PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY

Fluidization

Technical University of Kenya

SCBSE
Chemical and Process Engineering Department
INTRODUCTION

• Fluid passing downward in a bed of solids, unless

particles are unstable, no movement of the particles

• If flow is streamline, pressure drop across the bed is

directly proportional to the rate of flow

• Fluidization occurs whereby a granular/particulate

matter is converted from a static solid state to a dynamic
fluid-like state. (does the size of particle matter?)
– a fluid passed up through the particles.
INTRODUCTION- Mechanism
• At low gas velocities, aerodynamic drag on each particle is low - bed
state - fixed.

• Increasing the velocity, at a critical value the upward drag forces will
be exactly equal to the downward gravitational forces, resulting in
the particles becoming suspended within the fluid.
INTRODUCTION- Mechanism
• At this critical velocity value, the bed is said to be fluidized
and will exhibit fluid like behavior.
• At high fluid velocity (after reaching the fluidizing velocity):
– LIQUID – bed continues to expand as the velocity increases and it
maintains its uniform character, degree of agitation of the particles
increases progressively
– Called PARTICULATE FLUIDIZATION
– GAS – uniform, fluidization is usually obtained at low velocities
• At higher velocities two separate phases may form
(i) continuous phase – DENSE OR EMULSION PHASE
(ii) discontinuous phase – LEAN OR BUBBLE PHASE. Fluidization is said to be
AGGREGATIVE
INTRODUCTION- Mechanism
The regimes of fluidization as a function of the fluid velocity.
(i) At very low flow rates (1 and 2), the particles behave as a porous
media, or fixed bed.
(ii) After the gas velocity surpasses a critical value, the particles
become fluidized.
 INTRODUCTION - Mechanism
• At higher velocities, bubbles tend to break down

• When gas bubbles pass through a relatively high-density fluidised bed the
system closely resembles a boiling liquid, with the lean phase
corresponding to the vapour and the dense or continuous phase
corresponding to the liquid. The bed is then often referred to as a boiling
bed, as opposed to the quiescent bed usually formed at low flowrates.

• As the gas flowrate is increased, the velocity relative to the particles in

the dense phase does not change appreciably, and streamline flow may
persist even at very high overall rates of flow because a high proportion of
the total flow is then in the form of bubbles.

• At high flowrates in deep beds, coalescence of the bubbles takes place,

and in narrow vessels, slugs of gas occupying the whole cross-section may
be produced. These slugs of gas alternate with slugs of fluidised solids
that are carried upwards and subsequently collapse, releasing the solids
which fall back.
FLUIDISATION
• To differentiate between the conditions leading to particulate or
aggregative fluidisation, WILHELM and KWAUK(1) suggested using
2
𝑢𝑚𝑓
the value of the Froude number ൗ𝑔𝑑as a criterion, where:
– 𝑢𝑚𝑓 is the minimum velocity of flow, calculated over the whole
cross-section of the bed, at which fluidisation takes place,
– d is the diameter of the particles, and
– g is the acceleration due to gravity.
• At values of a Froude group of less than unity, particulate
fluidisation normally occurs and, at higher values, aggregative
fluidisation takes place.
• Much lower values of the Froude number are encountered with
liquids because the minimum velocity required to produce
fluidisation is less.
Expansion of a liquid fluidized
bed: (a) just above Umf;
(b) Velocity several
times the Umf:
FLUIDISATION
• The force balance across the fluidized bed dictates that the fluid
pressure loss across the bed of particles is equal to the apparent
weight of the particles per unit area of the bed.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 − 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 =
𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

• For a bed of particles of density 𝜌𝑝 , fluidized by a fluid of density

𝜌𝑓 to form a bed of depth H and voidage ε in a vessel of cross-
sectional area A:
𝐻𝐴 1 − 𝜀 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑓 𝑔
∆𝑝 =
𝐴

• The superficial fluid velocity at which the packed bed becomes a

fluidized bed is known as the minimum fluidization velocity, umf
(the velocity at incipient fluidization)
 Fluid velocity vs pressure gradient
and pressure drop
1. Effect of fluid velocity
on Pressure gradient

• As the fluid flows slowly

upwards through a bed of
particles,
– flow is streamline and a linear
relation exists between
pressure gradient and flow
rate.
Pressure gradient within a bed as a function of
fluid velocity
• A plot of pressure gradient
(−ΔP/l) vs the superficial
velocity (uc) using log-log
scale a straight line of unit
slope is obtained
 Fluid velocity vs pressure gradient
and pressure drop
2. Effect of fluid
velocity on Pressure

• If the pressure across

the whole bed is plotted
against velocity, in log
scale, a linear relation is
again obtained up to the
Pressure drop over fixed and fluidized beds
point where expansion
of the bed starts to take
place (A), the slope of
the curve then gradually
diminishes why??
 Fluid velocity vs pressure gradient
and pressure drop
• The velocity is increased, whereby the pressure drop passes through a maximum
value (B) and then falls slightly and attains an approximately constant value that is
independent of the fluid velocity (CD).

• If the fluid velocity is reduced, the bed contracts until it reaches the condition where
the particles are just resting on one another (E). The porosity then has the maximum
stable value which can occur for a fixed bed of the particles.

• If the velocity is further decreased, the structure of the bed then remains unaffected
(point EF) provided that the bed is not subjected to vibration. The pressure drop (EF)
across this reformed fixed bed at any fluid velocity is then less than that before
fluidisation.

• If the velocity is now increased again, it might be expected that the line (FE) would be
retraced and that the slope would suddenly change from 1 to 0 at the fluidising point.

• In an ideal fluidised bed the pressure drop corresponding to ECD is equal to the
buoyant weight of particles per unit area.
FORCES/FLOW - FLUIDIZATION
• For LAMINAR FLOW - KOZENY–CARMAN equation (or
Carman-Kozeny equation) is a relation used to calculate
the pressure drop of a fluid flowing through a packed bed
of solids.
• fluid velocity uc, pressure drop (−ΔP) and voidage e is
given, for a fixed bed of spherical particles of diameter d,.

…………………….…………….5.3

But for a fluidised bed, the buoyant weight of the particles is

counterbalanced by the frictional drag.

Substituting for −ΔP

………………………………(5.4)
FORCES/FLOW - Fluidization

• At fluidization, then the minimum fluidising velocity (umf ) is obtained by

substituting emf into equation 5.4 :

…………..(5.5)

• Substituting a typical value of 0.4 for emf in equation 5.5 gives:

……………………………(5.6)

The value of emf is a function of the shape, size distribution and surface
properties of the particles
FORCES/FLOW - Fluidisation
When the flow regime at the point of incipient
fluidisation is outside the range over which the Carman-
Kozeny equation is applicable, the more general
equation for the pressure gradient in the bed, i.e. the
Ergun equation (equation 5.7) is used.

……….…………..(5.7)

• where d is the diameter of the sphere with the same

volume: surface area ratio as the particles (i.e.
equivalent diameter of the particle).
• Similarly as done for Karman- Kozeny, substitute for
pressure drop at incipient velocity:

…..(5.8)

• Multiplying both sides by :

……………(5.9)
• Defining the following:

……………………………..(5.10)

where Ga is the ‘Galileo number’.

And: ………………………………(5.11)

• where Remf is the Reynolds number at the minimum

fluidising velocity and equation 5.9 then becomes:
 ………(5.12)

For a typical value of emf = 0.4:

………………………..(5.13)

Thus: ………………..(5.14)

………….(5.15)

Similarly for emf = 0.45:

………..(5.15a)

By definition:

………………………………….(5.16)
 ………….(5.15)

and, similarly for emf = 0.45:

………..(5.15a)

By definition:

………………………………….(5.16)
 The Ergun equation is an estimation of the pressure
drop through a packed bed due to the following factors:
rate of fluid flow, fluid properties (viscosity and
density), density of packing (void fraction), and physical
properties of the packing material.

 Ergun made the assumption that the total pressure

drop across a fluidized bed is due to the sum of the
viscous and kinematic forces.
• WEN and YU(1960) examined the relationship
between emf , and particle shape, φs,

• Where ………..…………(5.17)

d= diameter of the sphere of the same specific as the

particle
dp = diameter of the sphere with the same
volume as the particle
• Calculated as:
• They established that the following two expressions give
reasonably good correlations between emf and φs, as
shown in the Figure (next slide):

…………………………..(5.18)

……………………………(5.19)

Using equation 5.17 to substitute for φs/dp for d in

equation 5.8 gives:
• Figure: Relation between emf and φs
Thus:

Substituting eqs. 5.18 and 5.19 gives:

where Gap and Remfp are the Galileo number and the
particle Reynolds number at the point of incipient
(minimum) fluidisation, in both cases with the linear
dimension of the particles is expressed as dp.
• Thus:

• giving:

………..(5.20)

• Then umf can be calculated as:

……………(5.21)
Minimum fluidising velocity in terms of terminal failing
velocity

• The minimum fluidising velocity, umf , may be

expressed in terms of the free (or terminal)-falling
velocity u0 of the particles in the fluid (Ref. Motion of
particles in fluid).

• The Ergun equation (equation 5.12) relates the Ga to

the Re’mf in terms of the emf at the incipient
fluidisation point.
• Terminal velocity is the highest velocity
attainable by a particle in free fall
For a spherical particles the Reynolds number Re’0 is
expressed in terms of the Galileo number Ga as:

………….(5.22)

Re’0 can also be expressed in terms of Ga by means of 3

simple equations, each covering a limited range of
values of Ga as follows:

………………(5.23)

………(5.24)
 ………………(5.25)

• Taking a typical value of emf of 0.4, the relation

between Re’mf and Ga is given by equation 5.14.

• For low values of Re’mf (<0.003) and of Ga(<3.6), the

first term of eq. 5.14 may be neglected and:

………………………….(5.26)
Equation 5.23 gives:

…………..….………(5.27)

Combining equations 5.26 and 5.27 gives:

……………………….…………….(5.28)
• For high values of Re’mf (>∼ 200) and Ga(>105),
equation 5.14 (Ergun eq.) gives:

…………………….(5.29)

• And equation 5.26 gives:

………………………(5.30)

• Thus :
……………………….(5.31)
5.3 Liquid-Solid Systems

5.3.1 Bed Expansion

• Liquid-fluidised systems are characterised by the
expansion of the bed that takes place as the velocity
increases from the minimum fluidisation velocity to
the terminal falling velocity of the particles.

• for fluidisation of uniform particles:

….…………….(5.32)
where:
uc = the observed sedimentation velocity or the
empty tube fluidisation velocity,
ui = corresponding velocity at infinite dilution,
e = voidage of the system,
C = the volumetric fractional concentration of
solids, and
n = index (range from 2.4 - 4.8 for fluidisation at a
given value of the Galileo number Ga)

Index (n) is calculated as:

………………………..(5.33)
• An alternative way of calculating the index n in
equation 5.31 for the expansion of particulately
fluidised systems which neglects effects due to the
container wall is:

………………………(5.34)

where Re’c is the Reynolds number ucdρ/µ.

Taking logarithms:

………………………..(5.35)
• On the assumption that equation 5.32 may be applied
at the point of incipient fluidisation, then:

……………………….(5.36)

For a typical value of emf of 0.4, substituting eq 5.15 and

5.22 into 5. 36 gives:

…………………………..(5.37)
• An alternative method of calculating the value of Re’mf
(and hence umf ) is to substitute for Re’0 from equation
5.21 into equation 5.33, and to put the voidage e equal
to its value emf

……………………………….(5.38)

where n is given by equation 5.33.

Applications of fluidized solids

Applications in Chemical and Process Industries

Fluidized solids used quite extensively in many industries where it is
desirable to bring about intimate contact between small solid particles
and a gas stream.

• Gas purification work- Removal of suspended dusts and mists from

gases.

• Production of Synthesis of high-grade fuels – by coal carbonization or

by partial oxidation of methane.

• Drying of finely divided solids- carried out in a fluidised system.

• Carbonization and gasification processes are in operation- e.g.

production of biochar.
Fluidized Bed Catalytic Cracking (FCC)

• Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is one of the most

important conversion processes used in petroleum
refineries.

• Cracking of petroleum hydrocarbons was originally

done by thermal cracking, which has been almost
completely replaced by catalytic cracking because it
produces more gasoline with a higher octane rating.

• It also produces byproduct gases that are more

valuable, than those produced by thermal cracking.
• The feedstock to an FCC is usually that portion of the
crude oil that has an initial boiling point of 340 °C or
higher at atmospheric pressure and an average
molecular weight ranging from about 200 to 600 or
higher.

• The FCC process vaporizes and breaks the long-chain

molecules of the high-boiling hydrocarbon liquids into
much shorter molecules by contacting the feedstock, at
high temperature and moderate pressure, with a
fluidized powdered catalyst

• The typical FCC process convert 75% or more of the

heavy oils into gasoline and lighter products.
A typical fluid catalytic cracking unit in a petroleum
refinery
A schematic flow diagram of a Fluid Catalytic Cracking
unit as used in petroleum refineries
Catalysts
• Modern FCC catalysts are fine powders with a bulk
density of 0.80 to 0.96 g/cm3 and having a particle size
distribution ranging from 10 to 150 µm.and an average
particle size of 60 to 100 μm.

The desirable properties of an FCC catalyst are:

(i) Good stability to high temperature and to steam
(ii) High activity
(iii) Large pore sizes
(iv) Good resistance to attrition
(v) Low coke production
A modern FCC catalyst has four major components:
(i) crystalline zeolite,
(ii) matrix,
(iii) binder, and
(iv) filler.

• Zeolite is the primary active component and can range

from about 15 to 50 weight percent of the catalyst.

• The zeolite used in FCC catalysts is referred to as faujasite

or as Type Y and is composed of silica and alumina
tetrahedra with each tetrahedron having either an
aluminum or a silicon atom at the center and four oxygen
atoms at the corners.
• The matrix component contains amorphous alumina
which also provides catalytic activity sites and in larger
pores that allows entry for larger molecules than does
the zeolite.

• It enables the cracking of higher-boiling, larger

feedstock molecules than are cracked by the zeolite.

• The binder and filler components provide the physical

strength and integrity of the catalyst.

• The binder is usually silica sol and the filler is usually a

clay (kaolin).