In The Name of God The Most

Compassionate, The Most Merciful

Electric Machines

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Chapter 2
Principle of AC Machines
2.1. Rotating Magnetic Field

2.2. Electrical and Mechanical Angles

2.3. Induced Voltage

2.4. Pole-pitch and Coil-pitch

2.5. Pitch Factor

2.6. Distribution Factor

2.7. Winding Factor

2

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Rotating Magnetic Field
Consider the following 3-phase AC machine with 2 poles and
concentrated winding. The 3-phase AC currents can be expressed
as:

ia (t ) = I m cos  t
a'

ib (t ) = I m cos( t − 120 ) c t
N b
ic (t ) = I m cos( t + 120 ) 

ia ib ic
b' S

c'

a
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 3

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Rotating Magnetic Field
The rotating magnetomotive force (MMF) can be expressed as
   
F ( , t ) = Fa ( , t ) + Fb ( , t ) + Fc ( , t )

F ( , t ) = Nia (t ) cos  + Nib (t ) cos( − 120 ) + Nic (t ) cos( + 120 )

a'

c
ia ib ic
b 

S N 0 t
b'
c'

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Rotating Magnetic Field
The rotating magnetomotive force (MMF) can be expressed as

F ( , t ) = Nia (t ) cos + Nib (t ) cos( − 120 ) + Nic (t ) cos( + 120 )

F ( , t ) = NI m cos  t cos 
+ NI m cos( t − 120 ) cos( − 120 )
+ NI m cos( t + 120 ) cos( + 120 )
ia (t ) = I m cos t
F ( , t ) = 32 NI m cos( −  t ) ib (t ) = I m cos( t − 120 )
ic (t ) = I m cos( t + 120 )
cos a cos b = 12 cos(a − b) + 12 cos(a + b)
5

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Rotating Magnetic Field
a'
Note: As if current vector of a
c
winding and MMF space vector
are parallel b 
N
Note: They are essentially 
S N
different quantities and occur in
different domains b' S

c'
Ia a
t0 I
a F
N N N N


a' a a'

=t S S
i a (t ) = I m cos  t F ( , t ) = 32 NI m cos( −  t )
Phasor domain Space domain 6

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Electrical & Mechanical Angles for P-pole Machines
P 2
F ( , t ) = 32 NI m cos( ( −  t ))
2 p

p p
 elec =  mech elec = mech
2 2
4-pole 2-pole
a' a'
c
b c
b'

c' b
S N
a
S N
a
N b'
c' S
c'
b'
b
c a
a'

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Induced Voltage
The flux density seen in air gap from B
rotor is expressed as
N N

B ag ( ) = B m cos 
a' a 
B ag ( ) = B m cos( −  0 ) S


The air-gap flux linked toaa’ is a'
L 2

 =  B  dA a =   B a  rdld  c 
A 0 − 2 N b

a ( 0 ) = 2LrB m cos  0
a ( 0 ) = m cos  0 m = 2 LrBm b' S

c'
where L is the stator axial length and r is a
the stator inner radius 8

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Induced Voltage

 0 = t a (t ) = m cos  t B ag ( ) = B m cos( − 0 )

The induced voltage in coil aa’ with N a'

c
turns is t
da N b
ea (t ) = − N
dt
b' S
ea (t ) = Nm sin  t c'

eb (t ) = Nm sin( t − 120 )

a (0 ) = m cos0
ec (t ) = Nm sin( t + 120 ) 
ea (t ) = Nm sin  t = 2 Erms cos( t − )
Nm 2
Erms =
2 9

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Induced Voltage
Nm Nm 2f
Erms = Erms =
2 2
The RMS induced voltage in each phase
having N turns in series with
concentrated and full pitch windings is
Erms = 4.44 Nm f a'

For machines with distributed and/or c t

short pitch windings the RMS induced N b
voltage is
Erms = 4.44 Nm f k p k d S
b'
c'
Where kp is the pitch factor and kd is the
a
distribution factor. 10

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Pole Pitch
• Pole pitch: is the angle between two adjacent poles in electrical
angle. Pole pitch is always 180 electrical degrees regardless of
the number of poles.
p

a' a'
c
b c
b' t
c' N b
S N
a

a
c' N S b' S

b' c'
b
c a
a'

11

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Coil Pitch
• Coil pitch: is the angle between two sides of one armature coil
in electrical angle. If the coil pitch is 180 electrical degrees, the
coil is a full-pitch coil; otherwise it is called short- or chorded-
pitch coil.

a' a'

c

b

=

b'
c'

a a
12

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

  −
Pitch Factor
L 2

a =   B a  rdld  = 2LrB m cos  cos  0

0 − 2 +

a pitch ( 0 ) = m pitch cos  0 =  m cos  cos  0 = k p m cos  0

a'
Therefore the pitch factor is 

k p = cos  = sin ( )

2 

a
13

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Pitch Factor
• Since the induced voltage may not
be ideal sinusoidal, the pitch factor
is expressed for all harmonics
B ag ( ) = B m cos n
( )

L
n
2

 =  B  dA a =   B a  rdld  k pn = sin
B ag ( ) = B m cos n ( −  0 ) A 0 − 2
2

• Why is short-pitch coil used?

a'

• Although short-pitch coil decreases
the induced voltage (by about 3%),
it decreases the disturbing 
harmonics significantly (by about 70
to 80%).

• Disturbing harmonics in electric a

machines are 5 and 7;
14

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Pitch Factor
• Example: Consider a 3-phase, 2-pole machine having pitch coil
ratio of 5/6. Calculate the pitch factor for odd harmonics 1 to 7.
 5
Pich factor ratio = = Electrical rad
 6

k pn = sin ( )n
2 
a'

k p1 = sin ( 256 ) = 0.966

k p 3 = sin ( ) = −0.707
35 
26

k p 5 = sin ( 5256 ) = 0.259

k p 7 = sin ( 7256 ) = 0.259 a

15

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Distributed Windings
• To make the MMF more sinusoidal, distributed windings are
used.
a2
• Consider the following 2-pole a3 a1
c'1 b'3
single-layer distributed winding
AC machine: c'2 20 20
b'2
o o

• The induced voltage in phase a

c'3 b'1
is:
    b1 c3
Eaa = Eaa1 + Eaa 2 + Eaa3
b2 c2

E aa = E rms 20 + E rms 0 + E rms  − 20 b3 c1

a'1 a'2 a'3

Eaa = 2.88 Erms 0
16

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Distribution Factor
• Distribution factor is defined as:
Induced voltage for distributed winding
kd =
Induced voltage for concentrated winding
a3 a2 a1
• In previous example c'1 b'3

2.88 Erms c'2 b'2

kd =
20o 20o

3Erms c'3 b'1

b1 c3
k d = 0.96 c2
b2
b3 c1
a'1 a'2 a'3
17

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Distributed Windings
a3 a2 a1

a, b , c and d are located on o − centered circle c'1 b'3

c'2  b'2

c'3 b'1

b  E aa 2 c b1 c3
E aa1 
c2
E aa3 b2
b3 c1
a d
E aa = E aa1 + E aa 2 + E aa3 a'1 a'2 a'3

3
sin
   | E aa |= 2 | E c |= k  | E c |
→ →   aa  d aa 
| ab |= 2 | oa | sin 3sin
2 2
→ 3 o
→
m
| E aa |=| ad |= 2 | oa | sin sin
2 kd = 2
→ →  
if not distributed  | E aa |= 3 | ab |= 3  2 | oa | sin
c
m sin
2 2 18

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Multi-layer Winding
• Most of AC machines, especially large machines, have 2-layer
winding.
• 2-layer winding has the following advantages compared to
single-layer winding:
a1
1. Higher mechanical strength a3
c'1 a4 b'4
c'2 a2
c'3
2. Optimal use of slots
N b'3 b'2
c'4 b2 
3. Lower cost
b'1 c3
S
b1 b4
c4
c1
a'1
b3 a'3 c2
a'4
a'2

19

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Distribution Factor
• Distribution factor is defined as:
Induced voltage for distributed winding
kd =
Induced voltage for concentrated winding
• Assume the angle between two
adjacent slots is  in electrical angle a3 a2 a1
and the number of slots per pole per c'1 b'3
phase is m, therefore the distribution c'2  b'2
factor is written as
sin m2 c'3 b'1
kd =
m sin 2 b1 c3

• In n-th harmonic it is b2 c2
sin m 2n  c1
k dn =
b3
m sin n2 a'1 a'2 a'3
20

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Winding Factor
• Winding factor is defined as
N s = 3p  m

kw = k p kd p 360
= elec.deg.
2 Ns

a3 a2 a1
c'1 b'3

()
m
 sin
k p = sin kd = 2 c'2  b'2
m sin 2
2

c'3 b'1

( ) sin m 2n 
b1 c3
n
k pn = sin k dn =
m sin n2
2 b2 c2

b3 c1
a'1 a'2 a'3
21

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Winding Factor
• Example: Consider a 3-phase, 2-pole generator where its stator
winding connected in star form. The machine has 1-layer,
complete-pitch, distributed winding with 4 coils per phase. If
each coil has 20 turns, electric frequency is 50Hz and the flux of
each pole is 25 mWb, calculate the phase induced voltage.

N l =1 N cp = 4

N tc = 20 f = 50 Hz

 = 0.025 Wb p=2

Eaa = ?

Erms = 4.44 N t f  k w kw = k p kd
22

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Winding Factor
• Solution:
In one-layer winding:
p nr m = N cp = 4
f = = 50 Hz
2 60 Number of slots is
Number of turns per phase is N s = 3 p  m = 24
Slot-pitch is
N t = N tc N cp = 80
p 360 360
= = = 15 elec.deg.
Coil pitch is 2 Ns 24
Distribution factor
 = 180 elec.deg. sin m2 sin 4215
kd = 
= 415
= 0.9577
Pitch factor is found as m sin 2 4sin 2
E rms = 4.44  80  50  0.025 1 0.9577
k p =1
E rms = 425.2 V 23

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Winding Factor
• Example: Consider a 3-phase, 2-pole generator where its stator
winding connected in star form. The machine has 2-layer, short-
pitch, distributed winding with 4 coils per phase. If each coil has
10 turns, rotor is rotated with 3000 rpm and the flux of each
pole is 0.019 Wb, calculate the phase induced voltage.
Nl = 2 N cp = 4 a3 a1
c'1 a4 b'4
a2
N tc = 10
c'2
nr = 3000 rpm c'3

N b'3 b'2
c'4 b2 
 = 0.019 Wb p=2
b'1 c3
S
b1 b4
Eaa = ? a'1
c4
c1
b3 a'3 c2

Erms = 4.44Nt f  kw kw = k p kd
a'4
a'2

24

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Winding Factor
• Solution: N l = 2 N cp = 4 N tc = 10 nr = 3000 rpm

 = 0.019 Wb p=2 Eaa = ? Erms = 4.44 N t f  k w kw = k p kd

p nr
f = = 50 Hz
2 60
Number of turns per phase is a3
c'1
a1
a4 b'4
a2
N t = N tc N cp = 40
c'2
c'3

N b'3 b'2

Coil pitch is c'4 b2 

b'1 c3
 = 150 elec.deg. b1 b4
S
c4
c1
a'1
Pitch factor is found as b3 a'3 c2

( ) = sin ( ) = 0.966
a'4
a'2

k p = sin 2
150
2 25

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Winding Factor
• Solution: Nl = 2 N cp = 4 Ntc = 10 nr = 3000 rpm

 = 0.019 Wb p=2 Eaa = ? Erms = 4.44Nt f  kw kw = k p kd

f = 50 Hz N t = 40 k p = 0.966
• Number of slots per pole per phase a1
a3
m = Ns 3 p = 2 c'2
c'1 a4 b'4
a2
• Slot-pitch is c'3

b'3 b'2
p 360 360 N
= = = 30 elec.deg. c'4 b2 
2 Ns 12 b'1 c3
• Distribution factor b1 b4
S
c4
c1
m 230 a'1
sin sin
kd = = = 0.966
2 2 b3 a'3 c2
a'4
 30 a'2
m sin 2 2 sin 2 26

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli

 Winding Factor
• Solution: N l = 2 N cp = 4 N tc = 10 nr = 3000 rpm

 = 0.019 Wb p=2 Eaa = ? Erms = 4.44 N t f  k w kw = k p kd

f = 50 Hz N t = 40 k p = 0.966 k d = 0.966
• The RMS value of the phase a1
a3
induced voltage is c'1 a4 b'4
a2
c'2
c'3
Erms = 4.44  40  50  0.019  0.966  0.966 b'3 b'2
N
c'4 b2 
b'1 c3
Erms = 157 V b1 b4
S
c4
c1
a'1
b3 a'3 c2
a'4
a'2

27

2021 Pasargad Steel Company Dr. M. Pourahmadi-Nakhli