JDMLM CS

Journal of
Degraded and Mining

Lands Management
http://www.jdmlm.ub.ac.id
ISSN: 2339-076X Vol 3 No 3 (April 2016)
International Research Centre for the Management of

Degraded and Mining Lands
http://www.ircmedmind.ub.ac.id
About the Journal
Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management (JDMLM): ISSN:2339-076X (e); 2502-2458 (p) is
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the Management of Degraded and Mining Lands (IRC-MEDMIND), a research collaboration between
University of Brawijaya-Indonesia, University of Mataram-Indonesia, Massey University-New Zealand and
Chinese Academy of Sciences-China in attempting to create opportunities in the management of degraded
and mining lands. Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management is published in a single volume every
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Editorial Team
Editor-in-Chief
Eko Handayanto, International Research Centre for the Management of Degraded and Mining Lands,
University of Brawijaya, Indonesia
Associate Editor-in-Chief
Christopher W Anderson, Institute of Natural Resources, Massey University, Palmerston North, New
Zealand
Novi Arfarita, International Research Centre for the Management of Degraded and Mining Lands,
University of Brawijaya, and Malang Islamic University, Indonesia
Wani Hadi Utomo, Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Brawijaya,
Indonesia
International Editorial Board
Baiq Dewi Krisnayanti, Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Mataram,
Lombok, Indonesia
Hamdan Jol, Department of Land Management, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
Malaysia
Constantinos Ehaliotis, Department of Natural Resources and Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural
University of Athens, Greece
B M Kumar, College of Forestry, Kerala Agricultural University, India
Anizan Isahak, Faculty of Science and Technology, School of Environmental and Natural Resource
Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
John Bako Baon, Indonesian Coffee and Cocoa Research Institute, Jember, Indonesia
Juanxu Wang, State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Guiyang, China
Suhartini S, Department of Agricultural Economics, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Brawijaya,
Indonesia
Tsuyoshi Imai, Division of Environmental Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Science and
Engineering, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
Index
@IRC-MEDMIND 2016: All rights reserved

JOURNAL OF DEGRADED AND MINING LANDS MANAGEMENT
ISSN: 2339-076X (e); 2502-2458 (p), Volume 3, Number 3 (April 2016)
Contents
Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on the potential of three wild plant species 551-558
for phytoextraction of mercury from small-scale gold mine tailings
A Fiqri, W H Utomo, E Handayanto
Mercury content in wetland rice soil and water of two different seasons at small- 559-564
scale gold mine processing areas
T Sugianti, F Zulhaedar, S F Batubara
Status of macro and micronutrients from deposited tailings in reclamation area, PT 565-576
Freeport Indonesia, Timika
S Taberima, R Sarwom
Comparison of two kinetics models for estimating N mineralization affected by 577-583
different quality of organic matter in Typic Hapludults
A Wijanarko, B H Purwanto
Analysis of the factors affecting the poverty in rural areas around gold mine areas in 585-594
West Sumbawa Regency
Ibrahim, M Baiquni, S Ritohardoyo, Setiadi
Characteristics of soils developed from alluvium and their potential for cocoa plant 595-601
development in East Kolaka Regency, Southeast Sulawesi
E Yatno, Sudarsono, Iskandar, B Mulyanto
Biological properties of soils of former forest fires in Samosir Regency of North 603-607
Sumatera
D Elfiati, Delvian
www.jdmlm.ub.ac.id i
ISSN: 2339-076X (e); 2502-2458 (p), Volume 3, Number 3 (April 2016): 551-558
DOI:10.15243/jdmlm.2016.033.551
Research Article
Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on the potential of three wild

plant species for phytoextraction of mercury from small-scale gold
mine tailings
A. Fiqri1*, W.H. Utomo2, E. Handayanto2
1
Postgraduate Programme, Faculty of Agriculture, Brawijaya University, Jalan Veteran No. 1, Malang 65145,
Indonesia
2
IRC-MEDMIND, Brawijaya University, Jalan Veteran No. 1, Malang 65145, Indonesia
*. corresponding author: amrullahfiqri@gmail.com
Abstract: A study that was aimed to explore the effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi
inoculation on the potential of wild plant species (Paspalum conjugatum, Cyperus kyllingia, and
Lindernia crustacea) for phytoextraction of mercury from small-scale gold mine tailings was conducted
in a glasshouse. Each of the plant seedlings was planted in a plastic pot containing 10 kg of planting
medium (mixture of tailings and compost; 50%: 50% by weight). Treatments tested were three plant
species and doses of AM fungi inoculation, i.e. 0 and 30 spores/plant. At harvest of 63 days, plant shoot
and root were analyzed for mercury concentration. The remaining planting media in the pots were used
for growing maize for 84 days. The results showed that the most potential plant species for
phytoextraction of mercury was Paspalum conjugatum, while the most mercury tolerant plant was
Cyperus kyllingia. Without AM fungi inoculation, the highest accumulation of mercury (44.87 mg/kg)
was found in the root of Paspalum conjugatum. If AM fungi were inoculated, the highest accumulation of
mercury (56.30 mg/kg) was also found in the shoot of Paspalum conjugatum. Results of the second
experiment proved that the growth and biomass production of maize after mycophytoextraction by the
plant species were higher than those of maize grown on media without mycophytoextraction of mercury.
Keywords: C.kyllingia, gold mine tailings, L.crustacea, mercury, P.conjugatum, phytoextraction
Introduction on average the amalgamation tailings contains

3,002 mg Hg / kg, while the gold cyanidation
Indonesia is considered as the main location for tailings contain 1,628 mg Hg / kg. These high Hg
the small gold mining activities (ASGM). In 2010, contents in the tailings led to the increasing Hg
there were about 900 ASGM spots in Indonesia, content in soils contaminated by small-scale gold
which cover approximately 250,000 miners and mine tailings. A sustainable technology that
about 1 million populations depend on this sector promises to restoration of metal contaminated soil
(Ismawati, 2010). In most of the ASGM in is phytoremediation (Padmavathiamma and Li,
Indonesia, generally amalgamation process with 2007).
mercury followed by cyanidation process are used Phytoextraction is the most widely used
to recover gold (Viega et al., 2006). One of technique in phytoremediation of heavy metal
ASGM sites is located in Sekotong District of contaminated soil (Mertens et al., 2004). The use
West Lombok. Wastes of the amalgamation and of native plants is the focus of phytoextraction.
cyanidation processes in the form of sludge that Because of many species of native plants that
still contain Hg and various other heavy metals, have adapted to the contaminated conditions, then
are generally discharged to agricultural land and the best way for the selection of the best species is
water bodies. Results of a survey conducted by through observation of native plant species that
Krisnayanti et al. (2012) at ASGM locations in can grow near heavy metal contaminated area
Sekotong District of West Lombok showed that (Monica and Maier, 2008). Previous studies
www.jdmlm.ub.ac.id 551
Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on phytoextraction of mercury from small-scale gold mine tailings
reported that in areas contaminated by tailings and Harrier, 2001; Feng et al., 2003), the
generated from gold cyanidation processes at availability of water (Auge, 2001) and the
Sekotong District of West Lombok there were at improvement of soil aggregation (Kabir and
least 28 species of plants that have long to adapt Koide, 2000; Rillig and Steinberg, 2002). This
and survive in extreme conditions (high metal study was aimed to explore the effects of AM
concentration) (Handayanto et al., 2014). Among fungi inoculation on the potential of three wild
them, three species (Paspalum conjugatum, plant species (Paspalum conjugatum, Cyperus
Cyperus kyllingia, and Lindernia crustacea) wee kyllingia, and Lindernia crustacea) for
candidates for phytoextraction of mercury from phytoextraction of mercury from small-scale gold
soil contaminated with small-scale gold mine mine tailings at Sekotong District of West
tailings. Lombok, Indonesia.
The plant does not solely do phytoextracton
since there is always the interaction between
microorganisms in the rhizosphere that led to Materials and Methods
increased activity associated with the remediation Inoculation of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM)
(Compant et al., 2010). Utomo et al. (2014) fungi and phytoextraction of Hg
reported that Paspalum conjugatum, Cyperus
kyllingia, and Lindernia crustacea found in the The study was conducted in a glasshouse STPP
ASGM locations at Sekotong District of West Malang from June to December 2014. Each of the
Lombok were in association with Glomus three plant species (Paspalum conjugatum,
aggregatum, Glomus deserticola, Glomus Cyperus kyllingia, and Lindernia crustacea) that
geosporum, Glomus leptotichum, and Glomus have been reported to be tolerant to gold
mossaeae. This suggests that the association of cyanidation tailings (Handayanto et al., 2014),
mycorrhizae with the three plant species can be was planted in a plastic pot containing cyanidation
further developed for mycophytoremediation. tailing and compost mixture (50%: 50% by
Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are weight) referring to the method of Mendez et al.
important endophytes that live in the roots of most (2007). The tailings were collected from a tailing
terrestrial plants. This symbiosis directly benefits disposal site at Sekotong District of West Lombok
plant growth through the acquisition of (1150. 46'-1160.20' E and 80.25'-80.55' S). The
phosphorus and other nutrients from the soil. In characterization of tailings that included texture,
addition, the fungus can also increase plant pH, as well as organic C, total-N, total P, and Hg
resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses (Harrier contents, was performed by standard laboratory
and Sawczak, 2000). AM fungi also play an methods of Soil Laboratory, Brawijaya
important role in reducing the influence of heavy University. Total mercury concentration was
metal stress on plants (Hildebrandt et al., 2007). determined using a F732-S Mercury Cold Vapor
AM fungi can reduce metal stress on host plants Atomic Absorption analyzer (Shanghai Huaguang
or improve plant growth through a variety of Instrument Company).
ways. Production and excretion of organic Results of tailing analysis showed the tailing
compounds (e.g., citrate and oxalate) can improve characteristics as follows: sandy loam texture, pH
the dissolution of phosphate mineral, which is one 8.73, 0.47% organic C, 0.02% N, 5 mg P / kg, and
of essential nutrients for plants (Harms et al., 357.75 mg Hg/kg. Compost used in this study was
2011). On the other hand, the increased solubility obtained from Brawijaya University Composting
of metals or metal complexation through Unit with a composition of 1.2% N, 1.4% P,
mycosphere acidification can enhance the uptake 0.63% K, pH 5, C/N ratio of 12-13 and 30%
of metals by plants that it is very important in water. Results of chemical analysis of the tailings
phytoextraction. Metal complexation occurs and compost mixture were as follows: pH 7.83,
through glomalin, i.e. metal absorber glycoprotein 1.73% organic C, 0.07% N, 17.68 mg P / kg, and
produced by AM fungi and biosorption into the 130.39 mg Hg / kg. The treatments tested in this
cell wall constituent such as chitin and chitosan study were combinations of three plant species,
(Harms et al., 2011). AM fungi inoculation, and without AM fungi
External mycelium of AM fungi cause more inoculation. Dose of AM fungi inoculation was 30
breadth exploitation of the soil volume that can be spores per plant. Two pre-germinated seeds of
reached by the roots (Khan et al., 2000; Malcova each plant species were planted on 10 kg of
et al., 2003), thus increasing access to heavy planting medium described above and grown for
metals in the rhizosphere. In addition to the 63 days. Before planting, each pot received basal
above, AM fungi can improve plant growth on fertilizers of 100kg N / ha (urea), 50kg P2O5 / ha
heavy metals contaminated soil (Enkhtuya et al., (SP36) and 50kg K2O / ha (KCl). Six treatments
2002) due to improved supply of nutrients (Taylor were arranged in a completely randomized design
Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 552

with three replicates. The water content of the (KCl). During the experiment, water was supplied
growing medium was maintained at a water every day to maintain a sufficient water supply for
holding capacity. During the experiment, water plant growth. At harvest (84 days), maize shoot
was supplied every day to maintain a sufficient dry weight, maize root dry weight, maize cob dry
water supply for plant growth. Plant height was weight, and Hg contents in maize shoot and root
measured every 7 days, while shoot biomass, root were measured as in the first experiment. Data
biomass, and number of AM fungi spores were obtained were subjected to analysis of variance
measured at harvest (63 days). The shoot biomass followed by least significant difference test at 5%.
and root biomass were dried in an oven at 40 ° C
for 48 hours for the analysis of Hg using a F732-S
Mercury Cold Vapor Atomic Absorption analyzer Results and Discussion
(Shanghai Huaguang Instrument Company). Data Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi density
obtained were subjected to analysis of variance
followed by least significant difference test at 5%. Of the three types of AM fungi found, Glomus
was the most widely population colonizing the
Effect of mycophytoextraction of Hg on growth plant roots (Figure 1). The highest number of
of maize Glomus was observed at P.conjugatum (PcM1)
Pots that still contained the growing media after treatment and the lowest was at L.crustacea
harvesting the first experiment above were then (LcM1) treatment. P.conjugatum was a better host
used for growing maize (NK33 maize variety plant for AM fungi than L. crustacea. The
from Board of Agriculture of Malang) for 84 determinant of the effectiveness of AM fungi
days. Seven treatments (six former treatments of inoculation in addition to placement and soil
the first experiment, and one control - planting conditions / environment is host plant species.
medium without phytoextraction of mercury) Comparison of AM fungi density in each
were arranged in a completely randomized block treatment presented in Figure 1 shows that
design with three replicates. Before planting, each Glomus was the most compatible AM fungi
pot received basal fertilizers of 100kg N / ha against the three plant species studied.
(urea), 50kg P2O5 / ha (SP36) and 50kg K2O / ha
90
80
70
Number of Spores
P. conjugatum
60
C. kyllingia
50
40 L. curstacea
30
20
10
0
Glomus Gigaspora Skutelespora
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
Figure 1. Density of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi.
Growth of P. conjugatum, C. kyllingia, and growth and biomass (shoot and root) weight of the
L.crustacea three plant species (Figure 3). In line with the
growth, the highest shoot and root dry weights
P.conjugatum with AM fungi (PcM1) had the
were found in P.conjugatum with AM fungi
fastest growth, while L. crustacea without AM
(PcM1), while the lowest was observed for
fungi (LcM0) had the slowest growth (Figure 2).
L.crustacea. This indicates that P.conjugatum was
Since the beginning of the growth period,
more tolerant to Hg than the other two plant
P.conjugatum showed a high level of adaptation.
species.
AM fungi inoculation significantly affected plant

Effect of arbuscular myccorhizal fungi on phytoextraction of mercury from contaminated soil
160
140
Treatments
Plant Height (cm)

120
PcM0
100
80 PcM1
60 CkM0
40 CkM1
20 LcM0
0 LcM1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Weeks
Figure 2. Growth of P.conjugatum, C.kyllingia, and L.crustacea with and without AM fungi inoculation.
PcMO = P. conjugatum without AM fungi inoculation, PcM1 = P. conjugatum with AM fungi
inoculation. CkMo = C. kyllingia without AM fungi inoculation, CkM1 = C. kyllingia with
AM fungi inoculation, LcMo = L. crustacea without AM fungi inoculation,
LcM1 = L. crustacea with AM fungi inoculation.
14
12
Shoot
Dry Weight (g/pot)
10
Root
8
0
PcM0 PcM1 CkM0 CkM1 LcM0 LcM1
Treatments *)
Figure 3. Shoot and root dry weights of P.conjugatum, C.kyllingia, and L.crustacea with and without AM
fungi inoculation. *) see Figure 2.
Mercury accumulation by P. conjugatum, statistical analysis, however, showed that AM

C.kyllingia, and L.crustacea fungi inoculation did not significantly affect the
accumulation of mercury. This might indicate a
The highest Hg accumulation (56.3 mg / kg) was
loss of Hg which can be attributed to Hg
observed in the shoot of P.conjugatum with AM
volatilization as a result of AM fungi influence
fungi inoculation (PcM1), while the lowest Hg
(Yu et al., 2010). All treatments posed TF values
accumulation (4.71 mg/kg) was found in the root
of more than 1, i.e. PcM1 = 2.78, PcM0 = 1.96,
of L. crustacea without AM fungi inoculation
CkM0 = 2.44, CkM1 = 1.80, LcM0 = 1.41, LcM1
(LcM0) (Figure 4). The highest total mercury
= 1.62; indicating that all tested plants are
accumulation (shoot and root) was found in
potential plants for phytoextraction strategy
P.conjugatum with AM fungi (PcM1) of 76.53
(Brooks, 1998).
mg/kg and the lowest was in L. crustacea without
AM fungi (LcM0) of 11.34 mg/kg. Results of

70
Hg accumulation (mg/kg dry weight)

Shoot
60
Root
50
40
30
20
10
-
PcM0 PcM1 CkM0 CkM1 LcM0 LcM1
Treatments *)
Figure 4. Accumulation of mercury in shoot and root of P.conjugatum, C.kyllingia, and L.crustacea with
and without AM fungi inoculation. *) see Figure 2.
.
It is thought that the bioavailability of mercury in Growth and biomass of maize after
the rooting zones of the three plant species mycophytoextraction of mercury
declined into a form that was less soluble as
The fastest growth rate of maize was initially
absorbed by organic compounds released by plant
observed in the media previously grown with AM
roots, or absorb the metal into the root surface,
fungi inoculated P.conjugatum (PcM1) (Figure 5).
and then accumulated the metal in the plant
Compared to the maize growth rate at the control
tissues (Berti and Cunningham, 2000; Wong,
treatment (media with no phytoextraction
2003). Outside the roots, the hyphae and root
treatment), the growth rate at all treatments were
surface can absorb Hg so that Hg translocation
better. The rate of maize growth in the treatments
into roots can be inhibited, and inside the roots, it
with AM fungi inoculation was higher than that of
changes cell wall components of plant, hence
without AM fungi. This indicates the role of AM
possibly enhancing the sequestration of Hg (Yu et
fungi in improving environmental conditions for
al., 2010).
plant growth against stresses. Harms et al. (2011)
In line with this, buffering heavy metal-
pointed out that AM fungi could reduce stress
stress has been assigned, at least partly, to
against metal to enhance plant growth. Faramarzi
selective immobilization of heavy metals in those
et al. (2012) reported that AM fungi application
root tissues that contain fungal structures (Kaldorf
increased biomass, yield and yield components of
et al., 1999) or to the high metal sorption capacity
maize.
of the extra radical mycelium of AM fungi (Joner
The highest maize plant biomass was also
et al., 2000). Overall, the tested three plant species
observed in the media previously treated with AM
could be used for phytoextration of mercury from
fungi inoculated P.conjugatum (PcM1) and the
small-scale gold mine tailings, but their
lowest was in the control treatment (media with
interactions with AM fungi did not significantly
no phytoextraction treatment). Data presented in
affect the accumulation of mercury. AM fungi
Figure 6 show that treatment of three plant
have generally such a strong influence on plant
species, both with and without AM fungi, did not
biomass that the mycorrhizal effect on
significantly affect weights of shoot, root, and
phytoextraction remains positive (Wang et al.,
maize seed. This is because the maize plant is
2007). The highest potential for mercury
tolerant of extreme conditions, such as heavy
accumulator was P.conjugatum with AM fungi
metal stress and lack of water.
inoculation, but C.kyllingia without AM fungi
inoculation also posed as the potential plant for
phytoextraction of mercury.

200
180
Plant (maize) height (cm)

160 Treatments *)
140 PcM0
120 PcM1
100 CkM0
80
CkM1
60
LcM0
40
LcM1
20
0 Control
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Weeks
Figure 5. Growth of maize on growing media previously grown with of P.conjugatum, C.kyllingia, and
L. crustacea with and without AM fungi inoculation. *) see Figure 2.
60
Maize Shoot
50
Dry Weight (g/pot)
Maize Root
40
30
20
10
0
PcM0 PcM1 CkM0 CkM1 LcM0 LcM1 Control
Treatments *)
Figure 6. Dry weights of shoot and root of maize on growing media previously grown with of
P.conjugatum, C.kyllingia, and L.crustacea with and without AM fungi inoculation. *) see Figure 2.
Mercury accumulation by maize PcM1 because of the lowest Hg accumulation in

maize seed (0.09 mg/kg). However, if the maize
Results of analysis of variance proved that the
shoot is to be used for animal feed, the optimal
treatments significantly affected the accumulation
treatment is CkMo because of the lowest
of mercury in maize. Mercury accumulation the
accumulation of mercury in the maize shoot (0.87
maize root was higher than that in the maize shoot
mg / kg). The overall results of the second
and seed (Figure 7). The highest mercury
experiment showed that the accumulation of
accumulation in maize shoot (2.34 mg / kg) was
mercury in maize grown on media previously
found on the media previously planted with AM
remediated by three plant species (experiment 1)
fungi inoculated P.conjugatum (PcM1), while the
was lower than that in maize grown on non
lowest mercury accumulation in maize shoot (0.87
remediated planting media. Based on the TF
mg/kg) was found on media previously planted
(Translocation Factor) values, the three plant
with non AM fungi inoculated C.kyllingia
species were potential for phytoextraction of
(CkMo) (Figure 7). If the maize is to be used for
mercury from small-scale gold mine tailings.
human consumption, the optimal treatment is

Figure 7. Accumulation of mercury in shoot, seed, and root of maize on growing media previously grown
with of P.conjugatum, C.kyllingia, and L.crustacea with and without AM fungi inoculation.
*) see Figure 2.
Conclusion Acknowledgements
AM fungi were commonly found in the rooting The authors wish to thank farmers of Sekotong District
zone of various indigenous plants grown near the for their kind help in collecting tailing samples. This
area contaminated with small-scale gold mine study was partly supported by the International Centre
tailings at Sekotong District of West Lombok. for the Management of Degraded and Mining Lands of
Brawijaya and Mataram Universities base.
AM fungi found were Glomus, Gigaspora and
Skutelespora. Glomus was the most colonizing the
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DOI:10.15243/jdmlm.2016.033.559
Research Article
Mercury content in wetland rice soil and water of two different seasons
at small-scale gold mine processing areas
T. Sugianti1*, F. Zulhaedar1, S.F. Batubara2
1
Institute for Agricultural Technology (BPTP) of West Nusa Tenggara, Jl. Raya Peninjauan Narmada West Lombok
NTB-83371, Indonesia
2
Institute for Agricultural Technology (BPTP) of North Sumatra, Jl. Jend. Besar AH. Nasution No 1 B Medan-
20143, Indonesia
corresponding author: titin_sugianti@yahoo.co.id
Abstract: This study was aimed to identify the impact of small-scale gold processing activities on
mercury content in wetland rice soil and water during the rainy and first dry seasons in Central Lombok
and West Lombok Districts. The method used for this study was survey method. Measurement of
mercury levels in water samples was conducted at Agro Bogor Centre using SNI 6989.77: 2011 methods.
The data was collected and processed in a simple statistic presented descriptively, in order to obtain
information. Results of the study showed that mercury content soils in the rainy season exceeded the
threshold of 0.005 ppm, while in the first dry season the mercury content in soil decreased, but it was still
above the threshold value permitted. The contents of mercury in water samples in the rainy season and the
first dry season were still at a safe point that was less than 0.05 ppm. The wetland rice soil and water had
been polluted with mercury, although the mercury content in the water was still below the threshold, but
the accumulation of mercury that could have been absorbed by the plants are of particular concerns. The
decrease of mercury content in soil in dry season was due to lack of gold processing activities.
Keywords : mercury content, planting season, wetland rice,
Introduction be cultivated during the rainy season and the first

dry season, because of the sufficient water supply
One of issues of the 2003-2009 Medium Term for irrigation. This also affects small-scale gold
Development Plan of West Nusa Tenggara processing activities that operate during the rainy
Province in Indonesia is the deterioration of season and the first dry season as the activities
environmental quality. Strategies to address the require water.
issue is made by optimizing the empowerment of The small-scale gold processing activities in
spatial and environment management with the use the southern region of Lombok Island began to
of sciences and technologies. For this purpose, the spread in 2008. The process that is called
direction of general policy made is to improve the “gelondong” (rotary mill) produced waste
environmental quality and capacity with holistic containing heavy metals such as mercury. Besides
control that supports all industrial and agricultural the ‘gelondong’ process, the small-scale gold
subsectors for agricultural and environmental processing unit also developed ‘tong’ (drum)
sustainability. process as the final process for obtaining gold ore
There are two seasons in Indonesia, with the success rate of 99% (Tangkuman et al.,
particularly in West Nusa Tenggara, i.e. rainy 2008). Waste of the process is collected in a non-
season and dry season. The length of dry season, permanent tank. The wastewater is often
and the short of rainy season and the heavy discharge directly into sewers, ditches, ponds or
rainfall at a given time cannot be separated from streams which are used as farmland irrigation
the El-Nino and La-Nina (Wikipedia, 2013). In water. Besides of economic profit from small-
Lombok Island, the majority of wetland rice can scale gold mining (Hilson 2002a; Eriyati and
Mercury content in wetland rice soil and water of small-scale gold mine processing areas
Iyan, 2011; Hoedoafia et al., 2014), there is areas and wetland rice surrounding soil sampling
several environmental damage caused by the points with the radius of 0-10 m. Another material
activity (Hilson, 2002b; Kessey and Arko, 2013). used for the study was a map of earth that was
According to Polii and Sonya (2002), used as the basis for making a sampling point
mercury can enter human body through food and distribution map and description of soil and water
breathing. Mercury that enters to the human body analyses. Several chemical reagents were used in
will be able to poison and damage the nervous the laboratory for soil analysis purposes. Field
system of the brain, and cause birth defects as equipment used included GPS, soil augers, plastic
happened in the case of Minamata Bay, Japan. bags, labels, and stationery. Instrument used for
The disposal of mercury waste to seawater that data analysis was a computer set supported by
was conducted by PT Newmont over years in several software including ArcGIS 10.0 for spatial
Manado has resulted in contamination of fish in analysis.
the water. The mercury-contaminated fish that are The method used in this study was a survey
consumed by people around the area caused an method. Secondary data were collected from
outbreak of not contagious neurology that was Environment Agency of West Nusa Tenggara
very detrimental to health as well as the Province, Environment Agency of West Lombok
devastation of public health. District, and Environment Agency of Central
The main sources of heavy metal Lombok District. Mapping activity that was
contaminants are from the air and water that carried out by observation along villages and sub-
contaminate soil. Plants that grow on the districts of each district. The map was then used
contaminated soil will in turn accumulate the for determination of observation points based
metals in all plant parts (roots, stems, leaves and location points for sampling of soil and water.
fruit) (Supriadi, 2010). Livestock will then harvest Samples were taken from areas affected by the
the heavy metals in plants and accumulated in discharge of wastewater of small-scale gold
parts of the meat. processing activities. Ten observation points were
Human that belongs to the omnivore group assigned for each district. Soil and water sampling
will then be contaminated with the heavy metals was conducted at each sampling point with a
from four main sources, namely the inhaled air proportional random sampling technique. The
when breathing, drinking water, plants (vegetables sampling was conducted twice, i.e. at rainy season
and fruits), and livestock (such as meat, eggs, and and at first dry season. Analysis of mercury
milk) (Widaningrum et al., 2007). It has been content in the collected soil samples was
reported that water, soil, and air pollution caused conducted at Bogor Soil Testing Laboratory with
by mining waste resulted in the decreased level of Hydride Vapour Generator method using Atomic
children health, increased respiratory and Absorption Spectrophotometer. Analysis of
gastrointestinal diseases, decreased agricultural mercury content in the collected water samples
output which in turn results in the increase of was conducted at Agro Bogor Centre using SNI
poverty rates of farmers and citizens around 6989.77: 2011 methods. The data obtained were
mining regions (Aragon and Rud, 2012) then processed in a simple statistic presented
Based on the problems generated from descriptively in order to obtain factual
mercury toxicity due to the small-scale gold information.
processing activities, this study was aimed to The sampling sites in West Lombok and
identify the impact of small-scale gold processing Central Lombok District are wetland rice areas
activities on mercury contents in soil and water of that are usually planted with rice and ‘palawija’
wetland rice during the rainy and dry seasons in with planting pattern of rice-rice-palawija, rice-
West Nusa Tenggara Province of Indonesia palawija-fallow, and rice-horticulture-fallow.
There are primary irrigation canals nearby the
study areas. Data of soil and water sampling areas
Materials and Methods in West Lombok and Central Lombok Districts
The study was conducted on the rainy season and are presented in Tables 1 and 2.
the first dry season from March to September
2013. Locations of the study were on wetland rice Data presented in Table 1 show that the
in Central Lombok and West Lombok Districts. wetland rice areas interact directly with the small-
The selection of the study areas was based on scale gold processing activities in West Lombok
information about small-scale gold processing District are found at Sekotong Sub-district, as
activities in both districts. well as at Lembar, Gerung, and Kediri Sub-
Materials used for the study included soil districts. This is because the small-scale gold
and water samples collected from gold processing mining sites are located in the Sekotong
Mountain, so that many small-scale gold
processing activities are at Sekotong Sub-district. gold processing areas that are intersected directly
Those in Central Lombok District are found at with wetland rice in West Lombok and Central
Pringgerate and Jonggat Sub-districts. Most of the Lombok Districts. The selection of gold
activities use ‘gelondong’ (rotary mill) and ‘tong’ processing locations under wetland rice by gold
(drum). miners was based on the consideration to reduce
One of factors that makes the areas have noise pollution in residential areas. The
many small-scale gold processing units is the ‘gelondong’ processing units operate 24 hours
availability of water as the main ingredient to with a rest period of 1 to 2 hours every 3 hours.
support gold processing. There are 20 small-scale
Table 1. Location of soil and water sampling in West Lombok and Central Lombok Districts
Kind of
No Name of Village Sub-district Coordinate of location
activity
1 Jelateng II Sekotong Timur 08° 46’ 26” 116° 04’ 17” Tg + Glg
2 Sayong Baru Sekotong Tengah 08° 47’ 07” 116° 03’ 50” Tg + Glg
3 Jelateng I Sekotong Timur 08° 46’ 28” 116° 04’ 15” Tg + Glg
4 Penyeleng Sekotong Timur 08° 45’ 73” 116° 05’ 82” Tg + Glg
5 Menang I Gerung Selatan 08° 41’ 05” 116° 07’ 54” Glg
6 Batu Putek Sekotong Tengah 08° 46’ 10” 116° 03’ 39” Tg + Glg
7 Kebun Talo Lembar 08° 43’ 40” 116° 05’ 07” Tg + Glg
8 Kelep Sekotong Tengah 08° 47’ 52” 116° 02’ 46” Tg + Glg
9 Grepek Lembar 08°44’ 34” 116° 05’ 07” Tg + Glg
10 Merembu Kediri 08° 39’ 42” 116° 07’ 23” Glg
11 Dasan Baru Selatan Pringgerate 08° 37’ 42” 116° 13’ 46” Tg + Glg
12 Pidade Pringgerate 08° 36’ 11,2” 116° 13’ 37,5” Tg + Glg
13 Presak Jonggat 08° 38’ 33,1” 116° 13’ 24” Tg + Glg
14 Ombak Jonggat 08° 38’ 25,6” 116° 13’ 23,9” Tg + Glg
15 Jembe Janapria 08° 42’ 49” 116° 24’ 20” Tg + Glg
16 Salakan I Pringgerate 08° 36’ 8,0” 116° 13’ 13,8” Tg + Glg
17 Selanggaran Mujur 08° 49’ 36,6” 116° 23’ 25,1” Glg
18 Bilelando Mujur 08° 49’ 28,7” 116° 23’ 25,9” Glg
19 Goak Pringgerate 08° 37’ 17” 116° 14’ 4” Tg + Glg
20 Dasan Baru Jabon Pringgerate 08° 37’ 40” 116° 14’ 03” Tg + Glg
Remarks : Tg : gold processing activities using ‘tong’ (drum) , Glg : gold processing activates using
‘gelondong’ (rotary mill)
Results and Discussion into the river and sources of irrigation for
agricultural land.
Based on data collection of small-scale gold Results of mercury content analysis in soil
processing activities in West Lombok and Central and water samples from West Lombok and
Lombok Districts, miners use mercury to capture Central Lombok Districts in the rainy season and
and separate gold from the rock grains. Mercury the first dry season presented in Table 3 show that
sediment is filtered using cloth to get the rest of that mercury content in soil samples collected in
the gold. When the activity scale is small, miners rainy season of April 2013 had exceeded the
just use their hands to filter out the mercury maximum allowable limit of 0.005 ppm (Junizar,
sediment. The miners even rely on the precision 2012). The mercury content in the rainy season
of the eye for panning gold captured by mercury, was higher than that of the dry season (Table 3)
which miners paid attention to the movements of Almost all of the sample locations had critical
mercury deposition. The precipitate obtained is mercury contents (0.3 to 5 ppm) (Alloway, 1995),
then kneaded or pressed using fingers. except for the Grepek Village, Lembar Sub-
Wastewater generated from leaching of mining district of West Lombok District.
remnants containing mercury is allowed to flow

The highest mercury content was found at Sayong during the rainy season was high because it was
Baru Village, Central Sekotong Sub-district of supported by the availability of water as the main
West Lombok District (3.5 ppm), and the Dasan material used from ‘gelondong’ and puddling
Baru Jabon Village, Pringgerate Sub-district of process until ‘tong’ process. This is thought to be
Central Lombok District (2.2 ppm). The average one factor contributing to higher mercury content
mercury content in the dry season decreased in the rainy season than in the dry season. Almost
within normal limits. There were only 4 points all sampling locations had mercury content
having critical mercury contents. exceeding the critical limit in the rainy season,
Unlike other locations, the mercury contents whereas in the dry season there were only Dasan
at three points of Merembu, Dasan Baru Selatan, Baru Selatan and Jembe Villages, which had
and Jembe Vilages increased. This was because mercury content exceeding the critical limit
the processing of gold did not operate anymore (Figure 2).
that made accumulation of waste and slow Mercury content in irrigation water samples
movement of waste. Accumulation of mercury in at wetland rice areas were below the defined
the environment, particularly on agricultural land, threshold of 0.002 ppm (WHO, 2004). With the
can be toxic to plants and microorganisms. detection at some points, it is necessary to watch
Results of analysis showed that mercury content out for the quality of irrigation water used as
in the soil during the rainy season was higher than source of irrigation in the region that is detected to
that in the first dry season. One of the factors contain mercury. Based on the results of the
influencing the mobilization of Hg in the soil is mercury content analysis in the second period of
environment pH. The pH value between five and sampling at the first dry season harvest, the
seven will raise the value of the mercury mercury content in soil samples at various
concentration in the water because the low pH sampling points decreased. According to data of
affects water holding capacity of mercury (SLHD Meteorological and Geofisical Agency of
Prov. Gorontalo, 2013). Selaparang Mataram monitoring station in 2013
The interview data showed that the intensity (BMKG, 2013), the pH of normal rainwater from
of small-scale gold gold processing activities was 5.4.
Table 3. Mercury content in soil sample (ppm) in rainy season and first dry season in West Lombok and
Central Lombok Districts
District Sub-district Village RS Criteria DS Criteria RS I DS
Jelateng I 1.1 critical 0.02 Normal 0.0002 nd
Sekotong
Jelateng II 1.2 critical nd Normal 0.0003 nd
Timur
Penyeleng 0.8 critical nd Normal nd nd
Sayong Baru 3.5 critical 0.3 critical nd nd
Sekotong
West Batu Puteq 0.3 critical nd Normal nd nd
Tengah
Lombok Kelep 0.7 critical 0.04 Normal nd nd
Kebun Talo 0.4 critical 0.004 Normal nd nd
Lembar
Grepek 0.2 critical 0.02 Normal nd nd
Gerung Menang 0.8 critical nd Normal nd nd
Kediri Merembu 0.4 critical 0.7 critical nd nd
Dasan Baru 1.1 critical 3.4 critical nd nd
Selatan
Pidade 1.4 critical nd Normal nd nd
Pringgeratee Salakan 0.7 critical nd Normal nd nd
Goak 1.6 critical 0.22 Normal 0.00009 nd
Central Dasan Baru 2.2 critical 0.15 Normal nd nd
Lombok Jabon
Presak 0.9 critical nd Normal nd nd
Jonggat Ombak 0.4 critical nd Normal nd nd
Jembe 0.3 critical 1.24 critical 0.00006 nd
Selanggaran 0.9 critical 0.08 Normal 0.0002 nd
Mujur
Bilelando 1.5 critical 0.04 Normal nd nd
Mercury Content Analysis in Soil (ISRI Bogor), and water (BBIA Bogo), nd: not detected, limit of detection: 0.01
ppm (ISRI Bogor); RS = rainy season; DS = dry season; IDS = first dry season

Figure 2. The dynamics of mercury content analysis in soil samples at each point of observation in West
Lombok and Central Lombok Districts.
Hence, rainwater has the potential to increase total higher than that in the dry season. The decrease of
mercury content to be in the rainy season than in mercury content in soil in dry season was due to
the dry season. After the mercury reaches the lack of gold processing activities.
surface of water or soil and combining with
carbon, it forms organic Hg compounds by
microorganisms (bacteria) in water and soil. Hg References
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DOI:10.15243/jdmlm.2016.033.565
Research Article
Status of macro and micro nutrients from deposited tailings in

reclamation area, PT Freeport Indonesia, Timika
S. Taberima1*, R. Sarwom2
1
Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture- University of Papua, Manokwari 98314 West Papua, Indonesia
2
Reclamation Division, Department of Environmental- PT Freeport Indonesia, Timika 99910 Papua, Indonesia
* corresponding author: atji.taberima@gmail.com
Abstract: The reclamation program of deposited tailings (SIRSAT) is the obligation of the mining
concession holder PT Freeport Indonesia (PTFI). The monitoring of soil and plant qualities regularly is
part of the study of the success or performance of mining reclamation. The objective of research in the
reclamation area was to study the uptake of macro and micronutrients in inactive tailings, and
representative plants that grow up on it. The result showed that pH was alkaline in the land of MP21 with
its plants of M. sagoand C.nucifera, MP27 with Matoa (P.pinnata), both of the representative locations
with tailings/soil depth of 0-20 cm and 20-40 cm, except the surface layer of MP21 has lower pH, i.e.
neutral. The organic matter tends to be higher at MP21 with M. sago, followed by C. nucifera, while at
MP27 with P. pinnata was very low on the surface layer (topsoil) and the bottom layer. MP27 was
reclaimed in 2003 with P. pinnata, however these plants tend to be abnormal after being planted more
than 10 years. While MP21 with M. sago and C. nucifera was more fertile due to high content of organic
matter. Besides that, the tailings deposition at MP21 had became inactive tailings for longer, and were
used for the land reclamation activities since 1992/1993. The uptake of macronutrients, especially K was
high, which was found in both productive and old leaves in the representative plants of inactive tailings
and natural soil. While the old leaves of P. pinnata produced the highest content of S, i.e. > 0,1%. Mnwas
the highest in both of old leaves of C. nucifera (379,50ppm) and M. Sago (558 ppm) which were planted
in the natural soil. These concentration levels were higher than normal criteria (> 300 ppm Mn). The
uptake of Zn includes normal criteria, except in the productive leaves (170,67ppm), and also the old
leaves (160.33 ppm), or exceeds of the normal criteria (> 100 ppm Zn) found in P. pinnata MP21.
Keywords: edible plant, plant tissue, reclamation, tailings
Introduction water, deeper and dry, therefore reclaimed with

agricultural crops and forestry. Both of these areas
The Reclamation program in tailings (SIRSAT : are located in the west of the old west levee, DLA
sand tailings) is the obligation of the holder of the and it has a particle size from north to south
mining concessions of PT Freeport Indonesia gradually, i.e. coarse, medium, fine and very fine
(PTFI). Impact of the operation of copper and (PTFI, 1998). Success of the reclamation program
gold mining at Grasberg, PTFI has made could be evaluated through the monitoring
reclaimed tailings at DLA (Double Levee Area) - activities as to the availability of macro and
Timika. There are inactive tailings at DLA region, micronutrients, and the uptake of nutrients by
it is about 10-20 years old as inactive tailings, plants that were cultivated in the Reclamation
with an area of approximately 1500 hectares Area. The availability of macro and
which has functioned as Natural Succession and micronutrients contained in tailings, and the
Reclamation Areas. Succession area has a depth uptake of nutrients for the plants growth were also
of shallow ground water and is wet, so easily it analyzed to study the growth and the development
was covered by Phragmites karka as a pioneer, of its plants cultivated. Therefore monitoring of
while the Reclamation Area has a depth of ground the quality of soil and plants in the reclaimed land
Status of macro and micro nutrients from deposited tailings in reclamation area, PT Freeport Indonesia
of tailings deposition is needed, as futher study of canopy, with consideration that the translocation
the success or performance of reclamation of the of macro and micro nutrients are accumulated in
former mining area. The objective of research in the leaf tissue of plants. The study of the uptake of
the Land Reclamation was to study macro and macro and micro nutrients was conducted by the
micronutrients in inactive tailings, and its analysis of samples at the Laboratory. The
representative plants, and compared withnatural chemical properties include of pH, C, N, P, S, Al,
soil. base cations (Ca, Mg, K, Na), CEC, Hg, Cd, Fe,
Mn, Cu, and Zn. The physical properties, i.e.
texture (particle size). The nutrient uptake of plant
Materials and Methods tissue, i.e. C, N, P, S, Al, Ca, Mg, K, Na, Hg, Cd,
The research was conducted in the reclamation Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn. The analysis of soil fertility
areas of MP21 and MP27 where the particle size was conducted at the Laboratory of SEAMEO -
of tailings were medium and fine, and non tailings BIOTROP, Bogor. Fertility status of inactive
as comparator of natural soil in Timika.Map of tailings and natural soil of Timika is presented in
location is presented in Figure 1. The first Table 1. The analysis of uptake metal was at
research was conducted in 2011. The paper shows Timika Environment Laboratory (TEL), Timika.
the observation data was in November 2013/2014 The data analysis was conducted statistically by
from the reclamation areas of MP 21 and MP27, mean value with tabulation. The criteria of
and agricultural land of local people (SP4 and chemical properties referred to Balai Penelitian
NWRP) in Timika.Sampling of tailings/soil were Tanah (2005), the criteria of metal from
taken at two depths of 0-20 cm and 20-40 cm tailings/soil and plant tissue referred to the
from land reclaimed with agricultural Handbook of Trace Elements (Pais and Jones,
plants.Sampling of plant tissue (leaf) was taken 1997; see Tables 2 and 3).
from the shoots, middle, and bottom of the
Figure 1. The representative location in Reclamation Area and Natural Soil, Timika
Results and Discussion pyrite (FeS2), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), covellite

(CuS), bornite (Cu5FeS4), and digenite (Cu2S)
Status of nutrient content in incative tailings and (PTFI, 1998). Although metal of copper (Cu) has
natural soil been taken in the processing of ore at MP 74, but
Tailings have characteristics of chemical Cu is still found to be high, and includes FeS2 and
difference when compared with natural soil, other micro nutrients, which potentially can create
which was derived from the parent rock, that acidic conditions in the tailings when it is
contains minerals group of sulphides, such as oxidized at DLA.

Table 1. Fertility status of inactive tailings and natural soil - Timika

Representative Depth pH Organic-C OM Total N Available P Ca2+ Mg2+ K+ Na+ CEC
Location (cm) (H2O) (%) (%) (%) (ppm) me/ 100 g
Inactive Tailings
MP21 0 - 20 7.53 2.59 4.46 0.07 3.63 26.92 1.29 0.27 0.32 13.21
20 - 40 7.70 1.65 2.85 0.05 4.33 29.44 1.06 0.27 0.30 5.31
MP27 0 - 20 7.73 0.36 0.62 0.02 91.17 1.25 1.81 0.35 0.30 2.79
20 - 40 8.40 0.27 0.47 0.03 78.27 1.48 2.15 0.44 0.41 3.07
Natural Soil
SP4 0 - 20 4.13 1.68 2.89 0.15 5.20 2.00 0.34 0.15 0.20 8.35
20 - 40 4.73 0.93 1.60 0.12 5.07 0.80 0.17 0.12 0.17 7.12
NWRP 0 - 20 4.43 7.36 12.69 0.48 10.07 7.71 1.27 0.14 0.31 12.58
20 - 40 5.37 2.49 4.30 0.29 20.63 6.26 1.38 0.16 0.27 14.04
Source : Analysis data was released by Soil Laboratory, SEAMEO - BIOTROP, Bogor (2014)
OM = Organic Matter, CEC = Cation Exchange Capacity, MP = Mile Point, SP= Satuan Pemukiman (unit of settlement), NWRP = Nawaripi

Figure 2. Status of Macronutrient Elements in the Land of Inactive TailingsandNatural Soil

To combat acidification due to the oxidation of with the heavy metals to form the organ metallic
sulfide mineral, tailings before they enter DLA complex, to reduce the toxicity of heavy metals
have been limed at a neutralizing capacity at 1.5 (Stevenson, 1982). Figure 3a-b, and 4 showed the
times maximum potential acidity (PTFI, 2007). total of Al, Fe, K was high enough on the tailings
The material of CaO and CaCO3 that keeps and natural soil, except Ca was found higher in
tailings in the pH ranged 7-8. The results of the the tailings (MP 21, MP27), because of the
chemical parameter to the tailings/soil fertility additional process with lime materials by the
showed that the value of pH was slightly alkaline flotation technique of precious minerals and
in inactive tailings of MP21 and MP 27, whereas before tailings enter the lowlands, where they are
natural soil of SP4 and NWRP (non tailings) was deposited in the deposition area of DLA.
very acid and acid. The value of pH in natural Similarly, the total S was relatively higher in the
soil in topsoil (0 - 20 cm) was lower than subsoil tailings than natural soil and was very low due to
(20-40 cm). These phenomenon were different the parent material of Grasberg which contains the
from inactive tailings, the value of pH tends to group of sulphide minerals (PTFI, 1998).
increase with increasing soil depth. The condition
can occur because of the increasing of Ca2+ in Macro and micronutrients of the plant leaf tissue
subsoil 20-40 cm of inactive tailings of MP21 and in incative tailings and natural soil
MP27. The addition of lime material into the soil,
will lead the reactions with soil colloids, in this Plants need the essential nutrients for growth. It is
case the colloid of tailings which was derived estimated that there are 60 types of nutrients
from organic materials. Soil colloids will obstruct needed by plant. From mainly nutrients, there are
the reactions equilibrium to absorb Ca2+, so that only as many as 16 elements essential nutrients, to
the percentage of base saturation in the adsorption the plants, which are needed to support its growth
complex was higher. This condition causes the pH and most of them, obtainablefrom the soil, while
in the soil solution tend to increase. Therefore, C, HandO2are taken from the air. The macro
organic C content decreased in subsoil with the nutrients inlcude C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, and S is
increase of pH, especially on inactive tailings of the essential nutrient with concentration ≥ 0,1 %
MP21 and MP27. or ≥ 1000 ppm, the micro nutrients of Cl, Fe, B,
The organic C content was high with the Mn, Zn, Cu, and Mo with concentration < 0,1% or
increasing CEC, particularly on the topsoil. The < 1000 ppm. Nutrient deficiencies have affect on
availability Ca content was the highest at MP21, the plant growth, disrupting the plant growth, and
i.e 26,92 me/100 g (0-20 cm) and 27,44 me/100 g finally reducing theproduction of plant (Lehman
(20-40 cm), followed by non tailing NWRP (7,71 dan Schroth, 2003; Havlin et al., 2005). Figure 5
me/100 g; 6,26 me/100 g), whereas MP 27 and and 6 showed that nutrient uptake in the leaf
SP4 had the availabiliy of Ca was low - very low. tissue of Matoa on MP21 and MP27 were
The natural phenomenon was found in natural soil different in particle size, i.e moderate and fine.
also was seen in the inactive tailings area. Data The uptake of Ca, Mg, K, and S were found high
showed that base cations of Ca were the highest, on both locations of inactive tailings, except K
followed by Mg, Na, and K. These indicate that was higher in young leaf than productive and old
tailings material can be used as media of plant leaves. However the nutrient uptake tends to be
growth. However, it needs attention to the metal higher on Matoa which was grownat MP21.
uptake in plant tissue. In consequence, planting of While in MP 27, provisional estimates that low
agricultural plants in the tailings needs organic organic matter and P excess cause the absorption
matter as a chelating agent of the specific metals, of other elements wereinhibited. High P
so that is not absorbed by the plants directly, in concentrations inhibit the movement of Fe in the
excessive amounts. plant. Inhibition is greater when the plants are
grown at a pH of 7 or above, compared with lower
pH values (Biddulph, 1953). Instead excess of Ca
Micro nutrients (heavy metal) in inactive
has an impact to increase pH in the tailings
tailingsandnatural soil
(Taberima et al., 2008).In addition, the condition
Tailings or natural soils have a limited buffer of tailings has not yet formed the soil structure
capacity to the heavy metals. This characteristicis that causes nutrients uptake to tend to be
determined by several factors such as pH, organic obstructed because of leached by rain. Therefore,
matter content, and CEC (cation exchange the application with organic matter is needed for
capacity) (Lepp, 1981). The presence of organic the further purpose of reclaimed tailings.
materials in the soil, besides being utilized by
microorganisms as a source of energy, can react

Figure 3a-b. Total of elements content in inactive tailings of MP21 and MP27

Figure 4. Total of elements content in natural soil of Nawaripi (NWRP)

Figure 5. Status of nutrient content in leaf tissue of Matoa, inactive tailings of MP21
Figure 6. Status of nutrient content in leaf tissue of Matoa, inactive tailings of MP27
Figure 7-9 illustrates the general phenomenon of Sulfur (S) was absorbed higher in the productive
plants with higher K uptake, It tends to cause an and old leaves than in young leaves. Absorbed S
antagonism among other macro nutrients. was varied in the plant tissue, which was found on
Potassium (K) excess causes the absorption of Ca Matoa of MP27 (> 0,1% S) and MP21 (> 0,1% S);
and Mg were inhibited, and also plant growth, so Coconut of MP21 (< 0,1 - > 0,1% S), SP4 (< 0,1 -
the plants became deficient of these nutrients > 0,1% S); and Sago of NWRP (> 0,1% S)
(Havlin et al., 2005). Nevertheless K was needed respectively with the highest absorption in the
by plants to improve its resistance to disease plus productive and old leaves, but the highest uptake
formation and strengthening of generative organs. was found in the leaf tissue of Matoa (MP21),

followed by Sago (NWRP) with concentration total S is relatively high because parent material
more than 0,1% S. Generally total S in the soil from Grasberg contains the group of sulphide
ranged from 30 to 1000 ppm with the minerals. MacDonald and Arnold (1994) reported
approximation of mean value is 700 ppm (0,07%) that total S content in the parent material of
(Lindsay, 1979).Tabatabai et al. (1988) stated Grasberg mined, was 1,59 %. Related to the plant
thattotal of S in the natural soil ranged from < 20 need, S is an essential element in the formation of
ppm on sandy soil until> 600 ppm on soil textured various types of amino acid and leaf green
solid, while most of soil contains S between 100 (chlorophyll), as well as Fe, Mn, Zn, and Mg
and 500 ppm. At the Double Leeve Area (DLA), butin less concentrations.
Figure 7. Nutrient content in leaf tissue of Coconut, inactive tailings of MP21
Figure 8. Nutrient content in leaf tissue of Coconut, natural soil of SP4

Figure 9. Nutrient content in leaf tissue of Sago, natural soil of NWRP
Base on data of the absorption of micro nutrients It was reported that liming to the soil up to pH 6
which is tolerable by plants (Pais dan Jones, 1991) tends to reduce the toxicity of Cu, includes Fe,
that Fe contained in plant leaves of matoa, Mn, and Zn. The uptake of Zn includes normal
coconut, and sago which growing up on inactive category, except in leaf tissue of matoa MP21 was
tailings and natural soils are categorized as found the absorption of Zn exceed of normal
sufficient and normal with ranges less than 100 criteria, i.e more than 100 ppm Zn. It was found in
ppm, while Mn is the highest in old leaves of productive and old leaves, i.e 170,67 ppm and
coconut (379,50 ppm) and sago (558 ppm) which 160,33 ppm respectively. There is a tendency of
growing up on natural soil and exceed of normal micro-nutrient uptake in the plant tissue, i.e when
criteria (> 300 ppm Mn). At the same time Cu Zn uptake is high that the uptake of Cu tends to
uptake includes normal category, i.e. 4-20 ppm in decrease as well as between Fe and Mn. This
young, productive, and old leavesas the phenomenon may occur due to the micro element
representative plants that growing up in the has oxidation numberof two divalent cation (+2)
inactive tailings or natural soil. Reuther and with the same size, that there is a competition
Labanauskas (1975) reported that Cu is protected among nutrients uptake from the soil solution
in most soils with values of pH ranged 7-8, and towards the plant tissue.
inadequately protected with pH of neutral to acid.
Tabel 2. Approximate concentration of the micronutrients in mature leaf tissue generalized for various
plant species
Micronutrients Deficient Sufficient or Normal Excessive or Toxic
mg/kg (ppm)
Boron (B) 5 - 30 10 - 200 50 - 200
Chlorine (Cl) < 100 100 - 500 500 - 1000
Copper (Cu) 2-5 5 - 30 20 - 100
Iron (Fe) < 50 100 - 500 > 500
Manganese (Mn) 15 - 25 20 - 300 300 - 500
Molybdenum (Mo) 0.03 - 0.15 - 2.0 > 100
Zinc (Zn) 1 - 20 27 - 100 100 - 400
Remarks :The Handbook of Trace Elements, page 158 (Pais and Jones, 1997)

Tabel 3.Amount of various trace elements tolerable to plants
Element Range (mk/kg) Common Level (mg/kg) Amount Tolerable (Proposed)

Arsenic (As) 1.0 - 5.0 2.0 - 20 50
Beryllium (Be) 0.1 - 10 1.0 - 5 10
Boron (B) 0.01 - 1.0 5.0 - 30 100
Cadmium (Cd) 0.01 - 1.0 0.1 - 1.0 5
Chromium (Cr) 1.0 - 100 10 - 50 100
Cobalt(Co) 1.0 - 50 0.1 - 10 50
Copper (Cu) 2.0 - 100 5.0 - 20 100
Lead (Pb) 0.1 - 10 0.1 - 5 100
Mercury (Hg) 0.01 - 1.0 0.1 - 1.0 5
Molybdenum (Mo) 0.2 - 1.0 1.0 - 5 10
Nickel (Ni) 1.0 - 100 10 - 50 100
Selenium (Se) 0.1 - 10 1.0 - 5 10
Zinc (Zn) 10 - 300 10 - 50 300
Remarks :The Handbook of Trace Elements, page 50 (Pais and Jones, 1997)
Based on the observation of several agricultural concentration of Mn has exceeded of normal

plants as the representatives that are growing up criteria (> 300 ppm Mn). The uptake of Zn was
in Reclamation Area, the result data of monitoring categorized as normal, except in the productive
activity is to study the impact of macro and leaves (170.67 ppm), and the old leaves (160.33
micronutrients uptake by plants or natural ppm) were exceeds of normal criteria (> 100 ppm
soil/tailings. Therefore there is not Zn) which found at MP21 with matoa.
recommendation yet can be issued at the moment,
because the research is still ongoing with further
tests of edible plant for several months period to Acknowledgments
study the metals uptake as well as macro and The research was supported by Environmental
micro nutrients in tailings media and natural soil Department of PT Freeport Indonesia, especially
as comparator (non tailings). Division of Reclamation and Biodiversity MP 21,
Timika. The authors would like to thank to the
University of Papua (UNIPA) as a cooperation partner
Conclusion of PT Freeport Indonesia for its support, as well as the
Dean of the Faculty of Agriculture, and researchers of
The organic matter tends to be higher at MP21 Soil Department - Faculty of Agriculture UNIPA who
with sago, followed by coconut at the same area has given permission and support the research.
of inactive tailings, while at MP27 with matoawas
very low in concentration on the surface layer and
the bottom layer. References
MP27 has been reclaimed since 2003 with Balai Penelitian Tanah. 2005. Analisis Kimia Tanah,
matoa, however its growth tend to be abnormal Tanaman, Air dan Pupuk. Badan Penelitian dan
after being planted more than 10 years. While Pengembangan Pertanian, Departemen Pertanian.
MP21 with sago and coconut were more fertile Bogor.
due to high content of organic matter. Besides Biddulph, O. 1953. Translocation of radioactive
that, the tailings deposition had became inactive mineral nutrients in plants. In: The Use of Isotopes
tailings for longer, and were used for the land in Plant and Animal Research, Report No. 4, Agr.
Expt. Sta., Kansas State College, Manhattan, or
reclamation activities since 1992/1993. U.S.A.E.C., Wash. D.C. TID 5098. April 1953.
Macro nutrient uptake, especially potassium Havlin, J. L., Beaton, J.C., Tisdale, S.L. and Nelson,
(K) was quite high in the productive and old W.L. 2005. Soil Fertility and Fertilizers. An
leaves of plants that grownat the inactive tailings Introduction to Nutrient Management. Sixth
and natural soil. The uptake of S was the highest Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River,
in the leaves tissue of matoa at MP21, followed New Jersey. 515p.
by sago at NWRP with concentration of Mn Pais, I. and Benton Jones, J.Jr., 1997. The Handbook of
uptake was > 0.1%. The uptake of Mn was the Trace Elements. St. Lucie Press, Boca Raton,
highest in the old leaves of coconut (379.50 ppm), Florida.
and sago (558 ppm) from natural soil, which

Lehmann, J. and Schroth, G., 2003. Nutrient Leaching. Reuther, W. and Labanauskas, C. K. 1975. Copper. In
© CAB International 2003. Trees, Crops and Soil Diagnostic Criteria For Plants and Soils. Edited by
Fertility (eds G. Schroth and F. L. Sinclair). Homer D. Chapman. Dept. of Soil and Plant
Lepp, N.W. 1981. Effect of Heavy Metal Pollution on Nutrition, Univ. of California. Eurasia Publishing
Plant. Volume I. Effect of Trace Metan on Plant House (P) LTD. Ram Nagar, New Dehli.
Function. Applied Science Publishers, London. Stevenson, F.J. 1982. Humus Chemistry : Genesis,
Lindsay, W. L. 1979. Chemical Equilibria in Soils. A Composition, Raction. John Willey, New York.
Wiley Interscience Publication. John Wiley & Tabatai, M. A., Basta, N.T. and Pirela, H.J. 1988.
Sons, New York - Chichester - Brisbane - Toronto. Determination of total sulfur in soil dan plant
MacDonald, G.D. and Arnold, L.C. 1994. Geological materials by ion chromatograpy. Communication in
and geochemical zoning of the Grasberg Igneous Soil Science and Plant Analysis 19:1701-1714.
Complex, Irian Jaya. Journal of Geochemical Taberima, S., Mulyanto, B., Sudarsono, Sumawinata,
Exploration 50: 143-144. B. and Husin, Y.A. 2008. Particle sizes and soil
PTFI. 1998.Rencana Tahunan Lima Tahun Pertama characteristics developed of tailing on deposited
(1999-2003). Reklamasi Daerah Pengendapan area, ModADA. Agrivita 30: 399-415.
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DOI:10.15243/jdmlm.2016.033.577
Research Article
Comparison of two kinetics models for estimating N mineralization

affected by different quality of organic matter in Typic Hapludults
A. Wijanarko1*, B.H. Purwanto2
1
Indonesian Legumes and Tuber Crops Research Institute.Jl. Raya Kendalpayak km 8, PO Box 66, Malang, East
Java, Indonesia
2
Faculty of Agriculture, Gadjah Mada University Jl. Flora, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta, Indonesia - 55281
* corresponding author: ndy_wijanarko@yahoo.com
Abstract: N availability in the soil is determined by the rate of mineralization. N mineralization can be
estimated using several models. Aim of research is to compare of two kinetics models for estimating N
mineralization affected by different inputs of organic matter and soil fertility in Typic Hapludults.
Research used completely randomized design with two factors. The first factor was land use : (1). Soil
from land cultivated by cassava crops for less than 10 years, and (2). Soil from land cultivated by cassava
crops for more than 30 years. The second factor was type of organic matter: (1). Groundnut biomass, (2).
Maize biomass, (3). Groundnut-maize biomass, with ratio of 1:1, (4). Groundnut – maize biomass, with
ratio of 2:1, (5). Groundnut – maize biomass, with ratio of 1:2, and (6). Without organic matter. The
result shows that based on the value of R2, first-order kinetics equation is more suitable to decribe N
mineralization than double-pool kinetics equation because R-square value higher than double-pool
kinetics and is positively correlated with N mineralization parameters (N0, k and N0.k).
Keywords : kinetic equations, nitrogen mineralization, organic matter quality
Introduction estimating N mineralization are first-order

kinetics equation and double exponential model
Ultisol has low fertility due to intensive leaching involving two parts describing fast and slow
(Van Noordwijk et al., 1996). Ultisol has acid soil organic pools (Heumann and Bottcher, 2004;
reaction, low of cation exchange capacity (CEC) Cartes et al., 2009).
and organic matter (Shaw et al, 2010). The Recently. logarithmic, parabolic and
addition of organic matter into soil through hyperbolic models are also developed. However,
harvest remaining, compost, and cover crops the exponential model is more often used.
prunings can improve total reserve of soil organic Mineralization of organic matter process involves
matter and soil fertility. microorganism. Microorganism activity is
Agricultural practices will reduce total N in determined by the dynamic of enzyme which is
soil. Crops need N in large amount compared to often described as exponential. Thus the
other nutrients. However, N availability is low mineralization process then described using
due to its mobility in soil is very high. N exponential model (Li et al., 2003).
availability in soil is determined by the rate of Several kinetic models are often used to
mineralization where it is affected by various estimate the kinetic of N mineralization, then a
factors such as soil pH, moisture, temperature and model is selected based on the highest correlation
quality of organic matter (Handayanto et al., coefficient and the lowest standard error
1997; Griffin and Honeycutt, 2000; Samuel et al., (Shariatmadari et al., 2006). Aim of research was
2002; Cookson et al., 2002; Kyveryga et al., 2004; to compare of two kinetics models for estimating
Fritschi et al. 2005;Agehara and Warncke, 2005). N mineralization affected by different inputs of
There are several approaches to evaluate the organic matter and soil fertility in Typic
kinetic of N mineralization as an indicator of N Hapludults.
availability in soil. Two models widely known for
Materials and Methods by cassava crops for less than 10 years, and (2).
Soil from land cultivated by cassava crops for
Soil preparation and experimental treatment more than 30 years. The second factor was type of
Sample of soil was taken from a depth of 0-20 cm organic matter: (1). Groundnut biomass, (2).
(topsoil), belong to Typic Hapludults order Maize biomass, (3). Groundnut-maize biomass,
(ICALRD, 2008). The result of soil analysis is with a ratio of 1:1, (4). Groundnut -maize
presented in Table 1. Research used completely biomass, with a ratio of 2:1, (5). Groundnut –
randomized design with two factors. The first maize biomass, with a ratio of 1:2, and (6).
factor was land use : (1). Soil from land cultivated Without organic matter.
Table 1. Chemical properties of soil samples

Soil analysis Soil from land cultivated by Soil from land cultivated by
cassava crops for less than 10 cassava crops for more than 30
years years
pH (H2O) 5.1 4.6
N-total (%) 0.073 0.037
C –organic (%) 2.06 0.70
P-Bray 1 (ppm P2O5) 15.9 6.8
CEC (cmol (+)/kg) 6.54 4.12
K (cmol (+)/kg) 0.14 0.05
Ca (cmol (+)/kg) 1.68 0.50
Mg (cmol (+)/kg) 0.33 0.15
Al exchange (cmol (+)/kg) 1.40 2.50
Al saturation (%) 33 54
Dosage of all selected biomasses applied were potential (N0. in mg/kg), mineralization rate
equivalent to 5 t/ha. Samples of soil sieved constant (k in day-1), the apparent energy
through a 2 mm sieve. 10 g of soil was weighed activation (Ea in J mol-1), using a simple reaction-
and kept into a plastic bottle then each treatment type model developed by Sugihara et al. (1987):
of organic matter was given. The moisture content
of soil samples were maintained same as in field N = N0 [ 1 – exp (-kt ) ] (1)
capacity.
N is the amount of inorganic N (mg N kg-1) on
These bottles were stored in incubators with
day t, N0 is the N mineralization potential
various temperatures of 20oC, 25oC and 30oC.
(mg/kg), k is mineralization rate constant (day-1).
After 0, 2, 4, 8, 6, 10 and 12 weeks, content of N
(NH4+ and NO3-) was observed using 1 M KCl
extract with Kjeldahl method . The relationship Double-pool kinetics equation was estimated by
between kinetics parameters of N mineralization Ando et al. (1992) and Heumann and Bottcher
and nutrient uptake were obtained by treated (2004) :
cassava in greenhouse same as incubators. Crops
were cultivated in pots contained 15 kg of soil in N = Na(1 – Exp –kat) + Nr(1 – Exp –krt) (2)
field capacity. Crops were harvested at the age of N is the amount of inorganic N (mg N/kg) on day
four months and analyzed for the N uptake and t, Na is fast pool mineralization (mg/kg), ka is fast
soil analysis involving microbial biomass C and pool mineralization rate constant (day-1), Nr is
N, water-soluble C and N, Particulate Organic slow pool mineralization (mg/kg), kr is slow pool
Carbon (POC) and Particulate Organic Nitrogen mineralization rate constant (day-1).
(PON) (Soon et al., 2007; Okore et al., 2007).
Statistical analysis
Observation of N mineralization kinetic
First-order kinetics and double-pool kinetics
Kinetics was observed by two models, i.e. irst- equations were fitted with the curve fit procedure
order kinetics equation and double-pool kinetics using SigmaPlot 12 program (SYSTAT software
equation. First-order kinetics equation was inc, 2011).
estimated by determining N mineralization

Results and Discussion and N value. The ka value of the less than 10
years cassava crops cultivation is 0.028 per day at
First-order and double-pool kinetics equations to temperature of 20oC and 0.031 per day at
estimate N mineralization temperature of 30oC , while kr value respectively
N mineralization estimation using first-order are 0.026 and 0.029 per day. The ka value of the
kinetics equation shows that organic matter from more than 30 years cassava crops cultivation is
groundnut and maize biomasses affected 0.023 per day at temperature of 20oC, 0.025 and
mineralization rate constant (k). The k value of 0.029 per day at temperature of 25oC and 30oC,
soil from land cultivated by cassava crops for less while kr value respectively are 0.021, 0.023 and
than 10 years has same pattern as soil from land 0.026 per day at temperature of 20oC, 25oC and
cultivated by cassava crops for more than 30 30oC (Table 2). Temperature is one of factors
years. Organic matter from mix of groundnut : affecting N mineralization rate (Sierra, 2002).
maize (2: 1) has the highest k value. It is followed Study of Stanford and Smith (1972) showed that
by groundnut biomass, groundnut : maize (1: 1), range of k values is 0.035 up to 0.095 per week,
groundnut : maize (1: 2), maize and without with the average of 0.054 per week. In addition,
organic matter (Table 2). Sierra (2002) finds that the range of k value in
These results indicates that the mix of tropical soil is 0.007 up to 0.014 per day.
organic matter from groundnut biomass with low In this study, N mineralization is also
C:N ratio and maize biomass with high C:N ratio determined by type of organic matter. N
can increase mineralization rate compared to only mineralization of groundnut biomass is greater
maize biomass. It is due to C:N ratio decrease. than maize biomass. The mix of organic matter
Sholihah et al. (2012) reported that mineralization from groundnut and maize biomass increase N
rate has correlation to C:N ratio (0.582*). mineralization compared to only maize biomass.
Organic matter with low C:N ratio has higher Mineralization of the fast pool (Na) was higher
mineralization rate compared to organic matter than slow pool (Nr). The range of Na value of the
with high C:N ratio (Abera et al., 2012). A similar less than 10 years cassava crops cultivation is 943
pattern is found for N potential observation. - 1253 mg/kg, while the range of Nr value is 560 -
Mineralization rate constant (k) has positive 1016 mg/k. At temperature of 30oC, application of
correlation with temperature. The k value groundnut : maize biomass (1:1) has the highest N
increases around 32% by temperature rise from mineralization (3.570 mg/kg), 284% higher than
20oC to 30oC for the less than 10 years cassava no biomass application. The range of Na value of
crops cultivation and about 27% for the more the more than g 30 years cassava crops
than 30 years cassava crops cultivation. Guntinas cultivation-soil sample is 579-1011 mg/kg,while
et al. (2012) reported that k value is strongly the range of Nr value is 549-792 mg/kg.
influenced by temperature and sharply increase Application of groundnut biomass has the highest
for temperature between 25oC and 35oC. It is due N mineralization (2318 mg.kg-1), 147% higher
to the increase of organic matter decomposition than no biomass application. Plant biomass affects
rate (Nordmeyer and Richter, 1985) resulted by N mineralization. Groundnut biomass or the mix
changes in biochemical composition of organic of groundnut and maize biomasses increase N
matter and transport processes e.g. diffusion mineralization. Groundnut is a legume crop
process as well as increasing the number of having a low ratio of C: N that is easy to be
microorganisms (MacDonald et al., 1995). The mineralized.
highest k value for the mix organic matter of Based on double-pool kinetics equation, N
groundnut : maize (2:1) from the less than 10 mineralization of fast pool is higher than the slow
years cassava crops cultivation is 0.098 and from pool, same as mineralization rate constant (k) of
the more than 30 years cassava crops cultivation fast pool that was greater than slow pool. This
is 0.0083. The low k value can be assumed come indicates that mineralization of easily
from the low activity of soil microorganisms (Nira decomposted-organic matter can happen quickly
and Nishimune, 1993) and it shows poor N compared to some resistant organic which can be
mineralization (Nishio et al., 1994). mineralized linearly with time. The results are
N mineralization measured by double-pool consistent with study of Li et al. (2003) which the
kinetics equation estimates mineralization rate of value of Na and ka is greater than the value of Nr
fast and slow pools. This study indicates that and kr. Result of this study shows that the average
mineralization rate constant (ka and kr) and N of R-square value in first-order kinetics equation
mineralization (Na and Nr) are affected by is higher than double-pool kinetics equation. It
temperature and organic matter. Increasing of implies N mineralization estimation using first-
temperature will be followed by the increase of k order kinetics equation is better than double-pool
kinetics equation (Table 2).

Table 2. Value of k and potential N mineralization on first-order kinetics equation and double pool
kinetics equation in Typic Hapludult, Lampung
Treatments First-order kinetics Double-pool kinetics equation
equation
k N0 R2 Na ka Nr kr R2
The less than 10 years cassava crops cultivation-soil sample
Groundnut (G) 0.0090 743.0 0.996 1719 0.027 1078 0.023 0.980
Maize (M) 0.0074 989.8 0.989 1222 0.030 959 0.028 0.955
G : M (1:1) 0.0090 1000.9 0.995 1969 0.027 1601 0.025 0.982
G : M (2:1) 0.0098 1150.5 0.994 1569 0.034 1301 0.032 0.956
G : M (1:2) 0.0078 1056.2 0.989 519 0.026 737 0.025 0.897
Without OM 0.0063 641.1 0.966 519 0.027 417 0.025 0.964
Means 0.0082 930.3 0.988 1253 0.029 1016 0.026 0.957
The more than 30 years cassava crops cultivation-soil sample
Groundnut (G) 0.0080 587.5 0.996 1374 0.030 944 0.027 0.980
Maize (M) 0.0067 825.9 0.990 766 0.029 625 0.027 0.977
G : M (1:1) 0.0076 650.7 0.997 1192 0.031 796 0.027 0.982
G : M (2:1) 0.0083 1057.8 0.998 1251 0.033 1037 0.031 0.987
G : M (1:2) 0.0072 994.1 0.982 996 0.035 898 0.033 0.939
Without OM 0.0058 544.7 0.981 485 0.027 451 0.027 0.925
Means 0.0073 776.8 0.991 1011 0.031 792 0.029 0.965
Relationship between kinetics parameters of N (Geisseler et al., 2009). De-Zhi et al. (2006)
mineralization with N uptake reported that N mineralization has positive
correlation with N uptake in paddy in which
The parameters of N mineralization kinetics are
without N source-fertilizer, approximately 98% of
positively correlated with plant dry weight and N
N absorbed by paddy is taken from N
uptake (Table 3). It implies that N mineralization
mineralization. In double-pool kinetics equation,
kinetics can be used to estimate N uptake by
N mineralization kinetics parameter.e.g, fast (Na)
plants. Organic matter addition into soil will
and slow (Nr) pools mineralization has positive
increase microorganisms activity in N and C
correlation with plant dry weight and N uptake
mineralization processes. The increase of N0, k
(Table 3). In this study, fast and slow pools N
and N0.k will increase N mineralization kinetics.
mineralization is contributed to cassava plant
Moreover, it can increase the availability of N in
growth.
the soil resulting N uptake by plants increase
Table 3. Correlation between N kinetics parameters in firstorder and double-pool kinetics equations with
plant dry weight and N uptake
Observations First-order kinetics Double-pool kinetics
equation equation
N0 k N0.k Na ka Nr kr
The less than 10 years cassava crops cultivation-soil sample
Plant dry weight 0,510* 0,534* 0,521* 0,785** 0,579* 0,756** 0,501
N uptake 0,549* 0,516* 0,516* 0,693** 0,454 0,656** 0,537*
The more than 30 years cassava crops cultivation-soil sample
Plant dry weight 0,560* 0,674** 0,543* 0,648** 0,171 0,564* 0,675**
N uptake 0,552* 0,832** 0,616** 0,646** 0,205 0,457 0,796**
Based on the result of correlation between kinetics the value of N0, k and N0.k which is positively
parameters of N mineralization with plant dry correlated with plant dry weight and N uptake,
weight and N uptake, first-order kinetics equation while the double pool kinetics equation has the
has better correlation than double-pool kinetics value of Na, Nr and Kr which is correlated with
equation. The first –order kinetics equation has plant dry weight and N uptake (Table 3).

Comparison between first order and double-pool mineralization may look as linear. Related to
kinetics equations incubation time, Gill et al. (2011) suggested that
double-pool kinetics equation is better to estimate
R-square value is generally used for estimating
N mineralization if the incubation period is
equation. R-square value closer to 1.00 indicates
between one to two years, and even for long-term
good equation. Table 2 shows that the average
experiment which need more than two years-
value of R square at various temperatures in the
incubation time. Benbi and Richter (2002)
first-order kinetics equation is higher than the
suggested that for much longer incubation time
double-pool kinetics equation.
until mineralization rate is approaching a constant
First order kinetics equation for explaining
value.
the dynamics of soil N mineralization was first
Quality of organic matter also affects
introduced by Stanford and Smith (1972), which
equation model. Organic matter with wide C:N
was developed through laboratory procedures
ratio is more suitable using double-pool kinetics
with experimental incubation for 30 weeks under
equation for describing N mineralization. In
aerobic condition with controlled humidity and
organic matter with wide C:N there are two
temperature. In first-order kinetics equation, N
organic N pools, i.e. fast pool consisting organic
mineralization potential is defined as an easily-
matter with low C: N ratio and slow pool
mineralized pool N in soil (Gill et al., 2011). In
consisting high C: N ratio (Benbi and Richter,
recent years, incubation procedure to estimate N
2002). Azeez and Van Averbeke (2010) found
mineralization in a controlled laboratory
that N release rapidly on days 0-30, constant on
developed by Stanford and Smith (1972) has been
days 45-55 then decrease on days 70-90 when
followed by many researchers (Li et al., 2003;
analyzing N mineralization from three manures
Cordovil et al., 2007; Dessureault-Rompre et al.,
respectively chicken ( C:N ratio = 9.6), cow (C:N
2010; Guntinas et al., 2012).
ratio = 10.3) and goat (C:N ratio =11.3).
In 1980, another equation introduced by
Some researchers have suggested that soil
Molina et al. (1980) and Richter et al. (1980) is a
samples preparation also affects N mineralization.
model with two components or double
In undisturbed soil, first-order kinetics equation
exponential equation. This equation is developed
is suitable to describe N mineralization, while
based on two components of organic N fraction,
double pool kinetics equation is suitable to
namely active and resistant fractions. Active
describe disturbed soil. The high release of N in
fraction is rapidly undergoing a process of
disturbed soil due to micro aggregate destruction
mineralization (fast pool), while the resistant
during soil samples handling (Benbi and Richter,
fraction is relatively difficult in mineralization
2002).
(slow pool). This equation assumes that N
Based on explanation above, there are
mineralization process always involves microbial
several factors that cause N mineralization can be
and enzyme activities which is growing
estimated with an equation, namely: (1)
exponentially so that the estimation of N
incubation time, (2) type of organic matter or
mineralization should be based on the exponential
organic matter quality, (3) soil condition (dry,
equation (Li et al., 2003).
wet, disturbed and not disturbed). In this study,
Research of Ando et al. (1992) suggested
the incubation time was only 12 weeks and
that first order equation can be used to estimate N
categorized as short-term. This caused the first-
mineralization in soil with anaerobic (wet
order kinetics equation to have R square value
condition), otherwise in aerobic condition, double
higher than double-pool kinetics equation.
exponential equation is more suitable to estimate
N mineralization. Dou et al. (1996) suggested that
N mineralization depends on incubation time. For Conclusion
30 weeks-incubation, double exponential equation
is a good model to explain N mineralization, In this study, N mineralization is depend on soil
while for 15 weeks-incubation either first-order fertility, temperature and organic matter quality.
kinetics or double exponential equation can be N mineralization is higher at fertile soil, high
used to estimate N mineralization. temperature (30oC) and low of C:N ratio. First-
Benbi and Richter (2002) reported that for order kinetics equation is more suitable to
incubation during 82 days, double exponential describe N mineralization than double-pool
equation could not be used to estimate N kinetics equation. The first-order kinetics
mineralization, because organic N pool consists of equation has higher R-square value (correlation
various components which can be characterized coefficient) than double-pool kinetics equation
by its half-life. If the incubation time is too short and positively correlated with N mineralization
compared to the half-life of organic N fraction, N parameters (N0, k and N0.k). Several factors that

cause N mineralization can be estimated with an Geisseler, D., Horwath, W.R. and Doane, T.A. 2009.
equation, namely: (1) incubation time, (2) type of Significance of organic nitrogen uptake from plant
organic matter or organic matter quality, and (3) residues by soil microorganisms as affected by
soil condition (dry, wet, disturbed and not carbon and nitrogen availability. Soil Biology and
Biochemistry 41 : 1281–1288.
disturbed). Gill, M.V, Carballo, M.T. and Calvo, L.F. 2011.
Modelling N mineralization from bovine manure
and sewage sludge composts. Bioresource
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DOI:10.15243/jdmlm.2016.033.585
Research Article
Analysis of the factors affecting the poverty in rural areas around gold
mine areas in West Sumbawa Regency
Ibrahim*, M. Baiquni, S. Ritohardoyo, Setiadi
Postgraduate Programme, Faculty of Geography, Gadjah Mada University, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281,
Indonesia
*corresponding author: ibrahimali.geo@gmail.com
Abstract: West Sumbawa Regencyis one of the regencies that are rich of natural resources managed by
PT. Newmont Nusa Tenggara. However, local communities around the gold mine areas have generally to
date been poor. This study was aimed to (1) examine the effect of material poverty, physical weakness,
isolation, vulnerability, and powerlessness on poverty, and (2) describe the distribution of rural
povertybased on land slope mapsin gold mine areas in West Sumbawa Regency.This study applied a
survey technique, observation, and structured interviews to collect data. The processing and analysis of
data was carried out by a quantitative method using a multiple regression analysis. The results of the
study showed that the factors significantly affecting the poverty among rural communities around gold
mine areas were material poverty, physical weakness, isolation, vulnerability and powerlessness (R2 =
0.715). However, the mostly dominant factor affecting the poverty was powerlessness (t = 19.715).
Meanwhile, the distribution of poverty based on topographic sites showed that the poverty occurred in
villages with plain topography (Goa Village), terrain topography (Maluk Village), wave topography (Belo
Village), and hilly topography (Sekongkang Bawah Village). The poverties occurred in all the villages
were mostly affected by powerlessness with t values of 3.489, 13.921, 11.828, and 6.504, respectively.
This condition was due to minimum access and communication by local communities to local
government and the gold mining company of PT. Newmont Nusa Tenggara.
Keywords: factors, poverty, rural areas, gold mine areas
Introduction can only be utilized by the more advanced region,

sector, or group. In fact, the discrepancy in
West Sumbawa Regencyis one of the important development requires solution through the
regencies in West Nusa Tenggara Province related affirmation and empowerment of small economic
to the existence of gold mining company PT. actors significantly.
Newmont Nusa Tenggara. Its existence affected Therefore, the local communities deserving
the whole economic growth in West Nusa to the feasibly high level of welfare amidst the
Tenggara Province. According to Prijono (2015), increasingly high rate of economic growth and did
the economic growth in West Nusa Tenggara not give positive impact on the realization of
Provinceis relatively better than that of previous people prosperity. According to Soemodiningrat
years. The economic growth rate for mining (2009), poverty is a collective responsibility, so
sector in 2014 was 5 per cent. The prohibition of that the efforts to eradicate it require the active
concentrate export by PT. Newmont Nusa involvement of all parties.
Tenggara affected the province’s economic The existence of the gold mining company
growth, but the existence of PT. Newmont Nusa PT. Newmont Nusa Tenggara has actually had the
Tenggara given the highest contribution on Gross impact on economic growth in West Nusa
Regional Domestic Products (GRDP) in West Tenggara Province. It is different from the results
Nusa Tenggara Province. However, the economic of a study by Ibrahim (2008), indicating that
growth led to the increasingly wide discrepancy economic growth did not positively affect the
among local communities, where open economy
Analysis of the factors affecting the poverty in rural areas around gold mine areas in West Sumbawa
development of villages in the areas directly Table 1 The Poverty Line and the Percentage of
benefiting from the existence of the gold mining Poor People
company. The data show that the characteristics
of underdeveloped villages in West Sumbawa Category Poverty The The
Regencyvaried in accordance with their (Years) Line Percentage Number
topographic characteristics. This condition shows (IDR) of Poor of Poor
that villages in the regions with hilly topography Population Population
were 62.5% more than those in plain regions (%) (People)
(47.05%). In fact, the villages with hilly 2006 193,913 30.5 29,058
topographywere characterized by the 2007 212,859 28.63 26,735
underdeveloped conditions compared with those 2008 217,218 24.27 25,170
in plant villages. It means that the villages around 2009 269,356 23.01 24,336
the gold mining areas with hilly topography were 2010 310,586 21.82 25,100
characterized by the under developed conditions. Source: The Central Bureau of Statistics of West
It is expected that the development of Sumbawa Regency, 2012
villages after the issuance of Law Number 6 Year
2014 on Village can give effect on change in the The data show that the number of poor population
village community welfare. Generally, national was still high, although the region has natural
development should emphasize an integrated resources that can be utilized by communities.
development that cannot be separated from village Considering this condition, it is important to study
development activities, considering that the the factors affecting the rural povertyaround the
concentration of population is still dominantly in gold mining areasin West Sumbawa Regency and
rural areas. Villages are the main bases of socio- the distribution of povertybased on topographic
economic and political powers that are necessary characteristics of village, so it has implications on
to pay attention seriously by government. The the policy in terms of poverty eradication and
rural condition with a low level of welfare leads to targeted sustainable program.
many perception of village community life.
Village communities, particularly in those
around the gold mine areas, have directly negative Methods
effect on local communities. According to Utama This study was conducted at a meso level,
(2015), corporate activities had direct effect on including regency and each administrative village
the community life around the gold mining areas, around gold mine areasin West Sumbawa
particularly environmental pollution, fresh water, Regencyas analysis unit and a micro level using
and infectious diseases. The results of the study household as an analysis unit. It used a survey
show that the location of gold mine had the method.Data required for the analysis of village at
condition that harmed the surrounding the meso level using secondary data. The micro
community. In fact, the condition of local analysis was carried out using the primary data
communities shows the low level of welfare. This with household as analysis unit. The primary data
was strengthened by the results of a study by were collected from sample of household found
Riadi (2007), indicating that CSR implemented by using a proportional samplingtechnique,
PTNNT was to date not maximal. There are still approximately 10 per cent of total household
many poor local communities with income under population (Table 2).
1$ a day. The study was carried out in Jereweh, Maluk
The phenomenon of poor community around and Sekongkang. The regions were deliberately
the gold mine areasin West Sumbawa Regency selected as the sample sites of the study by
has still been high. Based on the poverty line and considering that they are included and adjacent to
the percentage of poor people in West Sumbawa the gold mining areas. The villages around gold
Regency (Table 1), the rate of povertyin the mining areas were Sekongkang Bawah Village in
region with a motto of “Pariri Lema Bariri” was Sekongkang Sub district, Maluk Village in Maluk
high. Based on data of poor population from 2006 Sub district, and Belo Village in Jereweh Sub
to 2010, most had the highest rate of poverty. In district. The selection of Jereweh, Maluk and
fact, West Sumbawa Regency has natural resource Sekongkang sub districts as the sites of the study
such as gold mining, but the poverty in the region was carried out by a purposive sampling
has also been high compared to other regencies technique, i.e. the selection in accordance with the
with no natural resources as the sources of local purposes of the study. The sample was determined
income. in four villages, including: 1) Maluk Sub-district
was represented by Maluk Villagewith terrain

topography. 2) Sekongkang Sub district was represented by two villages, i.e. Goa Villagewith
represented by Sekongkang Bawah Villagewith plain topography and Belo Villagewith terrain
hilly topography. 3) Jereweh Sub district was topography.
Table 2.Distribution of population and sample of villages and households in the sites of the study
Classification Plain Terrain Wave Hilly Number
Sub district Jereweh Maluk Jereweh Sekongkang 3
Village Goa Maluk Belo Sekongkang Bawah 4
Number of RT/Village 410 450 390 420 1670
Number of RT Sample 41 45 39 42 167
Source: Secondary data analysis 2013
Table 2 shows that population in each sample variables in explaining variation in values of
village was selected by a proportional sampling dependent variable.
technique. The determination of household was 10
per cent of the population (167 respondents).The
distributionof sample households in the sites of Results and Discussion
the study were as follows: 41 RT in village with The establishment of West Sumbawa
plain topography, 45 RT in that with terrain one, Regencybased on Law No. 30 Year 2003 has
39 RTin that with hilly one. The analysis was many fundamental problems because it was
performed to examine the factors affecting the included into 199 regency with ‘underdeveloped’
poverty distribution at each village with category (The Ministry of Under developed
difference based on topography by a quantitative Regional Development Acceleration, 2005).
method using a multiple linear regression However, the development has been implemented
analysis. In the study, five factors (material as the gold mining region with the impact on other
poverty, physical weakness, isolation, sectors. The existence of mining sector played an
vulnerability, and powerlessness) were assumed important role in the development of West
to affect povertyin rural areas as a dependent Sumbawa Regency. It can be seen from the
variable. contribution of mining sector in 2007-2011,
Multiple linear regression analysis was one indicating that the average contribution was
of the multivariate statistical tests used to analyze 94.47%.
metric data [interval/ratio scale] in a functional West Sumbawa Regencyhas great natural
relationship of independent variables and one resources, particularly gold mining sector. The
dependent variable. A linear regression equation mining was operated by PT. Newmont Nusa
model in the study was as follows: Tenggara as one of the large mining areas in
Indonesia. Therefore, the economic contribution
Y = bo + b1X1 + b2X2 + b3X3 + b4X4 + was not only to the regency’s Gross Regional
b5X5 Domestic Products, but also on the regional
where context of West Nusa Tenggara Province.PT.
Newmont Nusa Tenggara is a joint venture in
Y = Poverty Indonesia with stocks owned by Nusa Tenggara
X1 = Material poverty Partnership (Newmont & Sumitomo)(56 per
X2 = Physical weakness cent),PT.Pukuafu Indah (Indonesia) (17.8 per
X3 = Isolation cent), and PT Multi Daerah Bersaing (24 per
X4 = Vulnerability cent), and PT. Indonesia Masbaga Investama (2.2
X5 = Powerlessness per cent).Newmont and Sumitomo acts as the
operator of PT. Newmont Nusa Tenggara
To accelerate and facilitate the calculation of (http://www.ptnnt.co.id) .
constant value and coefficient of regression, a
program SPSS for Windows Version 22 was used. Factors affecting the rural povertyaround the
In the statistical calculation, the coefficient of gold mining areas
multiple linear regressions was shown by the
determination value of R². The value of R² shows Poverty occurred in rural communities as
the high level of ability of all independent indicated by the inability to meet basic needs,
particularly food, residence and clothing. It could

also be seen from the insufficient infrastructure The factors affecting the rural poverty of
and facilities and inadequate living standard that local communities around the gold mining areas
cannot be met by the local community. The living in West Sumbawa Regencywere those adopted
standard in local communities were directly from Chamber (1983), i.e.: 1) material poverty, 2)
associated with the low level of health, morality, physical weakness, 3) isolation, 4) vulnerability,
and self-esteem of the poor people. The poverty- and 5)powerlessness. Therefore, a multiple linear
related problems are increasingly complex regression analysis was carried out to examine the
because the characteristics were multidimentional, effects of independent variables (material poverty,
requiring the integrated eradication efforts. physical weakness, isolation, vulnerability, and
Therefore, the efforts should be multidimentional powerlessness) on the dependent variable
in nature by considering the various main factors (poverty) (Table3).
affecting the rural poverty.
Table 3. Multiple regression coefficients for powerlessness, physical weakness, isolation, material
poverty, vulnerability
Model R R Adjusted Std. Change Statistics
Square R Square Error of R F Change df1 df2 Sig. F
the Square Change
Estimate Change
1 .846a .715 .706 3.87714 .715 80.805 5 161 .000
a. Predictors: [Constant], Powerlessness, Physical Weakness, Isolation, Material Poverty, Vulnerability
Table 3 shows that the multiple regression physical weakness, isolation, vulnerability and
coefficient was 0.846 and F-Value was 80.805 powerlessness in a simultaneous manner. In
with a significance of 0.000 (<0.005). It means addition, the remaining 28.5 percent (100%-
that material poverty, physical weakness, 71.5%) of the rural poverty was caused by other
isolation, vulnerability and powerlessness factors that are not included into the model of the
simultaneously had positive and significant effect study. Thus, the effect of the independent
on rural poverty. All the independent factors variables on the dependent variable was
examined significantly affected the dependent significant (>50 per cent). Furthermore, the effect
factor with R square of 0.715, meaning that 71.5 of each independent variable on the dependent
per cent of the rural poverty around the gold variable was different as shown by t-values in
mining areas in West Nusa Tenggara Regency Table 4.
have actually been affected by material poverty,
Table 4. Regression coefficient and T values for material poverty (X1), physical weakness (X2), isolation
(X3), vulnerability (X4), and powerlessness (X5)
Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig.
Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
[Constant] 20.225 5.157 0 3.922 0.000
X1 Material Poverty 0.062 0.048 0.054 1.274 0.204
X2 Physical Weakness -0.142 0.062 -0.099 -2.298 0.023
X3 Isolation 0.121 0.065 0.079 1.867 0.064
X4 Vulnerability 0.027 0.057 0.020 0.474 0.636
X5 Powerlessness 1.192 0.060 0.833 19.715 0.000
a. Dependent Variable: Poverty
Based on Table 4, the values of regression was 20.225 with material poverty (X1) of 0.062,
coefficient for each independent variable varied. physical weakness (X2) of -0.142, isolation (X3)
The standard errors in Table4 show that constant of 0.121, vulnerability (X4) of 0.027, and

powerlessness (X5) of 1.192. Based on the values, independent variable on dependent variable were
if all the independent variables have zero values, significant: powerlessnesson poverty (P=0.000);
the dependent variable has a total score for vulnerabilityon poverty (P= 0.636); material
poverty of 20.225 with the following multiple povertyon poverty (P=0.204); isolationon poverty
linear regression equation. (P=0.64); and physical weaknesson poverty
(P=0.023).
Y = 20.225 + 0.062X1 - 0.142X2 + 0.121X3 Based on the results of analysis, it can be
+ 0.027X4 + 1.192X5 concluded that powerlessnesswas the factor
mostly affecting the rural poverty in rural
The multiple linear regression equation shows communities around the gold mine areasin West
Beta value, indicating that the effect of the Sumbawa Regency (P=0.000). Thus, the
independent variables on the dependent variable hypothesis in the study was accepted that the
was determined based on the calculation of factor mostly affecting the poverty of
standard coefficient. Based on Table 4, it can be communities around the gold mining area was
sheen that value variation was different, i.e. powerlessnessthan material poverty, physical
physical weakness (X2) of -0.099, vulnerability weakness, isolation and vulnerability.
(X4) of 0.020, material poverty (X1) of 0.054, The powerlessness of rural communities
isolation (X3) of 0.074, and powerlessness (X5) of around gold mining areas in West Sumbawa
0.833. Therefore, Beta value can be expressed in Regency was due to the minimum access and
the following multiple linear regression. communication among the poor communities to
local government and the gold mining company of
Y = - 0.142X2 +0.027X4 +0.062X1 + PT. Newmont Nusa Tenggara. This was also
0.121X3 + 1.192X5 because the poor communities had limited space
for participating in social organizations amidst the
Based on the multiple linear regression equation communities. The powerlessnessof rural
formulated based on Beta value, the contribution communities was caused by both limited
of the independent factors on the dependent knowledge and skills owned by the local people.
factors can be explained. The factor with the Therefore, community empowerment to
lowest value was physical weakness(X2) with improve the quality of community toward a
Beta value of -0.099, meaning that if the values of welfare society should be implemented with some
other independent variables (X1, X3, X4 and X5) considerations. According to Kartasasmita (1997),
were constant, each decrease in the factor will the efforts of community empowerment should be
decrease one unit of the total povertyscores of implemented by, first, the creation of atmosphere
0.099. Vulnerability (X4)had Beta value of 0.020, or climate enabling the development of
meaning that if the values of other independent community potentials. The point here is the
variables (X1, X2,X3 and X5)were constant, each recognition that each people/each community has
increase in the factor will increased one unit of the potentials that can be developed. Second, the
total povertyscore of 0.020. strengthening of potential resources owned by
Material poverty (X1)had Beta value of communities. Therefore, more positive measures
0.054, meaning that if the values of other are required, in addition to the creation of
independent variables (X2,X3, X4 and X5)were atmosphere and climate. The strengthening
constant, each increase in the factor will increase includes real measures to provide various inputs
one unit of the total povertyscore of 0.054. and the opening of access to various opportunities
Isolation (X3)had Beta value of 0.074, meaning that will make the local communities more
that if the values of other independent variables empowered. Third, the empowerment to protect.In
(X1, X2, X4 and X5)were constant, each increase in the empowerment, the weak should be prevented
the factor will increase one unit of the total from becoming weaker, because the condition
povertyscore of 0.074. Finally, powerlessness leads them to powerlessness in facing the strong.
(X5) had Beta value of 0.833, meaning that if the Therefore, the protection and affirmation to the
values of other independent variables (X1, X2, X3 weaker are essential in the concept of community
and X4) were, each increase in the factor will empowerment. Rural human resource
increase one unit of the total povertyscore of development can provide added value in
0.833. sustainable development. Baiquni (2000) the
Based on the multiple linear regression diversity of rural development activities not only
coefficients, the effect of each independent focus on the agricultural sector but also developed
variable (material poverty, physical weakness, in non-agricultural businesses which is based on
isolation, vulnerability, and powerlessness) can be the existence of local resources, appropriate
seen from t-value (Table4). The effects of each technology and tradition in the community.

Distribution of factors affecting the rural poverty villages studied can be used to determine the
factors with dominant effect. Therefore, it can be
The analysis of factors affecting the poverty in the
expected that the factors can be used as the bases
sites of the study was carried out on the effect of
for strategic measures to eradicate the rural
material poverty, physical weakness, isolation,
povertyin the villages. The results of the analysis
vulnerability, and powerlessnesson poverty. The
of factors affecting the rural poverty in local
distribution of factors affecting the poverty in the
community of Goa Village are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Factors affecting the rural povertyof local community in Goa Village
Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardized Standardized T Sig.
B Std. Error Beta
1 (Constant) 31.580 14.719 2.146 0.039
Material Poverty -0.054 0.126 -0.065 -0.429 0.671
Physical Weakness -0.085 0.152 -0.087 -0.560 0.579
Isolation 0.059 0.238 0.038 0.247 0.806
Vulnerability -0.063 0.180 -0.054 -0.352 0.727
Powerlessness 1.055 0.302 0.522 3.489 0.001
The results of regression coefficient (Table 5) weaknessas shown by a regression coefficient of -

show that powerlessnessin the rural community 0.085, so that the cause of povertyin Goa Village
was the factor dominantly affecting the rural can be eradicated. The results of analysis on the
poverty (1.055) with an error rate of 1%. It was factors affecting the rural poverty of Maluk
different from the lowest condition of physical Village are presented in Table 6.
Table 6. Factors affecting the rural povertyof community in Maluk Village

Coefficientsa
B Std. Error Beta
1 (Constant) 14.403 7.962 1.809 0.078
Material Poverty 0.222 0.078 0.173 2.830 0.007
Isolation 0.207 0.111 0.115 1.866 0.070
Vulnerability 0.024 0.114 0.013 0.212 0.833
Powerlessness 1.211 0.087 0.868 13.921 0.000
The results of regression coefficient (Table 6) 0.237. Based on the results of data processing, in
show that the values of powerlessness and Maluk Villagethe factors dominantly affecting the
material povertyin Maluk Villagewere the factors rural poverty were powerlessness and material
dominantly affecting the poverty, i.e. 1.211 and poverty. The results of the factors affecting the
0.222, respectively, at significance rate of 1%. It rural povertyof community in Belo Villagewere
was different from the lowest level of physical presented in Table 7.
weaknessshown by the regression coefficient of -

Table 7.Factors affecting the rural povertyof community in Belo Village

Coefficientsa
B Std. Error Beta
1 (Constant) 9.628 10.233 0.941 0.354
Material Poverty 0.146 0.095 0.116 1.529 0.136
Isolation 0.224 0.107 0.160 2.103 0.043
Vulnerability 0.005 0.109 0.004 0.050 0.961
Powerlessness 1.278 0.108 0.885 11.828 0.000
a. Dependent Variable: Poverty\
The results of regression coefficient (Table7) Sekongkang Bawah Village (Table8). The results
show that the value of powerlessnessin Belo of regression coefficient showed that the values of
Villagewas the factor dominantly affect the powerlessness in Sekongkang Bawah Village was
factors affecting the ruralpovertyaround the gold 1.006, indicating that it was the factor mostly
mining areas (1.278) with error rate of 1%. The dominant affecting the rural poverty around the
lowest condition in physical weakness was shown gold mining areas with an error level of 1%. The
by regression coefficient of -0,088. The results of lowest condition was found in material
the data collected showed that in Belo Villagethe povertywith the regression coefficient of -0.039.
affecting of povertywas powerlessness. The Based on the results of data, it can be concluded
results of analysis on the factor affecting the rural that the factor mostly affecting the rural poverty
poverty of local community were presented in in Belo Village was powerlessness.
Table 8. Factors affecting the rural povertyof community in Sekongkang Bawah Village
Coefficientsa
B Std. Error Beta
1 (Constant) 35.233 9.960 3.537 0.001
Material_Poverty -0.039 0.081 -0.052 -0.483 0.632
Physical_Weakness -0.146 0.124 -0.134 -1.178 0.246
Isolation 0.140 0.102 0.146 1.369 0.179
Vulnerability -0.221 0.133 -0.191 -1.661 0.105
Powerlessness 1.006 0.155 0.707 6.504 0.000
Based on the results of analysis on the factors weakness (21.65 per cent). The physical
affecting the rural povertyaround the gold mine weaknessof community was interpreted as lack of
areasin West Sumbawa Regencyin the four materials, being thus unable to perform activity in
villages studied, the contribution of factors favor of household economy. Physical
affecting the rural povertyaround the gold mine weaknesscan require medicine cost. It was
areasin West Sumbawa Regencyis presented in undergone by local people and leading them to
Table 9. poverty through various ways, including the
Table 9 showed that the distributionof the significantly low level of workers’ productivity
factors affecting the rural povertyaround the gold and the disability to work in a long time. The third
mining areas in West Sumbawa Regencywas factor was vulnerability (20.81 per cent), i.e. a
based on the highest to the lowest levels. The first condition where the poor people did not have
factor was material poverty (27.13 per cent). mental and material preparedness in facing
Material poverty was the main causing factor of difficult situation undergone and the local people
poverty. It affected the poverty in rural was susceptible, thus causing the poor people
community. The second factor was physical being forced to sell all the assets they owned.

Table 9. Contribution of factors affecting the rural poverty in the sites of study
Factors Contribution Number %
Plain Topography Hilly Topography
Goa % Maluk % Belo % Sekongkang %
Bawah
Material poverty 1,977 27.19 2,200 27.14 1,927 27.70 1,984 26.53 8,088 27.13
Physical weakness 1,595 21.94 1,719 21.21 1,507 21.66 1,633 21.84 6,454 21.65
Isolation 1,440 19.81 1,550 19.12 1,381 19.85 1,586 21.21 5,957 19.98
Vulnerability 1,490 20.50 1,757 21.68 1,442 20.73 1,513 20.23 6,202 20.81
Powerlessness 768 10.56 880 10.86 699 10.05 762 10.19 3,109 10.43
Total 7,270 100 8,106 100 6,956 100 7,478 100 29,810 100


The fourth factor was isolation (19.98 per cent) on Community, Golkar DPD Workshop Tk. East Java,
rural poverty around gold mine areas. Isolation Surabaya, March 14, 1997
made the poor people living in rural areas and Prijono, 2015, Bi Predicts Economic Growth Rises
powerless, limited scope of activity, and unable to NTB 2015,
http://mataram.antaranews.com/berita/27615/bi-
work in various sectors for the improvement of prediksi-pertumbuhan-ekonomi-ntb-2015-
welfare. The fifth factor was powerlessness (10.34 meningkat accessed on March 11, 2015
per cent) on rural poverty. The effect of Soemodiningrat, Gunawan, 2009, Building a People's
powerlessnesson the access of poor family, among Economy, Yogyakarta. IDEA and Library Student
others, could be seen from the case that village The Central Bureau Of Statistik, , 2012, Sumbawa West
elites used their power and made the poor people In Figures In 2011
powerless in the distribution of aid without Utama, Cipto, Rahadi, 2015, the Corporate Social
involving them in a consultation for consensus Responsibility (CSR) PT Newmont Nusa Tenggara:
with local communities. Community development not charity, Graduate
School Master in Management and Public Policy
UGM, diakses
Conclusion http://www.academia.edu/9976448/Corporate_socia
l_responsibility_PT_NNT, on March 11, 2015
The results of the study showed that the factors
significantly affecting the poverty among rural
communities around gold mine areas were
material poverty, physical weakness, isolation,
vulnerability and powerlessness (R2 = 0.715).
However, the mostly dominant affecting the
poverty was powerlessness (t = 19.715).
Meanwhile, the distribution of poverty based on
topographic sites showed that the poverty
occurred in villages with plain topography (Goa
Village), terrain topography (Maluk Village),
wave topography (Belo Village) and hilly
topography (Sekongkang Bawah Village), and the
poverties occurred in all the villages were mostly
affected by powerlessness with t values of 3.489,
13.921, 11.828, and 6.504, respectively. This
condition was due to minimum access and
communication by local communities to local
government and the gold mining company of PT.
Newmont Nusa Tenggara.
Acknowledgements
The Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher
Education Republic Indonesia has given grant doctor
based on the Letter No. 0299/E3/2016
References
Baiquni, Muhammad, 2000, integrated rural
development in the watershed upstream of
empirical experience in Boyolali, a discussion
paper, on the Faculty of Geography
Chambers, Robert, 1983, Rural Development Starting
From Behind, Jakarta. LP3ES
Ibrahim, 2012, Poverty Reduction Strategy Program at
the West Sumbawa Regency (Case Study Village
MantarPotoTano District of West Sumbawa
regency), Journal of Scientific Ulul Albab
Magazine, 2(1) 2012
Kartasasmita, Ginandjar, 1997, Empowering
Communities: Concepts Development Rooted in

DOI:10.15243/jdmlm.2016.033.595
Research Article
Characteristics of soils developed from alluvium and their potential for

cocoa plant development in East Kolaka Regency, Southeast Sulawesi
E. Yatno1*, Sudarsono2, Iskandar2, B. Mulyanto2
1
Indonesian Centre for Agricultural Land Resources Research and Development , Jl. Tentara Pelajar No. 12,
Cimanggu Bogor 16114, Indonesia.
2
Departement of Soil Science and Land Resource, Faculty of Agriculture, Bogor Agricultural University , Jl.
Meranti, Kampus IPB Dramaga Bogor 16680, Indonesia
*
corresponding author: edi_yatno@yahoo.com
Abstract: Cocoa is one of plantation commodities that is quite important for the national economy.
Land management for the development of this plant should pay attention to the characteristics of the soil.
Three soil profiles formed from alluvium parent material in East Kolaka Regency were investigated to
determine the mineralogical, physical, and chemical soil properties, as well as the potential of the land for
the development of cocoa plant. The results showed that the mineral composition of the sand fraction was
dominated by quartz, while the clay mineral fraction was composed of kaolinite, hydrate halloysite,
interstratified of illite-vermiculite and smectite. The soils were characterized by poor drainage, low bulk
density (0.78 to 0.95 g / cm3), moderate available water pores (10-15%), slow to fast permeability (0.10 to
14.05 cm / h), silty clay loam to silty clay texture of top soil, acidic soil reaction (pH 4.62 to 5.47), high
organic C content (3.86 to 4.60%) in the top soil and very low organic C content (<0.65%) in the lower
layer, moderate to high available P (14-38 mg / kg) in the A horizon and very low to moderate (1-18 mg /
kg) in horizon B, moderate to high P2O5 (30-71 mg / 100g) in horizon A and extremely low (1-11 mg /
100g) in horizon B, very low to moderate K2O (3-28 mg / 100g ), moderate to high exchangeable Ca
(9.32 to 13.92 cmolc / kg) in the upper and lower (0.70 to 5.04 cmolc / kg) in the bottom layer, high
exchangeable Mg content (2.83 to 8.95 cmolc / kg), high soil CEC (34.18 to 38.28 cmolc / kg) in the upper
layer and low to moderate (7.87 to 20.39 cmolc / kg) in the bottom layer, moderate to high base saturation
(44-68%), and very low to moderate Al saturation (0-17%). At the family level, the soil was classified as
Fluvaquentic Endoaquepts (EK 1 profile) and Typic Endoaquepts (EK 2 and EK 3 profiles), finely loamy,
mix, acid, isohypertermik. The land was marginally suitable (S3) for cocoa plant with the contraints of
impeded drainage, acid soil reaction, and low K2O. Drainage channel management can be done to
increase the carrying capacity of the land for the development of cocoa plant.
Keywords: alluvium, cocoa plant, land suitability, soil characteristics
Introduction amounting to 753 kg / ha (Department of

Agriculture, Forestry and Plantation of East
Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is one of the Kolaka, 2014). This is due to the planting of the
plantation commodity that plays important in the cocoa has not noticed the biophysical aspects or
national economy, particularly as providers of characteristics of the soil and land suitability for
employment, income source and country foreign cocoa so that the plant cannot produce optimally
exchange. In addition, cocoa also plays roles in and the land cannot be sustainably and
encouraging the development of the region and continuously used. In the region of Indonesia,
the development of agro-industry (Goenadi et al., factors other than climate and topography, soil
2005). East Kolaka is one of the central areas of parent material is the soil forming factor
cocoa production in Southeast Sulawesi. In 2013, influencing the nature and characteristics of the
cocoa production in East Kolaka reached 32023 t. soil formed and its potential for agriculture (Buol
However, the average productivity of cacao et al., 1980). The diversity of soil parent material
plantations in East Kolaka is still relatively low,
Characteristics of soils developed from alluvium and their potential for cocoa plant development
provides diversity of the nature and type of soil land potential and constraints for the development
formed. By nature, the diversity of soil parent of the cocoa plant can be known. This study was
material and the development of continuing land aimed to elucidate the mineralogical, physical and
will affect the quality of land formed thereby chemical properties of soils developed from
determining the suitability of land and the level of alluvium parent material and the land potential for
production of certain agricultural commodities the development of the cocoa plant in East Kolaka
(Sys, 1978). Land evaluation is the process of Regency, Southeast Sulawesi Province.
estimating the potential use of land based on the
land properties (Rossiter, 1996). Land suitability
evaluation is needed in land use planning so that Materials and Methods
land can be used optimally, productively and Description of the study area
sustainably (Zhang et al., 2004). Potential and
constraints of land use can be identified early so The research location is situated in the center of
that land management can be done better and cocoa farm run by farmers with low-input at
directed in accordance with the commodity to be Wungguloko Village, Ladongi District, East
developed (FAO, 1976). Soil formed from Kolaka Regency of Southeast Sulawesi Province.
alluvium in the cocoa central area of East Kolaka Three representative soil profiles formed from
is widespread. However, many of the cacao alluvium parent materials were selected for this
plantations have been converted to paddy fields study. The three soil profiles (EK 1, EK 2, EK 3)
due to the unsatisfactory yield of cocoa. are located on the alluvial plain landform with flat
Therefore, a study on soil characteristics and relief (slope of 1%). The location and description
suitability of land for the development of the of soil profiles studied are presented in Table 1.
cocoa plant on land formed from alluvium in East
Kolaka is important and interesting to do so the
Table 1. The location and description of soil profiles studied

Profile Location Coordinate Elevation Landform Relief Slope
(m above sea level) (%)
EK 1 Wungguloko, 04°07’46,7” S 73 alluvial flat 1
Ladongi 121°57’53,7” E plain
The research area has an average rainfall annual Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual (Soil
of 1,901 mm / year (Ladongi station). The highest Survey Laboratory Staff, 2004) and the
average monthly rainfall (306 mm) occurres in Indonesian Soil Research Institute (Sulaiman et
May, while the lowest (81 mm) occurres in al., 2005). Soil analysis consisted of soil physical,
August. The average air temperature is 27.9°C, chemical, and mineralogical analyses. Particle
while the average humidity is 75.6%. According size analysis was conducted by the pipette
to Schmidt and Ferguson (1951), the study area method. Soil bulk density was measured by
has a relatively rain-type B (humid). The level of gravimetric method on undisturbed soil samples.
wetness is reflected by the wet months (> 100 mm Water retention was measured at 33 kPa (2.54 pF)
/ month) that occurr during the 10 months and no and 1500 kPa (4.2 pF) by the method of pressure
dry months (<60 mm / month). plate / membrane apparatus, while the soil
permeability was determined by the method of
Methods constant water level. Soil pH was measured by a
glass electrode in a solution of water with a ratio
The representative soil profiles were described of soil: water of 1: 5. Organic carbon was
following the standard methods for Soil Profile determined by the Walkley and Black method,
Description (Soil Survey Division Staff, 1993).
while the total N was determined by Kjeldahl
The soils studied were classified according to the
method. K2O was measured by the method of
level of family in accordance with Keys of Soil
extraction of HCl 25%, while the available P2O5
Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2014). The analysis
was determined by the extraction method of Bray
procedure followed the standard method used in
1. Exchangeable cations (Ca, Mg, Na, K) were on Land Evaluation Technical Guidelines for
extracted with 1 M NH4OAc pH 7.0 and measured Agricultural Commodities (BBSDLP, 2011).
by atomic absorption spectrometer, while the
cation exchange capacity was determined by
saturation with 1 M NH4OAc pH 7.0. Results and Discussion
Exchangeable aluminum was extracted with 1 M Soil morphological characteristics
KCl and measured by titration. Mineral
composition of total sand fraction (50-500 m) was All of the soils studied had deep solum (Table 2).
identified on a glass slide using a polarization The top layer of soil ranged from very dark brown
microscope and the minerals were determined by grayed (2.5Y 3/2) to dark gray (2.5Y 4/1), while
the line counting method (Buurman, 1990). Clay the bottom layer ranged from gray (5Y 5 / 1-6 / 1)
mineral fraction (<2μm) was determined using X- to light gray (5Y 7 / 1). The gray colour was the
ray diffractometer (XRD) after saturation with result of a process of gleisation where the soils
Mg2+, Mg2+ and glycerol, and K+, followed by were endosaturated for long time. Gray soil colour
heating at a temperature of 550oC. Clay mineral with chroma of 2 or less indicates that the soils
identification was based on d spacing of each has impeded drainage. The particle size
diffraction peak (van Reeuwijk, 1993). Land distribution was generally fine loamy. The topsoil
suitability evaluation was done by "matching", i.e. texture ranged from silty clay loam to silty clay,
comparing the qualities and characteristics of land while the low layers varied from clay loam to
with plant growing requirements. Criteria of plant loam and sandy loam. The soil structure was
growth requirement used for this study was based angular blocky, while the consistency ranged from
firm to very firm, sticky and plastic.
Table 2. Soil morphological characteristics

Horizon Depth (cm) Colour Texture Structure Consistence Horizon
Boundary
Profile EK 1
Ap 0-14 2,5Y 3/2 SiCL sb t; s, p c, s
Bg1 14-46 5Y 6/1 SiC sb t; s, p g, s
Bg2 46-90 5Y 7/1 CL sb t; s, p g, s
Bg3 90-115 5Y 6/1 L sb t; s, p g, s
BCg 115-150 5Y 7/1 CL sb t; s, p
Profile EK 2
Ap 0-15 2,5Y 3/2 SiC sb st; s, p g, s
Bg1 15-48 5Y 5/1 SiCL sb t; s, p g, s
Bg2 48-80 5Y 5/1 CL sb t; s, p g, s
Bg3 80-120 5Y 6/1 SL sb t; ss, po c, s
BCg 120-150 5Y 7/1 SL sb t; ss, po
Profile EK 3
Ap 0-17 2,5Y 4/1 SiC sb t; s, p g, s
Bg1 17-36 5Y 5/1 SiCL sb t; s, p c, s
Bg2 36-62 5Y 6/1 CL sb t; s, p g, s
Bg3 62-108 5Y 6/1 L sb t; s, p g, s
BCg 108-150 5Y 7/1 L sb t; s, p
Remarks: texture: L = loam, CL = clay loam, SiCL = silty clay loam, SiC = silt clay, SL = sandy loam; Structure: sb
= angular blocky; consistency: st = very firm, t = firm, ss = somewhat sticky, s = intently, po = not plastic, p =
plastic; horizon boundary: c = clear, g = gradual, s = flat
Soil mineralogical properties <12%), while other minerals such as muscovite,

biotite, hornblende and epidote were only found
Results of mineral analysis of sand fraction of the
sporadically (<1%) (Table 3). The high quartz
profile EK 3 showed that the soils formed from
mineral and the least easily weathered mineral
alluvium parent materials were dominated by
showed that the alluvium material that formed the
quartz mineral (79-82%). Opaque, limonite, rock
soil was mostly derived from weathering of
fragments, sanidin, glaukofan, and enstatit
sedimentary rock or acid old volcanic materials in
minerals were found in small amounts (average of
the higher parts that have undergone further

weathering. The long-term potential of soil sufficient reserves of nutrients caused by the low
fertility was low because it was not supported by content of easily weathered minerals in the soil.
Table 3. Mineral composition of sand fraction in the soils studied

Profile Horizon Depth Minerals of total sand fraction (%)
(cm) Op Ku Ln Lm Fb Sn Mk Bt Hb Ep Gk En
EK 3 Ap 0-17 3 80 2 sp 1 11 - - sp sp 2 1
Bg1 17-36 4 80 1 sp 1 10 sp - sp sp 1 3
Bg2 36-62 6 79 1 sp sp 9 - sp sp sp 2 3
Bg3 62-108 6 81 sp sp sp 7 sp sp sp sp 3 3
BCg 108-150 4 82 1 sp 2 6 sp sp sp sp 3 2
Remarks: Op = opaque, Ku = quartz, Ln = limonite, Lm = mineral weathering, Fb = rock fragment, Sn = sanidin, Mk
= muscovite, Bt = biotite, Hb = hornblende, Ep = epidote, Gk = glaukofan, En = enstatit, sp = sporadic (<1%)
Mineral composition of clay fraction as diffraction peak of 1.005 nm (order 1) and 0.497
dominated by kaolinite followed by hydrate nm (order 2) in the treatment of Mg2+ and Mg2+ +
halloysite, interstratified illite-vermiculite and glycerol, and its peak diffraction was lost /
smectite in the moderate amounts, and small collapse by treatment with K+ + 550°C heating.
amount of hematite (Figure 1). The present of Interstratified illite-vermiculite was shown by X-
kaolinite mineral was shown by X-ray diffraction ray diffraction peak of 1.198 nm in the treatment
peak of 0.713 nm (order 1) and 0.358 nm (order of Mg2+, whereas smectite with diffraction peak of
2) at saturation treatment of Mg2+ and Mg2+ + 1.778 nm was shown in the treatment of Mg2+ +
glycerol, and its peak diffraction was lost / glycerol. Hematite was shown by X-ray
collapse by treatment with K+ + 550°C heating. diffraction peak of 0.270 nm.
Hydrate halloysite was characterized by X-ray
1,778 nm
1,198 nm
0,713 nm 0,358 nm
1,005 nm
0,497 nm
0,270 nm
Mg2+
Mg2++Gliserol
K++550°C
Figure 1. X-ray diffractograms for Bg1 horizon of EK3 profile
Soil physical properties Available water pores were moderate (from 10.3
3 to 16.1%), except for Ap horizon of the EK1
Soil bulk density was low (0.78 to 0.95 g / cm ),
profile which had low available water (8.0%). The
while the total pore space was high (46.4 to
permeability of the soil profiles studied quite
57.4%). Retention of water at a pressure of 33
varied. Ap horizon of EK1 and EK2 profiles had
kPa or field capacity (pF 2.54) ranged from 31.2
slow permeability (from 0.10 to 1.50 cm / h),
to 38.8%, while the retention of water at a
while the Bg horizon had moderate permeability
pressure of 1,500 kPa or permanent wilting point
(4.85 cm / h) to fast (11.46 to 13.51 cm /h).
(pF 4.2) ranged from 19.1 to 28 , 1% (Table 4).

Table 4. Soil physical properties

Total
Bulk Available
Dept Pore pF2.54 pF 4.2 Permeability
Profile Density Water
Space
(cm) g/cm3 ------------------------ % volume ---------------- cm/h
EK 1 0-30 0.95 46.4 36.4 28.1 8.3 0.10
30-60 0.91 54.9 33.5 22.0 11.5 4.85
EK 2 0-30 0.79 54.9 38.8 22.7 16.1 1.50
30-60 0.82 57.4 36.8 24.4 12.3 11.46
EK 3 0-30 0.78 56.1 34.8 24.5 10.3 14.05
30-60 0.83 56.3 31.2 19.1 12.1 13.51
Soil chemical properties horizon B, while K2O (HCl 25% extract) was
moderate (18-28 mg / 100g) in the A horizon and
The soils studied had relatively high clay and silt
low (3-13 mg / 100g) in horizon B. Cation
contents, i.e. 38-46% and 51-59% in the upper
exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil was high (34-
layer, 5-42% and 19-58% in the lower layers
38 cmolc / kg) in the A horizon and low to
(Table 5). This indicates that the top layer of the
moderate (8-20 cmolc / kg) in the horizon B.
soils studied had finer particle size distribution
Exchangeabe aluminum and Al saturation were
than the lower layer. Soil reaction of the soil
generally low to moderate. Exchangeabe Al
profiles studied was relatively acid (pH 4.62 to
content ranged from 0 to 2.16 cmolc / kg, while
5.47). The low soil reaction indicates that the soil
the Al saturation ranged from 0 to 28%. The high
forming materials were derived from weathering
value of the CEC, particularly in the upper layer,
of sedimentary rocks or acid old volcanic
was influenced by the presence of smectite and
materials that were carried away by the flow of
interstratified illite-vermiculite mineral in
water and depositing in alluvial plains. The low
moderate amount.
soil reaction was influenced by the kaolinite
mineral. The contents of organic C and total N in
Soil classification
the were high (3.86 to 4.60% and 0.47-.62%) in A
horizon and low (0.2-2% and 0.04 to 0.24%) in B At the family level, the soils studied were
horizon. The high content of organic C in the A classified as Fluvaquentic Endoaquepts (EK1
horizon was caused by frequent water saturation profile) and Typic Endoaquepts (EK2 and EK3
process so that the decomposition of organic profiles), finely loam, mix, acid, isohyperthermic.
matter was slow. The acidity of soils studied were This was due to the soil had aquic moisture
not in line with the content of bases, especially regime on the whole soil profile as indicated by
exchangeable Ca and Mg, and their base the gray soil colour and depletion of redox with
saturation. Ca content was high in the A horizon chroma of 2 or less. The soils have experienced
(9.32 to 13.92 cmolc / kg) and low to moderate endosaturation, had organic C content of ≥ 0.2%
(0.70 to 6.46 cmolc / kg) in the horizon B. Mg at a depth of 125 cm (EK1 profile), and structure
content was high (2.83 to 8.95 cmolc / kg). Base development which were characterized by the
saturation was moderate to high (44-68%). The presence of cambic horizon. The fine loamy grain
high bases (Ca and Mg) and base saturation were size was indicated by clay content that ranged
caused by the presence of mineral type 2:1 from 18 to 35% in the control profile (25-100
smectite that supplied Ca and Mg in the soil cm). Mineralogy class of the soils were mix
solution. In addition, the high content of because the soils were composed of kaolinite,
exchangeable Ca was thought to be caused by the interstratified illite-vermiculite, smectite, and
addition of Ca-rich material from over flowing hydrate halloysite clay minerals. The soil reaction
river water. The content of P2O5 (Bray 1 extract) was soil (pH <5.5) and the average annual soil
was moderate to high (14-38 mg / kg) in the A temperature was 22°C or more made the soil
horizon and a low to moderate (1-18 mg / kg) in reaction belonged to the class of acid soil and the
the horizon B. The content of P2O5 (HCl 25% soil temperature belonged to the class of
extract) was moderate to high (30-71 mg / 100g) isohyperthermic
in horizon A and very low (2-11 mg / 100g) in

Table 5. Soil chemical properties

pH Texture Organic Matter Bray 1 HCl 25 % NH4OAc 1 M, pH 7 KCl 1 M
BS Al saturation
Horizon Depth H2O Sand Silt Clay C N C/N P2O5 P2O5 K2O K Ca Mg Na CECs CECc Al
cm % % mg/kg mg/100 g cmolc/kg %
EK1 profile
Ap 0-14 5.47 3 59 38 4.60 0.62 7 14 30 18 0.21 13.92 8.95 0.09 34.18 41.56 0.00 68 0
Bg1 14-46 4.86 6 52 42 0.65 0.17 4 3 2 13 0.15 5.04 7.13 0.10 18.82 38.63 0.82 66 6
Bg2 46-90 4.71 31 41 28 0.25 0.09 3 1 4 5 0.04 1.49 6.62 0.10 14.65 48.73 1.24 56 13
Bg3 90-115 4.92 29 45 26 0.22 0.04 5 0 11 4 0.05 0.97 6.96 0.22 13.33 47.90 1.39 62 14
BCg 115-150 4.62 24 46 30 0.27 0.07 4 0 21 4 0.05 0.70 6.59 0.23 17.07 53.26 1.35 44 15
EK2 profile
Ap 0-15 4.87 3 51 46 3.86 0.47 8 18 41 27 0.38 9.52 7.13 0.09 38.28 49.65 1.73 45 9
Bg1 15-48 5.09 11 50 39 2.08 0.20 10 12 6 11 0.11 6.46 8.36 0.11 25.25 43.43 0.37 60 2
Bg2 48-80 4.84 38 35 27 0.40 0.04 9 2 1 6 0.05 2.43 5.77 0.09 14.92 49.32 0.88 56 10
Bg3 80-120 4.76 66 19 15 0.16 0.09 2 1 7 3 0.02 0.97 2.84 0.05 7.87 48.34 1.24 49 24
BCg 120-150 4.74 67 20 13 0.13 0.04 3 0 9 3 0.03 0.76 2.83 0.09 8.28 59.73 1.45 45 28
EK3 profile
Ap 0-17 4.78 3 57 40 3.94 0.60 7 38 71 28 0.40 9.32 5.94 0.11 34.74 47.48 2.16 45 12
Bg1 17-36 5.42 11 58 31 1.90 0.24 8 18 8 10 0.28 6.08 7.32 0.18 20.39 41.26 0.04 68 0
Bg2 36-62 4.66 29 37 34 0.50 0.17 3 2 2 10 0.13 2.97 6.73 0.15 17.13 44.45 1.74 58 15
Bg3 62-108 4.63 37 40 23 0.23 0.04 5 1 6 4 0.05 1.47 6.21 0.14 13.28 53.73 1.56 59 17
BCg 108-150 4.97 34 44 22 0.18 0.07 3 0 10 4 0.06 1.67 8.80 0.28 16.01 69.53 0.46 67 4
Remarks: CECs = CEC soil, CECc=CEC clay, BS = Base Saturation

Land potential and constraints Tech. Report No.7, Version 2.1. LREPP Part 2, Soil
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showed that the soils studied were marginally Areal Produksi, Produktivitas dan Jumlah Petani
suitable (S3) for the development of the cocoa Perkebunan Rakyat Kabupaten Kolaka Timur
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DOI:10.15243/jdmlm.2016.033.603
Research Article
Biological properties of soils of former forest fires in Samosir Regency

of North Sumatera
D. Elfiati*, Delvian
Forestry Study Programme, Faculty of Agriculture, North Sumatera University, Jl. Tridharma Ujung No 1 Kampus
USU Medan 20155, Indonesia.
*
corresponding author : denielfiati@yahoo.com
Abstract: A study that was aimed to identify the impact of forest fires on the biological properties of
soils was carried out at former forest fire areas in Samosir Regency of North Sumatera. Soil samples were
collected from former forest fire areas of 2014, 2013, 2012, 2011, 2010. The composite soil samples were
collected systematically using diagonal method as much as 5 points in each period of fire. The soil
samples were taken at three plots measuring 20 x 20 m 0-20 cm depth. Soil biological properties observed
were soil organic C content, total number of microbes, abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi,
phosphate solubilizing microbes, and soil microbial activity. The results showed that organic C content
ranged from 0.75 to 2.47% which included criteria for very low to moderate. Arbuscular mycorrhizal
fungi spores were found belonging to the genus of Glomus and Acaulospora. Spore number increased
with the fire period ranging from 45 spores (forest fire in 2014) to 152 spores (forest fire in 2010). The
total number of microbes obtained ranged from 53.78 x 107 cfu/mL (forest fire in 2010) to 89.70 x107
cfu/mL (forest fire in 2013). It was found 29 isolates of phosphate solubilizing microbes that consisted of
14 bacterial isolates and 15 fungi isolates with densities ranging from 27.642 x105 cfu/mL (forest fires in
2014) to 97.776 x 105 cfu/ mL (forest fires in 2011). The isolates of phosphate solubilizing bacteria
identified consisted of Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium, Staphylococcus, and Mycobacterium genus,
whereas the isolates of phosphate solubilizing fungi obtained consisted of Aspergillus and Penicillium
genus. Soil respiration ranged from 2.14 kg / day (forest fire in 2010) up to 3.71 kg / day (forest fire in
2013). The varied results were greatly influenced by the type or form of the fires and intensity of fires. In
the study area the type or form of the fires were canopy fires with low intensity.
Keywords: bacteria, fungi, forest fire, soil organic C, total number of microbes
Introduction which lead to erosion susceptibility (Certini,

2005; Ekinci, 2006). In terms of soil chemical
Soil is a natural resource that has many functions properties, forest fires provide input of minerals
in the ecosystem. Among other functions is as contained in the ashes or charcoal to raise the soil
plant growing media, as habitat for both macro pH and increase soil nutrients. However, this
and microorganisms and plays a role in nutrient effect does not last long due to the opening of the
cycles. The disruption to the ecosystem will lead canopy then leaching becomes more intensive
to the undermining of the soil. According to (Chandler et al., 1983; Boerner et al., 2009; Aref
Chandler et al. (1983), fire is one factor et al., 2011; Ershad et al., 2013).
contributing to the deterioration of the ecosystem Forest fires have different effects for each
in which the response depends on the severity of nutrient as each nutrient has a different
the fire. temperature threshold where nutrients will be
Forest fires can cause changes to soil volatilized. Effect of forest fires to the presence of
physical, chemical and biological properties. The organic materials give varying results depending
impact of forest fires on soil physical properties on the intensity and type of fires, soil moisture,
mainly due to the opening of the canopy, burned soil types and original burned materials (Certini,
humus and litter, deterioration of soil structure
Biological properties of soils of former forest fires in Samosir Regency of North Sumatera
2005; Ekinci, 2006; Verma and Jayakumar, 2012; Faculty of Agriculture, and North Sumatera
Ershad et al., 2013). Neary et al. (1999) reported University. The study was conducted from June to
that in burned soil, the nitrogen content is lower September 2014.
than that of in the unburned soils, while calcium Soil sampling was done diagonally and then
content is higher on burnt soil, and potassium, composited in three sample plots of each fire
magnesium and phosphorus contents remain period. From each plot, soil samples taken from 5
unchanged. Forest fires can cause loss of points at 0-20 cm depth. Composite soil samples
biodiversity and alter soil chemical and physical were then placed in a separate plastic bag and
wealth, so they will affect the composition of soil labeled for analysis of soil biological properties.
microbes (Suciatmih, 2008). Soil biological properties observed were organic
Soil microbes have important role in the C content using Walkley and Black method
cycle of food that will then determine soil fertility (CPM, 2005), total number of microbes using the
and plant growth that are very sensitive to plate count method (Anas, 1989), abundance of
environmental changes. According to Verma and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi using the strain
Jayakumar (2012), the effect of fire on soil technique (Brundret et al,. 1996), phosphate
microbial biomass is a drop in the number of solubilizing microbes using the plate count
microbes. method (Anas, 1989), soil microbial activity by
The purpose of this study was to identify the measuring the respiration process using the jar
biological properties of soils of the former forest method (Anas, 1989).
fire areas in Samosir Regency of North Sumatera.
Results and Discussion
Materials and Methods
The results showed that the content of organic C
Sampling of soils was conducted at forest areas in the soil ranged from 0.75% to 2.47% which
that were burnt in 2014, 2013, 2012, 2011, and included criteria for very low to moderate. The
2010. Samples of soils from the former forest fires number of spores of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
of 2014 and 2011 were collected at village of (AMF) obtained increased with the period of fire
Curaman Tomok Village of Simanindo District. that ranged from 45 spores (forest fire in 2014) to
Soil samples from the former forest fire of 2010 152 spores (forest fire in 2010). The total number
were collected from Sijambur Nabolak Village of of microbes obtained ranged from 53.78 x 107
Pangururan District, soil samples from the forest (forest fire in 2010) to 89.70 x 107 cfu / mL (forest
fire of 2012 were collected at Siogung-ogung fire in 2013). Population density of phosphate
Village of Pangururan District, and soil samples solubilizing microbe ranged from 27.642 x 105 cfu
from the former forest fire in 2013 were collected / mL (forest fire 2014) to 97.776 x 105 cfu / mL
at Sosor Dolok Village of Pangururan District. (forest fire in 2011). Respiration ranged from 2.14
Identification of soil biological properties was kg / day (forest fire in 2010) to 3.71 kg / day
carried out in the Laboratory of Soil Biology, forest fire in 2013) (Table 1).
Table 1. Biological properties of soils of former forest fire in Samosir Regency

No Soil Samples Organic C Total Spore Population of Respiration
(%) Microbe Density of PSB (cfu/mL) (kg/day)
(cfu/mL) AMF
1 Fire in 2014 0.75 vl 59.94 x 107 45 27.642 x 105 2.71
2 Fire in 2013 1.65 l 89.70 x 107 56 75.858 x 105 3.71
3 Fire in 2012 2.47 m 67.40 x 107 62 34.373 x 105 3.43
4 Fire in 2011 1.62 l 66.98 x 107 129 97.776 x 105 3.43
5 Fire in 2010 1.19 l 53.78 x 107 152 82.606 x 105 2.14
Remarks: vl = very low; l = low; m = moderate; AMF = Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi, PSB = Phosphate
Solubilizing Bacteria
Organic C content performed 2 months after the fire, so the soil

organic matter had not yet increased. In soils of
Data presented in Table 1 show that soil of the
the forest burned in 2010 until 2013, however, the
forest burned in 2014 had very low content of
soil organic C content increased because of the
organic C. This was due to soil sampling
addition of organic matter to the soil through the

growth of grasses. According to Neary et al. of 2010 forest fire that amounted to only 2.14 kg /
(1999), the effect of forest fire on soil organic day. The increase number of microbes will
matter varies greatly depending on the severity of increase the microbial activity that relates to the
the fire, drought of organic matter surface, presence of soil organic matter as source of
vegetation type, soil texture and types of fire. energy for microbes. Soil microorganisms play an
Low intensity fires typically produce little important role in maintaining the soil quality and
change in the soil carbon and high-intensity fires keep the soil fertile. Soil microorganisms require
cause the loss of soil carbon. It has been reported a range of temperatures, and a certain pH, water
elsewhere that after 2 weeks of fire there is no availability, nutrient availability, and energy
significant difference in soil C value from that sources in order to survive (Subba Rao, 1994).
from unburned soils (Ekinci, 2006). The increase Mataix-Solera et al. (2009) reported that
of N and C contents in the topsoil was a direct respiration measured in burned soils was not
result of forest fires and the increased amount of different from that measured in unburned soils.
nitrogen-fixing bacteria after the fire (Johnson,
1992). Phosphate Solubilizing Microbes
Phosphate solubilizing microbes play roles in
Microbial Activity and Total Microbes increasing availability of P bound by soil components
Microbial activity can be measured through soil so it can be taken up by plants to improve plant growth.
The highest population of phosphate solubilizing
respiration based on CO2 released by the microbes was found in soils of 2011 forest fire, and the
microbes. In this study, respiration of lowest was in soils of 2014 forest fire. After isolation,
microorganisms ranged from 2.14 kg / day to 3.71 there were 29 isolates consisting of 14 phosphate
kg / day (Table 1). The greater the value obtained, solubilizing bacteria and 15 phosphate solubilizing
the more microbial activity was detected in the fungi. The isolates of phosphate solubilizing
soil. Respiration is related to the presence of bacteria consisted of four genuses, i.e.
microorganisms in the soil, where the greater Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium, Staphilococus and
number of microbes in the soil, then its activity is Mycobacterium (Holt et al., 1994) (Table 2).
also higher. The effect of forest fire on soil Data presented in Table 2 show that
microbial varies depending on the severity of the Pseudomonas was identified in almost all soils of
fire, the changing nature of the soil and the former forest fire except in 2010.
environmental conditions after the fire occurred Pseudomonas is a genus of bacteria that is most
and also depends on the type of microbes found in frequently encountered in various ecosystems
the soil. In soil, there are 108 to 1012 bacteria and such as peat ecosystem in Samarinda (Nurkanto,
other organisms (Hedo et al., 2014). 2007), and banana palm ecosystem (Marista et al.,
Results of this study indicated that the 2013). The isolates of phosphate solubilizing
highest microbial population was observed in fungi consisted of two genus, i.e. Aspergillus and
soils of 2013, while the lowest population was Penicillium (Gilman, 1971; Gandjar et al., 1999)
found in soils of former 2010 forest fire although (Table 2). Aspergillus and Penicillium are
the population was still around 107 cfu / mL. cosmopolitan fungi commonly found in a variety
Microbial activity showed results in line with the of ecosystems. The fungi are known as the most
microbial population. In soil of former 2014 forest widely used phosphate solubilizing fungi to
fire, the respiration value of 3.71 kg / day was the improve the availability of P in soils.
highest respiration value compared to that in soil
Table 2. Isolated phosphate solubilizing microbes

Genus Soil Samples
Forest Fire Forest Fire Forest Fire Forest Fire Forest Fire
in 2014 in 2013 in 2012 in 2011 in 2010
Pseudomonas √ √ √ √ -
Flavobavterium - - - - √
Staphilococcus - - - - √
Mycobacterium - - - - √
Aspergillus √ √ √ √ √
Penicillium - √ √ √ -
Remarks: √ = found, - = not found

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International Research Centre for the Management of Degraded and Mining Lands.
Contact
Eko Handayanto
International Research Centre for the Management of Degraded and Mining Lands
Soil Science Building 3rd floor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Brawijaya, Jalan
Veteran, Malang 65145, Indonesia,
Phone: +62 341 553623; Fax: +62 341 564333
Email: editor.jdmlm@ub.ac.id
Novi Arfarita
Phone: +62 341 553623; Fax: +62 341 564333
Email: editor.jdmlm@ub.ac.id
SURAT PERNYATAAN
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini :
1. Nama : Titin Sugianti

Instansi : Balai Pengkajian Teknologi Pertanian Nusa Tenggara Barat
Alamat : Jl. Raya Peninjauan Narmada. Lombok Barat.NTB
Telp/Fax : 0370-671312/0370-671620
2. Nama : Fitria Zulhaedar

Instansi : Balai Pengkajian Teknologi Pertanian Nusa Tenggara Barat
Alamat : Jl. Raya Peninjauan Narmada. Lombok Barat.NTB
Telp/Fax : 0370-671312/0370-671620
3. Nama : Siti Fatimah Batubara

Instansi : BPTP Sumatera Utara
Alamat : Jl. AH. Nasution No 1 B. Medan
Telp/Fax : 061-7870710/061-7861020
Menyatakan bahwa makalah dengan judul “Mercury content in wetland rice soil and water of
two different seasons at small scale gold mine processing areas” dengan penulis Titin
Sugianti, Fitria Zulhaedar, dan Siti Fatimah Batubara yang terbit pada Jurnal of Degraded
land mining lands management, DOI: 10.15243/jdmlm.2016.033.559, ketiga penulis adalah
kontributor utama.
27 Desember 2020,
Penulis,
Titin Sugianti Fitria Zulhaedar Siti Fatimah Batubara

JDMLM CS

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Journal of

Degraded and Mining

ISSN: 2339-076X Vol 3 No 3 (April 2016)

International Research Centre for the Management of

@IRC-MEDMIND 2016: All rights reserved

Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on the potential of three wild

Introduction on average the amalgamation tailings contains

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 552

Figure 1. Density of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi.

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 553

Plant Height (cm)

Mercury accumulation by P. conjugatum, statistical analysis, however, showed that AM

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 554

Hg accumulation (mg/kg dry weight)

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 555

Plant (maize) height (cm)

Mercury accumulation by maize PcM1 because of the lowest Hg accumulation in

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 556

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 557

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 558

Introduction be cultivated during the rainy season and the first

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 561

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 562

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 563

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 564

Status of macro and micro nutrients from deposited tailings in

Introduction water, deeper and dry, therefore reclaimed with

Results and Discussion pyrite (FeS2), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), covellite

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 566

Table 1. Fertility status of inactive tailings and natural soil - Timika

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 567

Figure 2. Status of Macronutrient Elements in the Land of Inactive TailingsandNatural Soil

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 568

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 569

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 570

Figure 4. Total of elements content in natural soil of Nawaripi (NWRP)

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 571

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 572

Figure 7. Nutrient content in leaf tissue of Coconut, inactive tailings of MP21

Figure 8. Nutrient content in leaf tissue of Coconut, natural soil of SP4

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 573

Figure 9. Nutrient content in leaf tissue of Sago, natural soil of NWRP

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 574

Tabel 3.Amount of various trace elements tolerable to plants

Element Range (mk/kg) Common Level (mg/kg) Amount Tolerable (Proposed)

Based on the observation of several agricultural concentration of Mn has exceeded of normal

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 575

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 576

Comparison of two kinetics models for estimating N mineralization

Introduction estimating N mineralization are first-order

Table 1. Chemical properties of soil samples

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 578

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 579

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 580

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 581

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 582

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Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 584

Introduction can only be utilized by the more advanced region,

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 586

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 587

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 588