a r i o u s a t t e m p t s were made a t d e v e l o p i n g a 'Mae West'
p r o f i l e f o r t h e c y l i n d e r p o r t a r e a . Mae West r e l i e f s were
t r i e d r a n g i n g from .025mm t o .O7Omm, on t h s diemeter. No
c o n c l u s i n v e e v i d e n c e was fcund t o i d e n t i f y which, if any, of
t h e Mae West p r o f i l e s was t h e optimium. Honing of t h e Mae
West p r o f i l e proved t o be most d i f f i c u l t .
The o r i g i n a l c o n n e c t i n g rod was m o d i f i e d by a t t a c h i n g an
bushing .
external o i l feed l i n e t o supply pressurized o ' t o t h e p i n
Yhis s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced t h e bushing wear r a t e
and o v e r h e a t i n g , b u t s t i l l n o t t o a n a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l . T h i g
c o n n e c t i n g rod e v e n t u a l l y f a i l e d . This f a i l e d connecting
rod was r e p l a c e d w i t h a f o r g e d rod t h a t was r i f l e d r i l l e d t o
s u p p l y p r e s s u r i z e d o i l t o t h e w r i s t p i n bushing. A s p i r a l
grooved bushing was used i n t h i s rod. T h i s c o n n e c t i n g rod
proved d u r a b l e b u t wear r a t e s of t h e p i n b u s h i n g were s t i l l
not a c c e p t a b l e .
The two p i s t o n p i n b u s h i n g s were pinned i n p l a c e t o p r e v e n t
r o t a t ion. Wear r a t e s f o r t h e s e b u s h i n g s were a t an
a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l , a l t h o u g h stiJ.1 h i g h e r t h a n d e s i r e c . No
further problems were e n c w n t e r e d w i t h t h e s e b u s h i n g s .
P r o v i s i o n s were made f o r a l u m i n u m c a p s t o be h e l d i n p l a c e
by t h e w r i s t p i n s n a p r i n g s . These c a p s p r e v e n t e d t h e
i n t a k e a i r p r e s s u r e from t h e p o r t s l e a k i n g t h r o u g h t h e
b u s h i n g s t o t h e c r a n k c a s e , and t h u s c a r r y i n g w i t h i t t h e o i l
film.
8
The fretting o€ the cylir,der hold down nut was reduced by
increasing the installation torque t:; 1085 Newton meters.
A t o t a l of savezty ho!?rs of rurrning time was accumulated on
Configurations L g 2 cjrZ 3 - The ar,;ine war successfully run
up to a power < I f 9 bar IMEP a t 353: .3>.<- P r a b o n i arcs: that
still remained were: Cylinder scufi.!:j2, .t..2 ;i? .:in$ , + e a r .
combustim chamber leaking, arid p1aLoil i h ~ s i : ~ - ;- : ;i:
3ragress had been made in these areas, but the p r o b l e m ~..:i'e
not completely solved. The Nikasil coating on the cylinder
I.D. could not be easily refurbished after i: scuff incident
since there were no United States vendors for this coating
process . Hard chrome plating was selected as the process
for Euture refurbishing the cylinder.

4.2.2 Confiuuration Four. The following modfications

and/or additions were mside prior t i the testing of
Configuration 4 hardware:
a CAE-X injection pump with 71cm X 1.6mm injt-ction
line was installed
0 Hard chrome plated cylinder honed to -635
to .I62 ym rms finish
a Modified intake manifcld
0 New connecting rod with L/R of 4 and foot valve.
a Knurled piston skirt
0 Kopper's conpany recommended ring pack
Figure 4.2.6 shows a photograph of this engir:e
configuration. The CAE X pump was directly driven off bhe
camshaft through a flexible coupling. The injection line
was 71cm long,

Tile intake manifold shown in Figure 4 . 2 . 7 was modified by

wel.ding t v o angled tubes to the intake area of the aluninum
casting. This allowed easier plumbing of the manifold to the
intake plenum.
A new connecting rod was installed in the engine fer
Configuration 4. This connecting r d , shown in Figure 4.2.8
was longer than the rod used pretiowly. The connectiyg rod
was rifle drilled and included a foot valve so that an
adequate o i l supply cou'" be provided tc the wrist pin
bushing.
The iston skirt was knurled as s5owr. in Figsre 4 . 2 . 9 . Thij
knurling acts as a vehicle for t-ansferring oil from tile
bottom half of the cylindnr i;ier the ports and to the t o p
half of the cylinder.

9
T h e c y l i n d e r was h a r d chrome p l a t e d , ground, and t h e n honed
t o size. A .07m "Hae West" was p r o v i d e d .
The CAE-X pump was i n s t a l l e d and d r i v e n a t h a l f e n g i n e
speed. The rm'js c-.,;i ~ G Zt h i s c o a f i g u r a t i o n weIe as
recornel.?& 3 y t h e Ropppcr's c 0 a p ~ i . 7 and shown below:

second R j n s , P/N B779@

108 X 2.4892m Crt,xn FlOOOF ;'as~:e :xtangular
t w i s t , K28, .25/.51 e n a gap.
T h i r d R j n s and F o u r t h R i n s s
108 X 2.892 Crown r e c t a n g u l a r t w i s t K i r c n , .2S/,51
end gap
O i l Finq
108 x 4.5 conformable c l o s e r a i l o i l r i n g- assembly,
-
(225 p s i s p r i n g ) .25/,64 end gap.
The e n g i n e was assembled and a t e n hour t e s t s c h e d u l e was
conducted, Upon i n s p e c t i o n , a l l p a r t s a p p e a r e d t o be i n
good c o n d i t i o n . A n i n o r p i s t o n machining of t h e t o p r i n g
l a n d was r e q u i r e d b e c a u s e t h e r e were s i g n s of c o n t a c t t h e r e
w i t h t h e c y l i n d e r wall. The f i n a l p i s t o n p r o f i l e , as
i n s t a l l e d , is shown i n F i g u r e 4.2.10.
The e n g i n e was a g a i n reassembled and t h e power l e v e l
g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d t o t h e t a k e o f f power l e v e i (78.3kW).
The e n g i n e had run a t o t a l of 3 5 h o u r s up t o t h i s p o i n t .
Upon i n s p e c t i o n of t h e c y l i n d e r a f t e r r u n n i n g , it was
evident that s c u f f i n g had o c c u r i d . T h e e n g i n e was
d i s a s s e m b l e d for a c o m p l e t e i n s p e c t i o n .
T h e r e were two reason:; for t h e s c u f f . The thermal l i m i t s of
t h e aluminum p i s t o n had been exceeded and t h e Ni-resist
i n s e r t f o r t h e t o p r i n g had became dEbonded from t h e
aluminum a s shown i n F i g u r e 4.2.11 The s t a n d i n g o i l j e t
p i p e r o t a t e d due t o v i b r a t i o n , c a u s i n g it t o miss t h e p i s t c n
o i l cooling 5allery. This resulted i n piston overheati~g.
T h i s debonding h a s been n o t e d i n p r e v i o u s r u n s b u t t o a much
lesser d e g r e e . The p i s t o n r i n g i n s p e c t i o n a l s o revealed
t h a t s e v e r e r i n g b u t t i n g has occu:red. Details of t h i s
inspection are shown i n Appendix VI. Koppers t h e n
recommended t h e f o l l o w i n ; r i n g e n 2 c l e a r a n c e s :

10
 TABLE IX
RECOWENDED PISTON RINGS

PART Nu HBEB END CLEARAIuCES (m)

Toy Ring 87792 1.016 - 1.27
Second Ring B7794 -762 - 1.C16
Third Ring B7793 -762 - 1.016
Fourth Ring B7793 -762 - 1.016
Oil Ring B7796 -635 - -889

They also recommended increasing the amount of negative point

protrusion on the second and third rings to eliminate any
.
port clipping and decreasing the oil ring pressure to 1200
kPa
The two piston wrist pin bushings showed metal wear an2 the
connecting rod bushing shown in Figure 4.2.12 also
experienced extreme overheating.
This configuration confirmed that full power could be
accomplished with this hardware; howeverl additional
developmental refinements would be required. The aluminum
piston's contour and cam grind were established.
Knurling the piston made it possible to run full power. T h e
thermal
exceeded.
run again.
limits of the cluminum piston, however, were
For this reason, the all aluminum pjston was not
The CAE-X pump worked out very well. The wrist
pin bushings in both the piston and especially the connecting
rod still remained a prcblem. Elimination of ring buttifig
should improve reliability from here on.
Problems that still reDained to be solved at the end of
testing of Configuration 4 were:
Sealing of the combustion chamber
Need to reduce thermal loading on aluminum piston
Reduce wear and overheating of wrist pin bushings in
piston and connecting rod.

11
9-2.3 C o n f i m Five and SlX. The f o l l o w i n g
m o d i f i c a t i o n s or a d d i t i o n s were made f o r C o n f i g u r a t i o n s 5
and 6:
0 S t e e l capped aluminum p i s t o n w i t h k n u r l e d s k i r t
0 New combustion chamber s e a l i n g s y s t e m
a Fuel i n j e c t i o n nozzle cooler
0 Hardened i n j e c t i o n n o z z l e
0 S i l v e r p l a t e d c o n n e c t i n g rod b u s h i n g w i t h a r e v i s e d
o i l flow
0 Koppers r i n g s w i t h recommended r i n g end c l e a r a n c e s
The steel capped p i s t o n used, is shown i n F i g u r e s 4.2.13 and
4.2.1 4. The aluminurn p i s t o n s k i r t was used t o s u p p o r t a
steel c a p which carried t h e t o p r i n g . T h e c a p was screwed
onto, t h e aluminum b a s e , r a d i a l l y pinned i n t h r e e l o c a t i o n s
(120 a p a r t ) and pinned t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r of t h e c a p so
t h a t c o n c e n t r i c i t y c o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d between t h e c a p and
t h e p i s t o n s k i r t . A t h e r m a l b a r r i e r between t h e t o p of t h e
aluminum s k i r t and t h e back of t h e steel cap was p r o v i d e d
v i a a i r gaps.
The two bronze p i s t o n p i n b u s h i n g s were s i l v e r p l a t e d f o r
improved wear r e s i s t a n c e . A n o i l p a s s + o e was d r i l l e d from
t h e t o p s i d e of b o t h b u s h i n g s i n t o t b e p i s t o n o i l c o o l i n g
g a l l e r y so t h a t t h e o i l f l o w t o these b u s h i n g s would be
increased. The c o n n e c t i n g rod bushing was a l s o s i l v e r
plated. The t o p h a l f of t h e a i l a n n u l u s i n t h e b u s h i n g was
blocked o f f . Now a l l of t h e o i l d e l i v e r e d to t h e bushing
had t o flow o u t of t h e bottcm h a l f l o a d b e a r i n g arear t h u s
p r o v i d i n g maximum l u b r i c a t i o n and c o o i i n g .
Figure 4.2.15 shows t h e new combustion chamber i n s e r t
assembly along with t h e n o z z l e c o o l e r and i n j e c t i o n
assemblies. These components a r e shown assembled i n F i g u r e
4.2.16. T h i s combustion chamber r e q u i r e d a s t e e l r i n g t o be
p r e s s e d i n t o t h e cylir.der t o p r o v i d e a s h o u l d e r f o r t h e
sealing gasket. The i n j e c t i o n n o z z l e cocle: was sezled
a g a i n s t t h e t o p o f t h e combustion chamber v i a a s p a r k p l u g
gasket .
Configuration 5 s c u f f e d t h e c y l i n d e r a f t e r only f o u r hours
of running time. The aluminum s k i r t was i n f i n e c o n d i t i o n
i n d i c a t i n g no p i s t o n cam g r i n d o r p r o f i l e problems. The
s c u f f i n g was caused by an i n c o r r e c t l y machined t o p k e y s t o n e
r i n g groove. F i g u r e 4.2.17 shows a schematic of t h i s
problem.

12
Tl-? excessive k e y s t o n e a n q l e allowed t h e p i s t o n r i n g t o be
back edge s u p p o r t e d . C y l i n d e r p r e s s u r e caused t h e r i n g t o
d r o o p which r e s u l t e d i n l i n e c o n t a c t between t h e r i n g and
Lie c y l i n d e r wall. T h i s r e s u l t e d i n r i n g s c u f f i n g .
Co,iP'guration 6 i n c l u d e d a new p i s t o n c a p which was
c o r . t c t l y machined t o t o l e r a n c e . T h i s b u i l d s c u f f e d a f t e r
ei3C; h o u r s of r u n n i n g a t half l o a d . The Kopper's company
i e p o r t shown i n Appendix VI1 a n a l y z e s t h e r i n g problems.
E x s e r t i a l l y , t h e steel c a p c o n f i g u r a t i o n , as d e s i g n e d would
nc. p r o v i d e a s t a b l e enough t o p r i n g groove. The k e y s t o n e
groove would close up and p i n c h i n on t h e r i n g due t o
t;?ermal d i s t o r t i o n . T h i s caused t h e r i p g t o s t i c k , and
e t e n t u a l l y s t a n d proud i n t h e groove r e s u l t i n g i n s c u f f i n g .
At t h e conclusion of Config2ration 6 t e s t i n g , it became
?pparent t h a t :
e The s t e e l capped alriainum p i s t o n was a p r c m i s i n g
c o n c e p t b u t more development was r e q u i r e d .
e T h e new combustion chamber s e a t i n g system showed
promise. The d e s i g n needed t o be m o d i f i e d t o
a . x e p t commercially a v a i l a b l e s e a l i n g g a s k e t s .
0 The injection nozzle c o o l i n g assembly worked
flawlessly and eliminated i n j e c t i o n nozzle t i p
overheating.
e The i n c r e a s d ring end c l e a r a n c e s e l i m i n a t e d r i n g
butting.
e The s i l v e r p l a t e d c o n n e c t i n g rod bushing w i t h t h e
.
r e v i s e d o i l flow scheme e l i m i n a t e d t h e b u s h i n g wear
problems
0 The s i l v e r p l a t e d piston pin b u s h i n g s showed no
s i g n s of wear.

4.2.4 Conf i a u c a t i o n s Seven, Eiaht , and Nine.

C o n f i g u r a t i o n s 7, 8 , and 9 p r i m a r i l y i n v o l v e d d e v e i o p i n g t h e
r i n g groove c o n f i g u r a t i o n , cam p r o f i l e , and s k i r t c o n t o u r s
f o r a t h i n walled, d u c t i l e i r o n p i s t o n . F i g u r e 4.2.18 shows
a photograph of t h e two p i s t o n c o n f i g u r a t i o n s d e l i v e r e d .
These p i s t o n s hacl2 no c a s t - i n o i l flow p a s s a g e s l i k e t h e
aluminum ;>iston d i d . They d i d however, r e l y on a s t a n d i n g
o i l j e t s q u i r t i n g t h e u n d e r s i d e of t h e p i s t o n crown f o r
.
c o o l ills Coolinc, o i l s u p p l y p e r p i s t o n of 5 . 7 l i t e r s p e r
minute was recommended f o r t h e s e p i s t o n s . The dome t o p
p i s t o n was used f o r t h e s e t h r e e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . A combustion
chamber was d e s i g n e d and f a b r i c a t e d t o f i t t h e domed c o n t o u r
of t h i s p i s t o n crown. I t is shown i n F i g u r e 4.2.19.

13
This combustion chamber utilized a different sealing gasket
than was used in Configurations 5 and 6 . This commercially
avialable sealing gasket was a ring 99.4m in diameter made
of a .79mm diameter stainless steel wire.
Configuration 7 was run for four hours at light load before
scuffing occurred. The new pistons and the piston
manufacturer's recommended cylinder-to-piston clearances
were used. The scuffing was caused by both the piston rings
and the piston itself. The ring grooves were not correctly
;Fernified to allow for sufficient side clearance.
Therefore, ring sticking occurred.
A l s o every ring land showed contact with the cylinder which
was a very undesirable condition.
The combustion chamber and sealing method for Configuration
7 proved to be leak-tight and very reliable.

Configuration 8 consisted of a modified cast iron piston

with increased ring land-to-cylinder-bore clearances, as
well as, a .Bokor' finish on the piston skirt. This finish
shown in Figure 4.2.20 was to accomplish the same oil
retention function as the knurling did for the aluminum
piston. Knurling the piston skirt was not a practical,
reliable method for finishing the piston.
As an additional precaution, oil was misted into the
induction air in the ratio of one part oil to forty parts
air to provide a sufficient oil supply to the upper half of
the cylinder.
This configuration Ecuffed after only ten hours of running
at medium load. Inspection revealed that ring scuffing had
occurred. The cause was insufficient lubrication to the
piston rings. The honing profile of the cylinder bore was
almost nonexistent after a short amount of running time.
Careful inspection of this cylinder and another cylinder
which was honed by the same vendor, revealed the surface
finish consisted of much torn and folded metal instead of a
clean cut honing pattern. The measured surface finish of
.60 to - 9 0 p m rms was not actually cut into the cylinder
bore.
This raised metal was rapidly worn away leaving no honing
pattern in which to retain oil. The lack of lubrication was
appararently caused by an insufficient cylinder honing
pattern.
Configuration 9 consisted of a newly chrome-plated cylinder
and honed with a risid type 120 grit diamond hone. This
hone put the recommended .76 to 1.0 pm rms suriace finish
in the cylinder with torn or folded metal. The engine was
assembled with the desired optimized iron piston with the
cut back ring lands and "Bokor" skirt finish. Oil was still

14
added to the intake air in the ratio of one to forty. Tke
engine was run for eighteen hours at up to half load, with
no apparent problems. Furcher testing at higher lcads
resulted in another scuffing incident, This time piston
scuffing, and not ring scuffing, was caused by too tight a
fit between the piston ring lands and the cylinder. Tk,ie
scuff was not too severe and the cylinder was reground and
honed ,
Now the only problem that remained with the hardware after
the end of the testing of Configuration 9 was optimization
of piston and ring lands dimensions.

4.2.5 Conf isuration Ten. Configuzation 10 included the

following components:
0 Cylinder # 3 , chrome plated and honed to a bore
diameter 108 mm with a -76 to 1.0 p m rms.
0 Cast iron, dome topped piston with modified cam
ground profile, ring, grooves and ring land
dimensions,
0 A new crankshaft and connecting rod.
0 New intake manifold
0 Close coupled CAE-X pump with a 15 cm injection
1ine,
0 Koppers ring pack with large ring and gaps and
increased negative point protrusions,
The cylinder was ground to a bore diameter 107,95mm and then
honed with a rigid type diamond hone to 108 ram with a
surface finish of .76 to 1.0 pm rms. The piston-s
diametral clearance profile and ring lands as installed, are
shown in Figure 4.2.21,
A radial side clearance of .53mm was provided for the top
ring, .127mm for the second, third and fourth rings, and
.05lm for the oil ring. The larger end clearances were
provided for the ring as recommended by the ring supplier.
A new intake manifold shown in Figure 4.2.22 was designed
and installed on the cylinder for this configuration. The
manifold relies on a light press fit for air sealing around
the ports.
A new crankshaft along with the corresponding connecting rod
was also installed in the test engine for this
configuration. This crankshaft had a 76.2mm crankpin for
additional etreagth instead of d 57.15mm crankpin that the
old crankshaft had.

15
T h i s new c r a n k s h a f t a l s o f e a t u r e s a l a r g e r f i l l e t r a d i u s .
The main b e a r i n g d i a m e t e r s were k e p t t h e same. The c r a n k p i n
was r i f l e d r i l l e d f o r o i l from b o t h main b e a r i n g j o u r n a l s .
The c o n n e c t i n g rod shown i n F i g u r e 4.2.23 was .V" d r i l l e d
c o n f i g u r a t i o n f o r good o i l s u p p l y p r e s s u r e t o t h e wrist p i n
bushing, A f o o t v a l v e was a l s o f i t t e d f o r d e p e n d a b l e o i l
flow. The wrist p i n b u s h i n g s were s i l v e r p l a t e d and were
wider t h a n t h e o l d c o n n e c t i n g rod b u s h i n g s , t h u s p r o v i d i n g
g r e a t e r b e a r i n g s u p p o r t area. O i l s u p p l y t o t h e t o p h a l f o f
t h e b u s h i n g s was r e s t r i c t e d t o f o r c e t h e o i l o u t of t h e
l o a d e d area o f t h e b u s h i n g s .
The i n j e c t i o n pump was b e l t d r i v e n t h r o u g h a cogged b e l t and
i n s t a l l e d w i t h a s h o r t i n j e c t i o n l i n e (15mm).
T h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n was run f o r s i x t y h o u r s between t h r e e
quarter and f u l l l o a d a t 3500 RPM. P o l i s h i n g and sorrre
s c u f f i n g of t h e p o r t s a r e a s l i m i t e d f u r t h e r t e s t i n g . T h e
p i s t o n , i n g e n e r a l , was i n e x c e l l e n t c o n d i t i o n a s were t h e
piston rings. Very l i t t l e wear was measured i n any of t h e
power components except t h e c y l i n d e r i n s i d e diameter.
F i g u r e 4.2.24 shows a photograph of t h e c y l i n d e r ' s p o r t
areas a f t e r s i x t y h o u r s of running. Some s c u f f i n q was
e v i d e n t as is e x t e n s i v e p o l i s h i n g . T h i s problem had n o t
been e v i d e n t p r e v i o u s l y . I n p r e v i o u s cases, major s c u f f i n g
o c c u r r e d s o e a r l y i n development t e s t i n g t h a t mvzh of t h e
e v i d e n c e used t o form a h y p o t h e s i s was masked. I t was
b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e p o l i s h i n g was a r e s u l t of a g r e s s i v e
b e h a v i o r between t h e cast i r o n p i s t o n s aud t h e c h r o n e b o r e
and bore d i s t o r t i o n i n t h e p o r t areas.
The o n l y development problem r e m a i c i n g a t t h e end of
Configuration 10, t h e r e f o r e , was t h e problem of b o r e
polishing. T h e new components added t o t h e e n g i n e f o r t h i s
c o n f i g u r a t i o n c a u s e d no problems. The p i s t o n ' s c o n t o u r ,
r i n g groove, and r i n g l a n d d i m e n s i o n s were developed t o t h e
p o i n t where no f u r t h e r d e s i g n m o d i f i c a t i o n was n e c e s s a r y .

4.2.6 Conf i a u r a t i o n s Eleven an d Twelve. C o n f i g u r a t i o n s

11 and 1 2 had t h e same f e a t u r e s a s C o n f i g u r a t i o n s 1 0 e x c e p t
f o r t h e a d d i t i o n of a s t a i n l e s s s t e e l p i s t o n c a p on t h e f l a t
t o p c a s - i r o n p i s t o n and a t i n p l a t e d p i s t o n s k i r t t o
r e s o l v e t h e p o l i s h i n g n o t e d above. A l s o , some c o o l i n g f i n s
were removed from t h e c y l i n d e r t o r e d u c e h e a t l o s s .
F i g u r e 4.2.25 shows a diagram r?f t h e p i s t o n , combustion
chamber, i n j e c t o r and c y l i n d e r . F i g u r e 4.2.26 shows t h e
stainless steel piston cap T h e p i s t o n c a p was made of 321
s t a i n l e s s steel which m a i n t a i g s s u f f i c i e n t s t r e n g t h and
c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e up t o 875 C , f o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n .
Air g a p s were used t o r e d u c e t h e h e a t f l o w from t h e c a p t o
t h e p i s t o n body. A s t a i n l e s s s t e e l wire s e a l r i n g was used

16
to prevent gas leakage from the combustion chamber to the
air gaps. The cap was secured to the piston by a belleville
washer and a stainless steel 19.051~1 nut which was
tack-welded to ensure it did not come loose. The threaded
portion of the piston cap was drilled to reduce weight and
heat flow. The drilled portion was capped with a stainless
steel plug t o prevent cooling oil from entering this hole.
The .05mm thick tin plating on the piston skirt was used to
eliminate the cylinder polishing. The same piston profile
shape was used as before, but the piston was machined round
instead of cam shaped. No cam grinding equipment was
available to machine the pistons after they were tin
plated.
plating.
The 'Bokor" finish was machined into the t i n

A total of fifty hours of running time at between one half

and full load was accumulated on Configurations 11 and 12.
No major scuff incidents occurred during that time, but the
port polishing remained. No problems were encountered with
the piston. The accelerated rate of the polishing was a
direct result of the increased exhaust temperature due to
the insulated piston configuration.
An inside diameter profile trace of the cylinder revealed
tne cause of the polishing as was the honing process prior
to assembly.
A rigid hone with synthetic diamond stones was used to put
cylinder .
the desired surface finish (.76
wall
- 1.0 p m rms) on the
Unfortunately, the hone also removed
material unevenly from the port area. Figures 4.2.27 and
4.2.28 are cylinder profile traces above and below the
ports, respectively. This uneven removal of stock during
honing was caused by the uneven pressure that the honing
stones applied to the cylinder inside diameter while
traversing over the ports. When the stones traversed a
port, about 4 cm of the 10 cm of stone length was
unsupported. Since the pressure on the stones was
essentially constant, the unit loading on the cylinder wall
above an3 below the port was sixty percent higher than was
the case when the stones were fully supported on a port
bridge.
This caused the uneven cutting action. The uneven cylinder
bore caused the piston and piston rings to load the high
points (i.e., port bridges) in the cylinder. The rings and
piston then wore away the honed surface finish on the port
bridges. Once this happened, the bridges could not retain
an oil film and scuffing occurred.
Cot.figurations 11 and 12 demonstrated the feasibility of the
air barrier stainless steel capped piston. No problems were
encountered with the cap, the piston or the piston rings.
The only problem which still remained at the end of the
development program was the port bridge polishing.
17
4.2.7!dlu!w Bard ware Conf iuura- The following list
of recommended hardware result from the testing done to
date. This configuration has a good chance of obtaining
durability, iic well as achieving low heat loss:
Nitrided steel liner, brush honed to .76 to 1.0 pm
rms finish. Initially no "Mae West" port area
relief e

skirt.
Stainless steel capped piston with tin plated
"Bokor"finish on piston skirt machined as
shown in Figure 4.2.20, piston profile shown in
Figure 4.2.21, .165mm top ring side clearance,
.114mm side clearnace for 2nd, 3rd and 4th ring,
and .050mm for the oil control ring.
Ai: barrier insulated stainless steel combustion
chamber as shown in Figure 4.2.19.
Ring pack and ring clearance, shown in Table IX.
Connecting rod with tin plated, grooved, bronzed
wrist pin bushing. Connecting rod must be drilled
for bushing oil supply and have a foot valve. The
bushing should only allow oil to flow out of the
loaded, bottom half of the bearing.
The piston's wrist pin bushings should also be tin
plated, grooved, and made of bro* e with caps over
the ends to prevent induction air leakage.
Nozzle cooler assembly as shown in Figure 3.4.5
should be used.
Nitrided steel liner would be superior to the chrome plated
liners. The nitrided steel liner has superior hot hardness
over hard chrome to increase scuff resistance. Also, ring
manufacturers have extensive experience with rings running
on nitrided steel which also has superior oil wetting
capability. Hard chrome has very poor wetability
characteristics.
The liner must be honed with a brush-type of hone. This
type of hone consists of many round abrasive balls attached
to stiff nylon bristles which are attached to a wire shaft.
This hone would remove material more evenly, and has been
used commercially in the honing of two-stroke cycle
engines. This hone was used G khe SCTE cylinder. However,
the correct hone abrasive was ;.ot available for the hard
chrome bore so that an acceptable surface finish was not
obtained. Selection of the correct abrasive for this h m e
will be required.

18
The piston and rings worked satisfactorily and no future
modifications are foreseen.

4.3 Inirction Svstem Petformancg. A number of variations

program.
on the injection systcm were evaluated throughout this
This section 4.3 describes the combinations of
injection hardware tested in this program.

4.3.1 Bosch AP F-1B Iniect ion Svstem, Four, aight-hole

nozzles were tested with the Bosch APF-1B during this
pregram ( . 2 0 , .225, -25, and .3Omm). The . 2 5 m diameter
norzle tip resulted in the best engine performance. The
smaller hole diameters resulted in excessive injection
durations at higher fuel flows. The 0.30mm hole diameter
resulted in the same or slightly longer durations, and had
the disadvantage of low injection pressure due to the larger
nozzle area. The larger nozzle configuration also resulted
in reduced engine performance compared to the .25mm diameter
tip.
Of the otwo nozzle spray angles tested (165' and 15S0j,
theo 155 nozzle gave the best engine performanc2. The
165 angle plume inpinged on the upper surfsee cf the
combustion insert.
Erratic nozzle needle lift was also observe5 during testing,
particularly at the rated speed of 3500 RPM. This proble3
was eliminated by decreasing the injection line volume and
increasing the fuel supply pressure to the pump.
Prior to these changes, the 9mm plunger pump was replaced
with a lOmm of the same type. This change was made to Laise
injection pressure. Erratic injection occurred and the
cause of the problem was never fully defined. The lOmm pump
W L S then removed and never used again.
The APF-1B pump itseif worked quite well, particularly
considering t h e fact tf.?t it was driven at engine speed when
originally d?sic;red f o : ?t,f speed. However, because of the
low profile c-.m , ~ c d , t k plunger velocity, even at 3500
RPM, was not st,; ; - i e a t to deliver the desired pressures.
This cam shapi c'.;; allow the high speed operation of the
pump at the req~ri~ccispeed which would not have been
possible with a -aster" cdm without modificatioas to the
pump assembly.
This pump was used for preliminary performancc evaluation
and it served this purpose well. Its flow capability at
higher engine loads was sufficient,o but resulted in
exSessive injection duration (24 CA at 66
engine.
mm /injection). This limited the power poteiitial of ths

19
4.3.2 Iniection SvstemL The single cylinder
veision of the CAE-X pump was evaluated on a bench. The
injection line length, delivery valve size, fuel flow, and
pump speed were varied and their effect on injection
pressure, injection duration, and injection delay was
monitored. The injection nozzle used for this study had
eight holes at 0.24mm diameter.
The data shown in Figure 4-3.1 and 4.3.2 revealed that
reducing the injection line length from 71 to 40cm at a
c o n t a n t fuel rate had a sianificant, positive effect on
injection pressure and duration.
The effect was diminished by reducing the injection line
length even further. The injection pressure was limited for
these tests to 1300 bar siilce the pump's durability at
higher pressures was questionable.
The bench test results indicated that the CAE-X injection
system could deliver the system performance required for the
aircraft diesel SCTE. This injection pump was initially
installed on the SCTE as shown in Figure 4.3.3. The
injection line length was 71.lcm.
All 3engine runs with this pump configuration inclclded a
SOmm retraction volume delivery valve and used a 1.6mm
inside diameter injection line. The injection nozzle wag
drilled for eight holes at 0.24mm diameter with 157
included angle. The valve opening pressure was set at 260
bar. The pump timing was varied from the control room by
actuator.
adjusting the pump timing mechanism via a hydraulic

The CAE-X pump was later repositioned and the injection line
length was reduced to 17.8cmO3 The delivery valve retraction
volume was reduced ' 0 30mm for stable pump operation.
This set-up is showii in Figure 4.3.4. It proved to be i;
very reliable system.
Figure 4.3.5 shows a comparison of the injection duration
versus injected volume for the three injection pump systems
tested on the SCTE.
Where the APF-1B injection system was load limited, +he
close coupled CAE-X3 system produced the full load tuel
requirement of 95m. per injection with a 22' duration
of injection.
?he injection characteristics of the three systems are also
reflected in Figure 4.3.6. This figure displays ignition
delay versus injecfed volume and demonstrates that the close
coupled CAE-X system gives shorter ignition delay than the
other two systems.

20
T h i s s h o r t e r i g n i t i o n d e l a y was a d i r e c t r e s u l t of b e t t e r
f u e l t o a i r mixing caused by t h e h i g h e r i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e
and i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e r i s e r a t e o b t a i n e d from t h e c l o s e
c o u p l e d CAE-X pump system.
F i g u r e 4.3.7 shows t h e dynamic i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e and n e e d l e
l i f t a t t h r e e f u e i f l o w p o i n t s f o r t h e close c o u p l e d and t h e
l o n g e r i n j e c t i o n l i n e CAE-X pump systems. The c l o s e c o u p l e d
system showed much b e t t e r i n j e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The
.
i n j e c t i o n pumps were i d e n t i c a l e x c e p t f o r t h e d e l i v e r y
valves
The CAE-X pump showed no wear and gave no major problems f o r
the duration of t h i s program. I t s p e r f o r n a n c e was
excellent. The ADB i n j e c t i o n n o z z l e s showed some f r e t t i n g
at the n o z z l e t o i n j e c t o r body -ea1 caused by o v e r
pressusization. The n o z z l e and h o l d e r assemblies were
d e s i g n e d f o r 950 bar. A h i g 5 e r p r e s s u r e c a p a c i t y h o l d e r and
n o z z l e is needed f o r f u t u r e development work. The i n j e c t i o r ,
nozzle cmler worked effectively after the initial
development s t a g e and no f u r t h e r n e e d l e s e a t o v e r h e a t i n g was
encountered.

4.3.3 Elec t r o n i c a l l v Controlled Eiich Pressure Fuel

I n j e c t i o n Sv stem ( EPFISL. As p a r t of t h i s program, a n
electronically controlled, hydraulically amplified f u e l
i n j e c t i o n system was f a b r i c a t e d and bench t e s t e d by Bendix
Er.;ine Products D i v i s i o n . Features of t h i s system a r e
described i n Section 3 . 4 . 4 of t h i s r e p o r t . Eowever, d u e t o
t h e numerous o p e r a t i o n a l and d u r a b i l i t y problems e n c o u n t e r e d
i n t h e b e n c h t e s t i n g and o p e r a t i o n on J e t " A " f u e l , t h e
system was never i : ~ s t a l l e d on t h e e n g i n e f o r f u l l
evaluation. T h e r e f o r e , no e n g i n e d a t a a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r
comparison w i t h t h e o t h e r two s y s t e m s e v a l u a t e d . T h e Bendix
f i n a l r e p o r t is i n c l u d e d a s Appendix V and describes t h e
details of this development testing and problem
encountered.

4.3.4 F u e l Inject i o n Svsterns Select i o n Summarv. Of the

three separate inject systems e v a l u a t e d d u r i n g t h i s SCTE
t e s t program, t h e CZ, -X pump, c l o s e c o u p l e d w i t h a s h o r t
i r 4 j e c t i o n l i n e , and o p e r a t i n g w i t h a 1 4 m m p l u n g e r , gave t h e
best r e s u l t s . A v a r i a b l e t i m i n g mechanism was u s e d and a n
a u t o m a t i c t i m i n g ad*rance f e a t u r e would be r e q u i r e d f o r
m u l t i c y l i n d e r a p p l i c a t i o r s . Given f u r t h e r development time,
t h e e l e c t r o n i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d system may u l t i m a t e l y p r o v e
o u t t o be more s u i t a b l e d u e t b t h e a d d i t i o n a l f l e x i b i l i t y i t
o f f e r s i n terms of t i m i n g and a l s o t h e p o t r , t i a l h i g h
p r e s s u r e s r e g a r d l e s s of e n g i n e speed and l c d d . This,
however, remains t o be proven on a n o p e r a t i n g e n g i n e .

21
Whichever system is chosen for the ultimate applicatim,
additional development work would be required with punp
operation on jet fue’s.

aPrevious sections have pr - . n a r i l y

discussed the hardware aspects of the test program. This
Section 4.4 discusses the performance aspects, and is
arranged in chronological order (similar to the hardware
desc:iptio-s).

4.4.1 EnQinc! Performance Te stinca

* With Con fiwrations 0ne,
Two & Thr ee. The performence testing f o r Configurations I,
2 and 3 was primarily concerned with cylinder a i r flow
characteristics for three porting configurations shown in
Table X.
Figure 4.4.1 and 4.4.2 show the average overall p c i t
coefficients versus cylinder pressure ratio for the three
cylinders at 3500 RPM and 2650 RPM. Average overall port
flow coefficients are defined as follows:

Where:
C Overall Port Flow Coefficient

RS
Scavenge Ratio
r Overall Compression Ratio

Ai Speed of Sound in Srrtake Manifold

G Average Piston SpeeC

’i Intake Manifold Pressure

pe Exhaust Manifold Pressure

k Specific Heat Ratio

I1

vL (E:)
k-1 2k -
P
(PI)
k + l
k

22
 1
!

!
i
1
I

I
I
I

I
I
f
I
I
I
i
f
1
1
i
I
i
I
i
i
I
I
1i
i
i
I
I
I
i
I
I

23
The a v e r a g e o v e r a l l p o r t flow c o e f f i c i e n t is a c o n v e n i e n t
p a r amet e r for evaluation of engine air flow
characteristics. These two f i g u r e s show t h a t c y l i n d e r 3
w i t h t h e l a r g e r i n t a k e and e x h a u s t ports had t h e h i g h e s t
average overall port flow coefficients. T h e flow
c o e f f i c i e n t s p r e d i c t e d by AVL a t 3500 RPH were v e r y c l o s e t o
t h e measured v a l u e f o r b o t h c y l i n d e r s 2 and 3. C y l i n d e r 1
w i t h t h e second l a r g e s t p o r t s a c t u a l l y had t h e l o w e s t flow
caefficients. A t 2650 RPW t h e p o r t f l o w c o e f f i c i e n t f o r
c y l i n d e r 1 is c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e f o r c y l i n d e r
2. This apparent c a n t r a d i c t i o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t an engine
speed dependent m a n i f o l d t u n i n g e f f e c t may hawe c a u s e d t h i s
phenomenon,
F i g u r e 4.4.3 shows e n g i n e performance v e r s u s RPM f o r l i n e 5
of c o n s t a n t c y l i n d e r p r e s s u r e r a t i o a t c o n s t a n t IHEP and
i n t a k e manifold p r e s s u r e f o r c y l i n d e r 1. T h e r e was a
s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e t u n i n g e f f e c t which c a u s e d a decrease i n
a i r f u e l r a t i o a t h i g h e r s p e e d s . T h i s r e s u l t e d i n poor f u e l
consumption, h i g h e x h a u s t p r e s s u r e and h i g h h e a t loss.
G e n e r a l l y , scavenge r a t i o and a i r - f u e l r a t i o d e c r e a s e d w i t h
h i g h e r RPM. T h i s caused t h e r e q u i r e d c v e r a l l t u r b o c h z r g e r
efficiency to decrease due to t h e g r e a t e r exhaust
temperature. For t h e most part, ISFC f o l l o w e d a i r - f u e l
ratio.
The required o v e r a l l t u r b o c h a r g e r e f f i c i e n c y is h i g h e x c e p t
a t t h o s e p o i n t s where t h e f u e l consumption is e x c e s s i v e .
These p o i n t s were beyond t h e smoke l i m i t . Smoke was n o t
p l o t t e d on t h i s c u r v e b e c a u s e of t h e h i g h e x p e r i m e n t a l e r r o r
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e measuremeiit system. F u e l economy and
required overall turbocharger e f f i c i e n c y are a tra5eoff.
I n c r e a s i n g one d e c r e a s e s t h e o t h e r .
F i g u r e 4.4.4 shows ‘he same para.deters for c y l i n d e r 3, w h i c h
had t h e l a r g e s t p o r t s , T h i s c y l i n d e r a l s o showed an a d v e r s e
t u n i n g a f f e c t a t 3000 RPM b u t was much less s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n
t h a t e n c o u n t e r e d w i t h c y l i n d e r 1.
Fuel consumption for C o n f i g u r a t i o n 3 was equal t o o r b e t t e r
than with c y l i n d e r 1. Required o v e r a l l t u r b o c h a r g e r
e f f i c i e n c y improved compared t o c y l i n d ? r 1 f o r a g i v e n RPM
and a i r - f u e l r a t i o . T h i s was a r e s u l t of t h e reduced
c y l i n d e r p r e s s u r e r a t i o r e q u i r e d t o g i v e t h e same a i r - f u e l
ratio.
Not enough d a t a was c o l l e c t e d trom t e s t s of c y l i n d e r 2 t o
p l o t a similar c u r v e . Howevert t h e d a t a t h a t was c o l l e c t e d
i n d i c a t e d t h e same t r e n d s .
I n summation, c y l i n d e r 3 w i t h i t s l a r g e p o r t s , r e q u i r e d t h e
l e a s t amount of c y l i n d e r p r e s s u r e r a t i o t o f l o w a n e q u a l
amount

24
of air, with no penalty in fuel consumption. The required
cylinder pressure ratio for a given air-fuel ratio resulted
in lower required overall turbocharger efficiency.
Therefore, cylinder 3 was used for nearly all the remaining
devel peent and testing work.
4.2 Confiaurat ions Zr,jr Throuah ESine, Configuration 4
featured cylinder 3, the cone top aluminum piston, .63
s q u i s h ratio open combustion chamber, CAE-X injection system
with the 7 1 . 1 ~ ~ injection line, and the modified original
manifold. The goal of testing Configuration 4 was to
demonstrate takeoff power. This goal was attained.
Figures 4.4.5 Rhows engine performance versus IHEP at 3500
RPI. The predicted pe:formance at both full power and power
cruise are shown. The data points at 10.6 and 13.1 bar IMEP
were run at leaner air-fuel ratios than necessary to reduce
the r i s k of scuffing. This caused the data curves to appear
inconsistent,
The fuel consumption was actually lower than predicted; but
indicated heat loss, cylinder pressure ratio, A P / P , and
required turbocharger efficiency were all higher than
predicted. T h i s indicated that heat loss had to be reduced,
as did cylinder pressure ratio for a given air-fue? ratio.
Previous testing of Configurations 1, 2 and 3 indicated that
manifold tuning could be the problem. To address this, the
port flow coefficients were measured and this data put into
the cycle simulation program, The program wa6 then used to
optimize manifolding configuration based on air flow.
Port flow coefficients were also evaluated with several
different piston cap configurations shodn in Figure 4.4.5.
The intake port flow coefficients are shown in Figure 4.4.7
and the exhaust port flow coefficients in Figure 4.4.8. The
cone top piston gave the highest flow coefficient for both
the intake and exhaust ports. The radiused piston top
configurations all showed better flow coefficients than the
corresponding sharp edge piston top configurations. These
data also confirmed that AVL's original assumption for port
flow coefficients were very good.
The testing of Configuration 4 demonstrated that full
takeoff power could be attained with the CAE-X pump
configuration. Fuel consumption was acceptable, but the
required cylinder pressure ratio and heat loss needed to be
reduced. Since the radiused edge piston gave superior flow
over sharp edged piston, all further testing was conducted
with radiused edge piston.
Configurations 5 through 9 were basically centered on
resolving hard* are problems and no meaningful performance
data was obtained. Performance evaluations were continued
with Configuration 10.

25
4.4.3 Conf iauration Ten Configuration 10 featurzd
cylinder 3, the dome top cast iron piston with radiused top
edge, .8 squish ratio combustion chamber, close coupled
CAE-X injection system, and the optimized intake and exhaust
manifold. Figures 4.4.9 and 4.4.10 show the significant
increase in overall average port flow coefficients f o r the
optimized manifold compared to the original manifold. This
new manifold resulted in significantly less cylinder
pressure ratio requirements for a given air-fuel ratio than
was originally predicted or measured.
Figures 4.4.11 and 4.4.12 show the dynamic intake and
exhaust r --ssures respectively, for the optimized manifold
and the original manifold. The absolute dynamic intake
pressure for the original manifold was about thirty kPa (0.3
bar) below the mean pressure at bottom dead center which is
the opposite of the desired condition. A high pr2ssure is
desired at bottom dead center because the port area is a
maximum thus increasing mass flow. The oEtimized manifold
has nearly constant pressure with much less pressure cycle
fluctuations.
The original exhaust manifold also had large amplitude
pressure pulses which resulted in poor air-flow
characteristics. A low pressure pulse would be desired at
bottom dead center where the port area is at a maximum.
Both the original and the new configurations exhibit this
characteristic.
Again, the optimized manifold has relatively small amplitude
.
pressure pulses and they occur mostly during the port's open
period
The optimized manifold, cast iron piston, and improved
injecticn characteristics obtained from the close couple6
CAE-X injection system were reflected ifi engine performance
as shown in Figure 4.4.13. Lines of constant air-fuel ratio
were plotted so that the trade-off between required overall
turbocharger efficiency and air-fuel ratio couid be
analyzed. On the average, the reduction of air-fuel ratio
from 55 to 45 reduced the required overall turbocharger
efficiency twelve percent and increased ISFC four percent.
The leaner air-fuel ratio points gave improved fuel
consumption and lower heat loss at the expense of lower
exhaust temperature and higher cylinder pressure ratio.
This in turn resulted in higher required overall
turbcc3srger efficiency. Based or; these data, it is most
likely that the engine would not run self-sustained at
overall air-fuel ratios leaner than 45 to 1. The cost for
this is a four percent increase in fuel consumption.
The measured engine performance was superior to the
predicted performance in all areas except exhaust

26
temperature. Fuel consumption was significantly better due
to improved combustion and reduction in heat loss through
the piston. The cast iron pistons have ir much lower
conductivity than original aluminum pistons.
The required overall turbocharger efficiency (for
self-sustained operation) of approximately 59 percent with
this combination of hardware exceeded expectations.
However, even this relatively lov required efficiency would
.
still depend on the availability of a fairly advanced
tu rboc ha rqe r To reduce this required efficiency still
further, heat loss needed to be further reduced, and the
conserved energy must be made available in the form of
higher exhaust temperatures.

1
V v Configuraticns 11
and 12 utilized the air gap insulated, stainiess steel
capped, cast iron piston to reduce heat loss. Configurztion
11 used cylinder 1 with modified ports machined to the
optimum specifications based upon the cycle simulation
work. Configuration 12 used cylinder 3 with some cooling
fins removed from the cylinder head area.
Figure 4.4.14 shows a comparison of performance between
Configurations 12 and 10. The only difference between the
two configurations was the piston. The air gap stainless
steel capped piston reduced the indicated heat loss by
approximately forty percent while exhaust temperature
increased by about nine percent.
The air flow characteristics and fuel consumption remained
unchanged. The required overall turbocharger efficiencl- was
reduced by about nine percent to approximately fifty-three
percent.
Figure 4.4.15 and 4.4.16 show the cylinder temperatuie
distribution for Configuration 10 and 12.
Cylinder temperatures 2 through 5, and 7 through 10 showed
essentially no difference between the two configurations.
However, temperatures 6 and 1 were considerably higher for
Configuration 12 than Configuration 10.
This was primarily due to the reduction in cylinder head
cooling fins.
The temperature at poiilt 11, reasured by a thermocouple
welded 80 the back of the stainless steel combustion chamber
was 166 C higher for Configuration 12. This also results
from removal r~f the cooling fins and the insulating effect
of the stsinless steel capped piston.

27
Figures 4.4.17 shows engine performance for Configurations
11 and 12. Configuration 11 used a cylinder with a much
higher intake port timing and slightly advanced exhaust port
timing compared to cylinder 3. At A/F = 45, Configuration
11 showed a higher fuel consumption and heat rejection than
did Configuration 12.
The cylinder pressure ratio, exhaust temperature, and
required overall turbocharger efficiency, were relatively
equal between these configurations.
Configuration 11 was runnable at fuel consunption and heat
loss values equal to Configuration 12, but to do so required
a fifty-five to one air-fuel ratio. This resulted in lower
exhaust temperature, higher cylinder pressure ratio, and
higher required overall turbocharger efficiency.
This trend was not predicted by the cycle simulation
program. In essencer the large intake ports did not improve
air flow. The exhaust ports became the limiting factcjr.
They would have to be enlarged to increase air flow. The
larger (i.e., advance) intake ports also caused significant
short circuiting of the air from the intake to exhaust
ports, resulting in a decrease in trapping efficiency.
Therefore, the cylinder with the large ports required a
greater overall air-fuel ratio than cylinder 3 did for an
equivalent trapped air-fuel ratio. The trapped air-fuel
ratio is the basic governing variable affecting indicated
specific fuel consumption.
This dependency between ISFC and trapped air-fuel ratio was
used to quantify trapping efficiency. Figure 4.4.18 shows
the trapping efficiency versus scavenge ratio for
Configurations 4, 11 and 12 (also in Reference 6 data). The
error bands represent an error estimate of trapped air-fuel
ratio of plus or minus two.
Configuration 11 showed trapping efficiencies between
forty-seven and forty-nine percent while Configuration 12
showed trapping efficiencies between fifty-nine and
sixty-five percent.
Any improvement in trapping efficiency will directly reduce
the required overall turbocharger efficiency since for a
given trapped air-fuel ratio, a nigher trapping efficiency
will require less overall air flow from the compressor.
This increases the exhaust temperature, and reduces the
required cylinder pressure ratio; and thus, the required
overall turbocharger efficiency is reduced.

9.4.5 e Perfo m a n ce S wA This section

summarizes the most important engine performance parameters
.
obtained during the experimental testing phases of this
program
3.4.5.1 Reau i red Ove r all Turbochzraer Ef f ic iencv
Figures 4.4.19 and 4.4.20 show the required overall
turbocharger efficiency and the engine heat balance for
Configurations 3, 4, 10 and 12, which were run at 3500 RPM
and 6.9 bar IXEP. Figures 4.4.21 and 4.4.22 show similar
data at 9.0 bar IMEP and 3500 R P M , the cruise power
condition. Throughout the course of this program,
significant reductions in the overall turbocharger
efficiency required for unassisted scavenging have been
attained, This was a result of increased exhaust energy and
reduced cylinder pressure ratio required.
The exhaust energy was increased by reducing the heat loss
insulating the piston crownI and increasing the insulating
effectiveness of the combustion chamber. The cooling fin
area around the cylinder head was also reduced. The
cylinder's required pressure ratio for a given air-fuel
ratio was also reduced by the optimized manifold used in
Configuration 12.
During the development program, the indicated work was
increased 9% at the 3500 RPM, 9.0 bar IMEP power level. The
engine was run at approximately 46 to 1 overall air-fuel
ratio for all the data shown in Figure 4.4.21.
Air-fuel ratio has a significant effect on thermal balance,
and the required overall turbocharger efficiency. This
.
effect is illustrated in Figures 4.4.19 and 4.4.20 for (C)
and (D) The only difference between runs ( C ) and (D) was
the air-fuel ratio. The richer point (D) needed a lower
required overall turbocharger efficiency, but gave higher
heat loss, lower exhaust energy, and lower indicated work.
The lower indicated work was caused by the decrease in
combustion efficiency with richer air-fuel ratios. The heat
loss was higher because the increased cylinder gas
temperatures which resulted from the rich air-fuel ratio
produced greater cylinder gas to wall temperature gradients
which are the driving force for the heat loss. The overall
required turbocharger efficiency was lower f o r the richer
air-fuel ratio point which ran at a lower cylinder pressure
ratio and higher exhaust temperature.

4.4.5.2 Mass Fraction aurn Rate, Figure 4.4.23 shows the

mass fraction burn rate for three points for Configuration
12. These measured results indicated that the combustion
system was extremely good, as confirmed by the excellent
thermal erficiency results. The fast burn rates which gave
higher thermal efficiency and resulted from the improved
close coupled fuel injection characteristics, low heat loss,
an3 to some degree, combustion chamber geometry. To confirm
the validity of the measured burn rates, and to provide a
credible model for use in predicting operating points that
were not run experimentally, a mathamaticai model was
generated to predict mass fraction burn

29
rate for the Configuratlon 12 combustion system
configuration. This m o d 4 was based upon the Marzouk-Watson
Correlation (Reference 7). The following equations were
used to calculate mass fraction burn rate:

FR
Where:
- pfl (t) + (1-p) f2 (t)
fl (t) = premixed burning function
f2 (t) = 'diffusion" burning function

0 = phase proportionality factor of

premixed to total burning

and : p= 1 - a F~/ID'

Where: F = equivalence ratio

ID = ignition delay (ms)

and : .80 <a <.95

-25 < b q.60

-25 <c <.SO

R2
(t) = 1 (l-t -
K1)
fl
f2 (t) = 1 -
exp ( - K ~tK4)
K1 = 2.0 + 1.25 X 10 -8 (ID X N) 2.4
K2 = 5000
K3 = 14,2/F 0 . 6 4 4

30
This Marzouk-Watson correlation was basesd upon experimental
data. The constants a, b, and c were varied to calibrate
this model with the measured results. These predicted
tesults are shown in Figure 4.4.23, The values of the
constants used are:

a = .80
b = -60
c = .25

The model requires the input of engine RPM, trapped air fuel
ratio, and ignition delay to predict mass friction burn
rate. This burn rate can then be used as input to the
simulation program to predict engine performance for engine
conditions not run in the test cell.

4.4.5.3 Performance Maps, Data points were r u n f o r

cylinder 12 hardware to simulate propeller load curves.
These data were then used to predict the multicilinder
engine fueling maps. Multicylinder friction estimates were
also used.
Figures 4.4.24 and 4.4.25 show the engine performance for
the three quarter and full load propeller curves. The full
power point was not run during testing of the Configuration
12 hardware. The dashed line represents an extrapolation of
Configuration 12 performance. The full load point for
Configuration 10 is shown.
Figure 4.4.26 shows the air-flow characteristics for
Configuration 12. These air flow characteristics were used
for predicting multicylinder engine performance.
Figure 4.4.27 shows the actual motoring friction mean
effective pressure for the single cylinder engine with the
Configuration 12 hardware. This was also used for
predicting the multicylinder engines performance described
in Section 5.0.

1'
5.0 MULTICYLINDER PERFORHANCE PROJECTION
The ultimate goal of an aircraft diesel engine test program
would be to confirm the initially projected multicylinder
engine performance based on a limited amount of data
obtainable on the single cylinder test engine. Based on the
information collected during this three year program, and
described in the first four sections, it is now possible to
project the expected 2erformance of the conceptual four
cylinder engine originally designed for this application.
This Section 5 assembles all of the experimental and
analytical data collected during this program, and from it,
projects the multicylinder engine perforance.

5.1 Multicvl inder Enuine Fuel Co nsumpt ion Proiect ion

The indicated fuel coniumption measured during the testing
of Configuration 12 was used to predict a muiticylinder
engine brake specific fuel map. This required a prediction
of the multicylinder engine's friction or friction mean
effective pressure (FMEP). Figure 5.1.1 shows the predicted
FMEP versus piston speed for the multicylinder engine (GTDR
246) along with three other similar engines. The predicted
GTDR 246 engine's FME? was based primarily upon the SCTE
motoring friction results. These data were then plotted
against the other similar engines. The predicted friction
appears to be consistant with the tabulated values. 88%
mechanical S5fficiency was predicted for the GTDR246 at full
load. This includes the pt;wer required to the fuel
injection pump8 oil pump, gear reduction, fuel pump, vacuum
pump and engine nechanical friction.
ThiL predicted friction was used in conjunction with the
measured indicated fuel consumpiicrl to predict brake
specific fuel consumption for the GTDR 246. This projected
fuel map is shown in Figure 5.1.2. The dashed lines
represent BSFC based on the SCTE ISFC trends. The solid
lines are based upon actual SCTE data.
Figure 5.1.3 shows the predicted engine performance for full
load, power cruise, and economy cruise. The maximum brake
power is limited by the turbocharger. For this example, a
maximum compressor pressure ratio of seven was assumed.
This pressure would allow the engine to deliver full rated
power up to 6Km altitJde if rated power is set at 4000 RPM
instead of the original design goal of 3500 RPM. No inlet
ram affect was assumed for the turbocharger. Actual ram
effects will. reduce the required compressor pressure ratio
to obtain the desired inlet pressure.
It is apparent from the fuel mcp that the fuel consumption
penalty for going to 4000 RPM is negligible,-3%.
For the power cruise, the engine speed wou1.d be reduced to
3500 RPM. This would give 1L6 kW of brake output up to an
altitude of 7.8 Km with between 221 and 225 gm/kW-hr fuel
consumption.
;2
For further fuel consumption reduction, the engine speed
could be reduced to 3000 RPM which would produce 149 kW up
to 7.8Km at a BSFC of around 218gm/kW-hr.

-
The constant fuel consumption for a given load, independent
o t altitude, is based upon the engine's combustion air flow
a3d inlet pressure remaining constant. This is a function
of the turbocharger characteristics.

The turbocharger is a key element in the operation of the

aircraft diesel engine. Since it i9 a two-stroke cycle
engine, it requires positive air pressuze (induction air)
f o r cylinder scavenging to occur. It is highly desirable
for the turbocharger to supply this air pressure and flow
without any agumentation. Augmentation being either an
exhaust combustor augmentation, or an engine driven air
Pump Both of which would significantly increase fuel
consumption.
The SCTE demonstrated that required overall turbocharger
efficiency is down around 52% including an assumed
turbocharger mechanical efficiency of 97%. This would
require a compressor and turbine adiabatic efficiency of
about 72%. Further reductions in turbocharger efficiencies
are possible with further engine development and the
utilization of a pulse type turbocharger system instead of a
constant pressure system.
A criteria for success of the aircraft diesel is that it
must operate self-susrained for the cruise condition so that
fuel economy benefits can be obtained.
For minimum fuel consumption, it would also be desirable to
have self-sustained turbocharger operation for take-off
power so that a plane could climb rapidly with good fuel
economy to cruise altitude. A 7:l compressor pressure ratio
WBS selected to allow the engine to operate satisfactorily
up to 7.8 kilometers.
The compressor requirements of this aircraft diesel shown
in Figure 5.2-1 are plotted on the advanced map developed by
the Garrett Turbine Engine Company for NASA under contract
NAS3-22750. This compressor was conceived tor an advanced
general aviation rotary engine. The GTDR 246 requires more
air flow at full power than this compressor can supply, but
it appears that cruise power up to 7.8 R m is easily
obtainable from the same compressor. A larger capacity
turbocharger would be required for the aircraft diesel to
reach the desired ultimate ratings shown, but in general,
larger turbomachinery is more efficient.
The GTDR 246 would most likely require a variable area
nozzle for the turbine section of the turbocharger to
operate over such a large altitude span.
33
The turbine area sets the engine's pressure ratio and
air-fuel ratio and this needs to be carefully controlled.

9.3. p iston SDeeds and RMEP Level$

Figures 5.3.3. and 5.3.2 show piston speed and BMEP of eleven
aircraft engines including this proposed aircraft diesel,
(GTDR 2 4 6 ) . These bar charts are shown to illustrate this
engine's relative ranking of these parameters among other
aircraft engines. The piston speed and EVEP ratings are
important as far as engine dependability and life are
concerned and it is evident that the selected values for
this engine are conservative relative to the other similar
engines.

5.4 Heat Loss

Based upon the SCTE measured heat loss and the predicted
mechanical efficiency, the teat loss for the aftercooler,
oil cooler, and cylinder cooling was calculated. These
results are shown in Table XI.

TABLE XI
PROJECTED MAXIMUM HEAT REJECTION RATE FOR GTDR-246
AFTERCOOLER OIL COOLER CYLINDER
HEAT REJECTION HEAT REJECTION HEAT REJECTION
kW 6i.l 22.1 66.6
3 OF FUEL ENERGY 8.2 3.0 p ',9

These numbers were based u p m fuli load engine performance at

4000 R P M at 6,2 kilometers altitude with a compressor pressure
assumed .
ratio of seven to one. A compressor efficiency of 72% was

5.5 Enqine SPecifications

Based on this technology enablement procjram, and considering the
findings and conclusions of references 1 thru 4, two potectial
multicylinder engine configurations have been made up. Figures
5.5.1 and 5.5.2 illustrate full scale mock-ups of such engine
configurations.
Both configurations are radial engines, with Figure 5.5.1
showing a version with the cylinders in a vertical plane.
Figure 5.5.2 shows the cylinders in a horizontal plane.

34
I n a s i n g l e engined a i r p l a n e where t h e c a b i n w i d t h -
engine - not t h e
d e t e r m i n e s f r o n t a l area, t h e f i r s t v e r s i o n would be
more advantageous.
The second c o n f i g u r a t i o n would be more a p p r o p r i a t e i n a t w i n
e n g i n e d a p p l i c a t i o n where t h e e n g i n e n a c e l l e h d i g h t c o u l d be
s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced
XI1 shows
- t h u s reducing f r o n t a l drag. Table
engine s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h e multicylinder
engines.

35
 TABLE XI1
GT3R-246 ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS
HODEL TYPE GTDR-246. 4 Cylinder, radial? air cooled, geared
drive? turbocharged, 2 cycle diesel
CONSTROCTIOH Aluminum alloy crankcase, cylindere witb steel
barrels. Schnuerle loop scavenged with oil cooled
portr. Single throw crankshaft with slipper type
connecting rods 2nd dynamic counterweights.
SDPERCEARGER Variable ger try turbocharger with combustor
augmeitation system aad intercooling. Turbocharger
.
driven electrical generation system (Auxiliary Power
Unit)
FUEL INJECTION Direct injection w i t h individual pumps per cylinder.
Electronically controlled tjming. Engine capable of
operation on military and c:mmercinl jet fuels.
LUBRICATICN Pressure fed 4.9
sump. Cooler.
b
- 6.3 Kg/cm2 (70 - 90 psi) . Dry
BORE AND STROKE 108 x 110 mm 4.25 x 4.33 in,
DISPLACEMENT 4.03 liters 246 in3
COwPRESSIOlo RATIO 11.2tl effective 11.2:l effective
WIDTB AND BEIGE" -l* -66 X .66 m 26 X 26 in.
-2* .66 X .53 m 26 x 21 in.
LENGTH ( I X L TURBO)-1 1.06 HI 42 in .
-2 1.27 m 50 in .
FRONTAL AREA -1 -13 m2 4.69 ft. 2
-2 .3S m2 3.79 ft. 2
FUEL JP-SrJET-A,DF-A
FUEL CONSIIH.PTION 215 WKw-hr .35 lb/hp-hr
(at economy cruise)
RATING - TARE OFF 268 kW 360 hP
POWER CRUISE 175 kW 235 hP
ECONOMY CRUISE 149 kW 200 hP

*SEE FIGURES 5.5.1 AND 5.5.2 FOP -1 AND -2 CONFIGURATION DEFINITION

6.0 CONCLUSIONS
The program demonstrated its basic objectives, which were to
define and quantify the enabling technologies necessary for
the operation of a high output, two-stroke cycle diesel
engine, suitable for ultimate application as a general
aviation aircraft propulsion system.
The design power levels, spec'.fic fuel consumption, air
flow, and scavenging pressure requirements were demonstrated
in a Single Cylinder Test Engine (SCTE).
The frel injection parameters required to reach the target
SFC's can be achieved Jith tods\. state-af-the-art
injec'ion systems. Requirements for hig,, k-ressure, variable
timiny, and cooled nozzles have been define?.
Airflow and scavenge pressure requirements with the
Schnuerle loop scavenge system czn be acheived with
relatively near term advaniements in turbocharging
technology. The overall turbocharger efficiencies required
f o r operating the engine in a self-sustaining mode
without auxiliary blowers, are within
-i.e.
today's
state-of-the-art. The turbocharging pressures required to
deliver the desired power levels at altitude are on the
order of 6 or 7 : l ; which are not commercially available with
current turbochargers and woclld require further development
effort.
To match the engine's airflow requirements throughout its
projected Jperating rapge will require the application of
variable geometry to the turbocharger. Although this
technology has been sticcessfully demonstrated in laboratoxy
and prctotype ap~lications, it is not currently an
"off-the-shelf" item, and would zlso need further
development. If the "turbocharger only" mode of operation
is adopted - witl.dut auxi1iar:- blowers -it will be
necessary to develoF a system of combustor augmentation for
start up and low speed, iow load operations. The
development or' such a conbustor is well within today's gas
turbine engine cechnology.
To provide adequate energy to the turbine for self-sustained
scavenging, the h - q L rejection from the engine cylinder had
to be minimii,ed. was provided in this hardware program
by the applicatio, i "air gap" insulation technologies
using all metallic L;.+ ents. Aralytical studies were made
to explore the us2 of ceramic insulators. Finite element
thermal and struztcral modelinq of these items indicated
that with today's available ceramic materials, it would be a
marginal system at be.ct.
Eowever, since rater4.al developments in monolithic ceramic
components ale adverxing at a rapid rate, this approach may
someday become an attractive alternative. A second
geceration

37
set of hardware using the insulating materials was designed
as part of ttis program. Some hardware was procurred for
evaluation, however, funding limitations precluded actual
assembly snd testing of these parts.
One area of technology that was n o t addressed in adequate
detail is the question of tribology (or study of long term
friction, wear, and lubrication) aspects of such an engine.
Some limited durability of the operating components has been
demonstrated by this program, however, this aspect of the
proposed eagine concepts needs more detailed proof.
In conclusion, the engine concept explored in this contract
(and its predecessors) is a viable alternative to today's
reciprocating gasoline powered general aviation engine. The
engine aemonstrated in this program offers significant
benefits in terms of SFC, weight, and the ability to operate
cn ketosine base fuels. These can be reflected directlk in
improved payloa2, speed, and range. The technology to
achieve these goals is either currently available cr can be
made availpble with relatively near term developmental
programs.

38
7.0 RECOUMENDATIOII
Based on the results of this analytical and experimental
program, the technical feasibility of developing a
lightweight aircraft diesel engine has been demonstrated.
The enabling technologies have been defined. To bring this
engine concept closer to its intended application, a
follow-on program is recommended. Such a program should
consist of the following elements:
1. Detaile6 design, procurement, and test cell
evaluation of multicylindei configuration of the
engine
2. Detailed design, procurement, and engine testing of
a turbocharger for this engine application
3. Continued exploratory evaluations of the insulated
version of the engin? on a single cylinder test
engine.
4. Tribology and long term durability testing on a
single cylinder test engine
5. Integration of each of the above elements into a
multicylinder engine for an engine demonstration.
6. Inital flight testing of the engine.
If the engine successfully demonstrates these elements, the
economics of the market plece, and the intangible user
acceptability criteria would determine the ultimate
application for such an engine.

39
8.0 REFERENCES

REFERENCES
1. ALEX P o BROUWERS, TELEDYNE CONTINENTAL MOTORS,
15G KW AND 300 KW LIGBTWEIGBT DIESEL AIRCRAFT
EKGINE STUDY, NASA CR-3260, 19800

20 LEON A. ZMROCZEK, BEECB AIRCRAFT CORPORATION,

ADVANCED GENERAL AVIATION COMPARATIVE
ENGINE/AIRFRAME INTEGRATION STUDY , NASA
CR-165565, 1982.

3 0 GEORGE L o HUGGINS AND DAVID R o ELLIS, CESSKA

AIRCRAFT COMPANY, ADVANCED GENERAL AVIATION
COMPARATIVE ENGINE/AIRFRAME INTEGRATION STUDY,
NASA CR-165564, 1981.

4. ALEX Po BROUWERS, TELEDYNE CONTINENTAL MOTORS,

186 NET KW VLIGHTWEIGBT DIESEL AIRCRAFT ENGINE,
NASA CR-326L, 1980.

5. R o L o MCDANIEL, T. M o DRZEWIECKI, Jm MENI,

SCIENCE A N D TECHNOLOGY ASSOCIATES, INCo, ADVANCED
ENGINE TECBNOLOGY FOR ARMY AIRCRAFT, REPORT
STA-007 UNDER CONTRACT NAS2-11748, 19840

60 CHARLES F. TAYLOR, THE INTEGRAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

IN THEORY AND PRACTICE, VOLUME I o

c)
1 0 N o WATSON, Plo MARZOUK, Ah’D A. D. PILLEY,
COMaUSTION CORRELATION FOR DIESEL Eh’GINE
SIMULATZON, SAE 800028, DIESEL COMBUSTION ArJD
EMISSIONS SP86, 1980.

43
 TOROUE
f SCALE

ELECTRIC OYNO

TEST ENGINE

Figure 4.:-1. Engine Test Cell Layout

41
v)
a
w
2
LL
f
a
s

c
3
0

aw
aa

43
 FROM

FUEL VALVE
PUMP

SPECIFICATIONS
FUEL FLOW 0-4M)o LITEFUHR.
CUEL PRESSURE 0-7 BAR
FUEL FEMP 2(r40°C

Figure 4.14. Test Cell Fuel System

44
 -
FLOW METER
,-
-
I
k
FLOW INTAKE
FACTORY - PRESSURE DIVERTING MANIFOLD
HEATER
10

.- .
AIR SUPPLY REGULATOR SOLENOID -aPRESSURE
KW
VALVE REGULATOR
- .
HIGHRANGE

INTAKE
INTAKE

I 4

fi ENGINE

Figure 4 1-5. Test Celi Cot nbus!icn Air ;upply System

45
 ORI@!Y!.EL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
11 I If I

Figure 4.16. Cyllnder Thermocouple Locations

46
 OF?L...
.-l-.'?f
L. I, . .' , ' C IS
n
, .i-

OF POOR QUALiTY

Figure 4.2-27. Inside Diameter Profile Trace of Cylinder, 6..F mm Above Ports

80
 9 ... \

Figure 4.2-28. inside Diameter Profile Trace of Cylinder No. 3, 6.35mm Below Ports

81
Figure 4.3-1. Injection Characteristics for CAE-X Pump at 1325 Pump RPM

82
 10 20 30 40 50 80 to
INJECTlON LINE LENGTH (CM)
'FLOW LIMITED ev PEAK INJECTION PRESSURE (1300 BAR,

Figure 4.3-2. Injection Characteristics for CAE-X Pump at 1750 Pump RPM

83
 ORIGiFJAE F'i'."f
of POOF? (QUALITY

Ftgure 4.3.4. CAE.X Pump wrth a 17.6crr Injection Line Length as Installed on the SCTE

e5
 0- CAE X PUMP, 17.8 CM INJ LINE, 9 4 X 8 NOZUE
0- CAE X PUMP, 71.1 CY INJ UNE, 2 4 X 8 NOZZLE
&-BOSCH APF PUMP, 25.4 CM INJ LINE, 15 X 8 NOZZLE

INJECTEC VOLUME (MM%NJECTICN)

Figure 4.35. Injection Duration Versus Injected Volclrne corThree

Injection Pump Configurations Tested at 3500 RPM

86
 a - CAE X 17.8 CM INJECTION LINE 2 4 X 8 NOZZLE
0 - CAE X 71.1 CM INJECTION LINE 2 4 X 8 NOZZLE
0 - 805CH APF PUMP 25.4 CM INJECTION LINE 2 5 X 8 NOZZLE

Y
2
<
a
0
e

MM311NJ

Figure 4.36. Ignition Delay Versus Injected Volume for Three Pump
Configurations at 3500 RPM

87
 71.1 CY X 1.6 MM INJ LINE

300 310 320 330 340 350 TDC 10 20 30 40

Figure 4.37. @yanamicPressure and Needle Lift Characteristics

88
 1200 -
1ooO.
I RUN 575
1 I I-
; 3500RPM
P i S 1 MM3/lNJ
-
a 800- CAE X PUMP
w
a
3a -
1
0
71.1 CM X 1.8 MM INJ LINE
VOP * 280 BAA -
50 MM3 DELIVERY VALVE
Q
2400
I i

g
4200
z
I \
v

1200

-
a loo0
U
0, 17.8 CY X 1.8 MM INJ LINE

3
u)
u)

a
z
0
F 400- \
3
2
'200

INJECTION PRES
0.' 1

NEEDLE LIFT

300 310 320 330 340

.
350 TDC 10
I
20
1

I
30 40
CRANK ANGLE

Figure 4.37. Dyanamic Pressure and Needle Lift Characteristics (Continued)

89
 71.1 CM X 1.6 MM INJ LINE
$
W
'100
50 MM3DELIVERY VALVE
2
z4O0
ep a
z
0

300 310 320 330 340 350 TDC 10 20 30 40

CRANK ANGLE

17.8 CM X 1.6 MM INJ LINE

3& 310 3h 330 a60 3h TDC lb h 30 40

CRANK ANGLE

Figure 4.37. Dyanamic Pressure and Noedle Lift Characteristics(Continued)

90
 0- CYL H ORlQlNAL MANIFOLD
0 - CYL #2 ORlQlNAL MANIFOLD 3500 RPM
0- CYL a3 ORIQINAL MANIFOLD
1283 MIS PISTON SPEED

-
INTAKE AI EXHAUST
CYL I H U W T MM M M ~ HUaHT MY A i /A i
1 28 3w.1 44 2432 .m
2 20 2764.7 35 2076 .I51
3 31 -7 43 wo .n4

.01

Figure 4.41. Comparison of Overall Flow Coefficienrs Using Original Manifold at 3500 RPM

91
 0 - CYL PRIGINAL MANIFOLD
#1

0 - CYL #2 ORIGINAL MANIFOLD

0 - CYL 13 ORIGINAL MANIFOLD 2860 RPM
9.72

0 - AVL PREDlCTlON CY L #1

INTAKE
HUGH1 MM
AI
IYM2
EXHAUST
HEIGHT MM
*.
MMZ Ag/A i
1

3084.1 44 2432 .m
2764.7 35 2076 .751
43 2550 ,774

Figure 4.4-2. Compariso Oi Cverall Flow Coefficients Using Original Manifold at 2650 i3PM

92
 -- 6.5 BAR
IMEP
2.41 BAR

0 - P#P, = 12
0 - P#P, 1.3P

Figure 4.4-3. Engine Performance Versus Engine Speed for

Cylinder #1 for Configurations 1, 2, and 3

93
 IMEP - 6.5 BAR

0
- PVPI
-QPe=
I 1.1
1.2

Figure 4.4-4. Engine Performance Versus Engine Speed for

Cylinder #3 for Configurations 1, 2, and 3

94
 a AVL PREDICTION

70

20

10

6m
0:
t
W
I- SQO

2m

80

60

40

220

100

160

180
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
IMEP (BAR)

Figure 4.4-5. Engine Performance Versus IMEP for Cylinder 3

at 3500 RPM for Configuration 4

95
 AVL PREDICTION

1.50

125 p
t
4
a
W
1.0 (9
3
>
4
0
.75 v)

-50

slaaw
12U 4 5 6 7 8 IMEP9(BAR) 10 11 12 b3 14

Figure 4.4-5. Engine Performance Versus IMEP f o i Cvlinders at 3500 RPM for
Configuration 4 (Contilwed)

96
Figure 4.4-6. Piston Top Configurations Evaluated for Port Flow Coefficients

97
 I

EXPERIENCE
LAVL I

-400
BDC 10 20 30 40 60
PISTON POSITION OABDC

PISTON CONFIGURATIONS

CONE TOP SMOOTH EDGES

DOME TOP SHARP EDGES -- ------
DOME TOP SMOOTH EDGES
FLAT TOP SHARP EDGES
FLAT TOP SMOOTH EDGES
- -
-- - -=

Figure 4.4-7. Intake Port Florv Coefficients

98
 --

PISTON POSITION OABDC

- PISTON
- CONFlGURATK3NS
a - >NE TOP - SMOOTH EDGES
0- !‘LA1 TOP - SMOOTH EDGES
-
0- FIAT TOP SHARP EDGES
0-DOME TOP - SHARP EDGES
0-DOME TOP - SMOOTH EDGES
Figure 4.4-8. Exhaust Port Flow Coefficients

99
 D CYLINDER m, OPTIMIZED MANIFOLD. 1x4 BAR IHEP, PI= si K P ~
0 CYLINDER #3,OPTIMIZED MANIFOLD, 4 7 BAR I M P . PI = 169 K p r
CYUNDER 13,OAlQlNAL MANIFOLD. 4 7 BAR IMEP, Pi = 189 K p .
CYUNDER #2, ORlOlNAL MANIFOLD. 4 7 BAA IMEP. PI = 168 K p .
CYUNMR # I , ORIQINAL MANIFOLD, 4 7 BAR IMEP. PI = 189 K p a
AVL PREDICTION, CYUNDER W1.125 BAR IMEP. Pi = 355 Kpcl

.s .6 .7
P@Pi
.8 .9 1.0

Figure 4.4-9. Average Overall Port Flow Coefficient with Optimized Manifoldi:,gat 3500 RPM

Figure 4.4-10. Average Overall Port Flow Coefficient with Optimized Manifolding at 2650 RPM

100
 .O
-
NEW MANIFOLD

-- -
RPM 3Joo
IMEP R3 BAR
Pl 2067 KP8
n -
Pe 180.3 KPa
102PC
R8--1.058
(Pl-P@Pl- .13

I -
"1

k I
ORIGINAL

'\
\
\
.
\
\

&
\
\ AVERAGE MANIFOLD
PRESSURE(ORIGINAL)

\ AVERAGE MANIFOLD
1 PRESSURE(NEW)

'
7s'
INTAKE
PORT
AREA

\
I

CRANKSHAn POSITION(DEGREES)

Figure 4.41 1. Dynamic Intake Manifold Pressure at 3500 RPM

101
 ORIGINAL

f
180 150 120 90 80 30 TDC 30 60 90 120 150 180
CRANKSHAFT POSITION(DEGREES)

Figure 4.4-12. Dynamic Exhaust Manifold Pressure at 3500 RPM

102
OVERALL AlRlFUEL RATIO 1s: AVL PREDICTION 3600 RPY
NEW MANIFOLD, CAST IRON PISTON, XwPUMP (C.L.)

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
I M P 2AA)

Figure 4.4-1.3. Engine Performance for Configuration 10 at 3500 RPM

103
 25

20

E .15
!
B
i
.to

.05

1 s

1.20

1.15

3
0.
1.10

1.05

1.oo

Figure 4.4-13. Engine Performance for Configuration 10 at 3500 RPM (Continued)

104
 BUILD 12
BUILD 10
AVL PREDICTION
45 TO 1 NF RATIO
3500 RPM

Figure 4.4-14. Engine Parformance Comparisons at 3500 RPM for

Configurations 10 and 12

105
 a

20

-B .15

-pt
Q, .10

.05

115

1A

1.15
0
9
I
.
1-10

'.a

1.w
5 0 7 a 9 10 11 12 13 14
IMEP (BAR)

Figure 4.4-14 Engine Perfc- 'ancp Comparisons at 3500 RPM for

Configurations 10 and 12 (Continued)

106
 I I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
n
I
I I
I I
I
jii I

Figure 4.4-15. Cylinder Temperature Distribution for Configuration 10 at

3500 RPM and 9.6 BAA IMEP

107
 ORIGINAl PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY

I
$171

Figure 4.4-:6. Cylinder Temperature Oistributions for Configuration 12 at

350C RPM and 3.6 BAR IMEP

108
 0 BUILD 12A 4511 AIF
a BUILD 1lA W l AIF
0 BUILD 11A 5511 AIF

4 5 6 7 8 9 io 11 12 13 14

IYEP (BAR)

Figure 4.4-17. Engine Performance Comparison for Configurations

11 and 12 at 3500 RPM

109
 0 BUILD 12A 4 9 1 AIF
A BUILD 1 l A 4511 AIF
0BUILD 11A ssll AIF

IMEP (BAR)

Figure 4.4-17 Engine Prrldrmance Comparison for Configurations 11 and 12 at

3500 R F M (Contlnued)

110
 2 .4 .6 .8 1.o 1.2 1.4 1.6
SCAVENGE RATIO

Q
n
-
e uiu 12 CYL ~3 NEW MANIFOLD
-
0
0
-
BUILD 11 CYL ri NEW MANIFOLD
BUILD 4 CYL #3 ORIGINAL MANIFOLD
LOOP SCAVENGED 4.5' X BO" (REF 6)
a OPP. PISTON 5.27' X 7.25' (REF 6 )
0 UNIFLOW 4.5' X 5.0' (REF 8)
1(. AVL PREDICTION, AlRCRAFl DIESEL

Figure 4.4-18. Calculated Trapping Efficiencies Based on Methods Described in Reference 6

111
A BUILD THREE ALUMINUM PISTON, .aSOUISH wno STAINLESS STUEL COMBUSTION CHAMBER
CYLINDER NUMBER THREE. ORIGINAL MANIFOLD, BOSCH APF INJECTION SYSTEM. 53 TO 1AlRlFUEL
RATIO

8. BUILD FOUR ALUMINUM PISTON, .63 SQUISH RATIO STAINLESS STEEL COMBUSTIONCHAMSER.
CYLINDER NUMBER THREE, ORIGINAL MANIFOLD. CAE-X INJECTION SYSTEM, 59 to 1 AlRlFULL RATIO

C. BUILD TEN:CAST IRON PISTON, .B SWISH RATIO STAlNLEfS STEEL COMBUSTION CHAMBER CYLINDER
NUMBER THREE, NEW MANIFOLD, CLOSE COUPLED CAE-X INJECTION SYSTEM,51 to 1 AIWFUEL RATIO

0. BUILD TEN:CAST IRON PISTON, .8 SQUISH RATIO STAINLESS STEEL COMBUSTION CHAMBER CYLINDER
NUMBER THREE. NEW MANIFOLD, CLOSE COUPLED CAE-X INJECTION SYSTEM. 48 TO 1 AlRlFUEL RATIO

E. B u u wave CAST IRON PISTON WITH STAINLESS STEEL CAP, .a SQUISH RATIO STAINLESS STEEL
COMBUSTION CHAMBER, CYLINDER NUMBER THREE, CLOSE COUPLED CAE-X INJECTIONSYSTEM, 45 TO
1 NWNE~ wno

Figure 4.4-19. Required Overall Turbocharger Efficiency at 6.90 BAR IMEP and 3500 RPM
for Five Engine Cornfigurations

112
Figure 4.4-20. Engine Heat Balance at 6.9 Bar IMEP and 3500 RPM for Five Engine Configurations

113
 .aSQUISH w t o STAINLESS STEEL COMBUSTION CHAMBER
A. BUILD THREE ALUMINUM PISTON.
CYUNDER NUMBER THREE, ORIGINAL MANIFOLD, BOSCH APF INJECTION SYSTEM, 46.6 TO 1 AlRiFUEL
wno
9. BUILD FOUR ALUMINUM PISTON. .63 SQUISH RATIO STAINLESS STEEL COMBUSTION CHAMBER.
CYLINDER NUMBER THREE, ORIGINAL MANIFOLD, CAE-X INJECTIONSYSTEM. 46.7 lo 1 AIWFUEL RATIO

C. BUILD EN CAST IRON PISTON. .8 SOUlSH RATIO STAINLESS STEEL COMBUSTION CHAMBER. CYLINDER
NUMBER THREE. NEW MANIFOLD, CLOSE COUPLED CAE-X INJECTION SYSTEM, 45.6 to 1 AIWFUEL RATIO

D. BUILD TWELVE: CAST IRON PISTON WITH STAINLESS STEEL CAP, .8 SQUISH RATIO STAINLESS STEEL
COMBUSTION CHAMBER. CYLINDER NUMBER THREE, €LOSE COUPLED CAE-X INJECTIONSYSTEM, 45 TO
1 AIWNEL RATIO

Figure 4.4-21. Required Overall Turbocharger ffficlency at 9.0 BAR IMEP and 3500 RPM
for Four Engine Configurations

7 14
 EXHAUST INDI-
ENERGY CATED

(0)
0129184

Figure 4.4-22. Engine Heat Balance at 9.0 bar IMEP and 3500 RPM
Figure 4.4-23. Mass Fraction Burn Rates for Three Selected Points for Configuration 12

116
 100

80

ar
I 60
a
w
2a 40
m
c
50 EXPERIMENTAL
a 20
w
a

-20
-20 20

100

2411 AIF TRAPPED

80

I
9
240
t
3
E m
a

-20
-20 TDC 20 40

Figure 4.4-23. Mass Fraction Burn Rates for Three Selected Poinis for
Configuration 12 (Continued)

117
 2ooo 2500 3500
ENGINE APi4

Figure 4.4-24. Single Cjlinder Aircraft Diesel Performance of Configrlration

12A 3/4 Load Curve Propeller

118
 ENGINE RPM

Figure 4.4-24. Single Cylinder Aircraft Diesel Performance 0 ; Configbration 12A 314 Loa,!
Propeller Curve (Continued)

119
 AVL PREDICTION
BUILD 12A

-- -
BUILD 108
PROJECTED F@R 124

#100
ENGINE RPM

Figure 4.4-25. Single Cylinder Aircraft Performance of Configuration 12A,

Full Load Propeller Curve

120
Figure 4.4-25. Single Cylinder Aircraft Performance of Configuration 12A,
Full Load Propeller Curve (Continued)

121
 ORlGlPJAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY

.l!

!z -"
4-
%.a!

125

1s. Q
I-
a
a
w
.?5 0
2
>
a
0
cn

.25

1 1

w
5 1.1!
cn
90
%; 1.14
w a
Q
E
2 1.R
0

1.I

Figure 4.4.26. Airflow Parameters for Configuratlon 1%

 0 RPM
I 1
t I I
I I
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 PISTON SPEEDS (MIS)

Figure 4.4-27. FMEP Versus RPM and Piston Speed for SCTE

123
 ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY

z
c
n
w
z

0 AIRCRAFT MESEL 4 CYLINDER RADIAL TWOSTROKE, LOOP SCAVENGED 108 MM X 110 MM, 11 TO 1 C.R
(EFF), 2 COMPRESSION RINGS AND 1 OIL CONTROL RING. 'PREDICTED FRICTION FROM SCTE DATA

0 GM 871. INLINE 6 cfJNDERS. TWOSTROKE. UNIFLOW SCAVENGED, 4 MHAUST VALVES. 108 MM X 127 MM,
17 to 1 C.R (NOMINAL), 4 COMPRESSICN RINGS AND 2 OIL CONTilOL RINGS

0 AVM 310.4 CYLINDER 90 DEGREE V, TWOSTROKE, LOOP SCAVENGE, 108 MM X 139.7 MM, 18.7 TO 1 C.R.
(EFF). 4 COMPRESSION RINGS AND 1 OIL CONTROL RING

0 R670.7 CYLINDER RADIAL FOUR-STROKE.GASOLINE, ONE INLEl AND ONE EXHAUST VALVE 130 MM X
118 MM. 6 TO 1 C.R. 3 COMPRESSION RINGS AND 1 OIL CONTRi>L RING

Figure 5.1-1. FMEP Versus Piston Speed for GTDR 246 and Other Similar Engines

124
 FULL LOAD UP TO 6 KM ALTITUDE
FULL LOAD FROM 6 KM to 7.8 KM ALTITUDE
0 POWER CRUISE UP TO 7.8 KM
0 ECONOMY CRUISE UP TO 7.8 KM

ENGINE RPM

Overall AirlFuel Ratio = 42

Fuel Consumption - GMIKW-HR
Figure 5.1-2. Predicted GTOR 246 Fuel Map

125
 A FUU LOAD - 4OW RPM

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ALTITUDE (METERS X 1OOO)

Figure 5.1-3. Predicted Altitude Performance of Multicylinder Engine

126
 180 KW 218 KW
0-7800M 8100-7800M
I I
148 KUT
7.0 0-7800M

0.0

2 5.0.
W
a
3 40.
v)
In
w
E 3.0.

"1
CORRECTED AIRFLOW, KGISEC

Figure 5.2-1. Compressor Flow Requirement Plotted on an Advanced Compressor Map

Generated for NASA under Contract NAS3-22750

127
 a IDA

15 119

e
s Y - 11.8

s
; 10
0
s 0
-
10.8

2
3 %
5
Pu, 9P 0
Y
0 a c

5
f 0
z
8 0
5 Y
0
YU s>
U
a

figure 5.3-1. Piston Speed of Eleven Selected Aircraft Engines

128
I 22.1 221

17.9
17.5

1
11.4
!iw

f
9.7
2
eY 0
a 2
U
W
a
m
U
cn
a a w
wP Y

U
f U

I
Fi,ure 5.3-2. BMEP of Eleven Selected Airxaft Engines

129