CHEE 220 - Unit Operations I

Mr T. Mokoba
mokobat@biust.ac.bw

FLUIDIZATION
 Fluidization
A granular material is converted from a static solid-like state to a dynamic
fluid-like state. This process occurs when a fluid (liquid or gas) is passed up
through the granular material at a sufficient velocity. This causes the solid
particles to become suspended and behave like a fluid, exhibiting properties
such as increased mobility and reduced friction.
 Fluidization
• The basic components required for a fluidized bed are a container, a
gas distributor, solid powder, and gas.
• Introduce a fluid at the bottom, upward at low linear velocities, there
is no movement.
• As the flow increases, frictional drag on the particles = their weight
less buoyancy (force exerted by a fluid that opposes an object’s
weight).
• As particles become rearranged and offer less resistance to flow, the
bed begins to expand.
• Expansion continues as the fluid linear velocity is increased,
reaching the loosest form of packing
• Further increase in velocity, results in the separation of individual
particles
 Fluidization
The fluid velocity at which this motion of particles just starts is called
the minimum fluidization velocity. Further, increase in the velocity
causes the particles to separate further from one another, although the
pressure difference remains approximately equal to the weight per unit
area of the bed.
 Applications of Fluidized Bed Techniques
• Applied where intimate contact is required between solid
particles and a gas stream (fluid phase).
• Developed mainly for the chemical and petroleum
industries for processes where high heat transfer
coefficients and degree of temperature uniformity is
required.
• E.g.:
– Drying of finely divided solids is carried out in a fluidized
system.
– Applied also in pyrolysis and gasification processes
– Removal of suspended dusts and mists from gases
 Applications of Fluidized Bed Techniques
• Application in mineral processing and metallurgical
engineering in the recovery of metals from ores.
– A good example is the gas phase extraction of metals, giving
high yields of recovery. A volatile organic reagent (eg.
acetylacetate) passes through the feed material and reacts
selectively with material to be extracted. The product is a volatile
metal complex which is removed from the residue gas by carrier
gas.
• One of the most important properties of a fluidized bed is
its good heat transfer characteristics.
 Applications of Fluidized Bed Techniques

Type Example Reason for using

fluidized bed
Homogenous catalytic Ethylene hydrogenation Rapid heating of
gas-phase reactions entering gas, Uniform
controllable temperature.

Heterogeneous non- Sulphide ore roasting, Ease of solids handling,

catalytic reactions combustion Temperature uniformity,
Good heat transfer.

Heterogeneous catalytic Hydrocarbon cracking, Ease of solids handling,

reactions Phthalic Anhydride, Temperature uniformity,
Acrylonitrile Good heat transfer.
 Types of Fluidization
Particulate/Smooth fluidization

• When fluid velocity is increased

the bed continues to expand and
maintains its uniform character.
• Average bed density at a given
velocity is the same in all
sections of the bed, characterized
by complete homogeneity.
• With gases particulate
fluidization only happens at low
velocities.
 Types of Fluidization
Aggregate fluidization

• Is observed at higher gas

velocities
• It is characterized by a clear
two-phase structure.
• At high velocities two
separate phases may form.
- Dense or Emulsion –
continuous phase
- Lean or Bubble – is the
discontinuous phase
 Types of Fluidization
The Froude number distinguishes the two types of fluidization.
2
u mf
Froude number =
gd
Where;
2
u mf – minimum fluidization velocity
d – diameter of particles
g – acceleration due to gravity

Froude Number < 1 – Particulate fluidization

Froude Number > 1 – Aggregate Fluidization
 Froude Number
Rice et al. (1958) and Romeo et al (1962) proposed dimensionless value N consisting
of four dimensionless values to characterize the type of fluidization occurring.

𝝆𝒔 − 𝝆 𝒍
𝑵 = 𝑭𝒓𝑹𝒆′𝒎𝒇
𝝆 𝑫
Where;
Fr – Froude number
Remf – Reynold’s number
ρs and ρ – Density of the particle and the fluid
l – Bed length
D – Diameter of the column

N < 100 – Particulate fluidization

N > 100 – Aggregate Fluidization
 Effect of Fluidized Bed on Pressure Gradient
If the pressure gradient (−∆P/l) is plotted against the superficial velocity (uc) using
logarithmic co-ordinates, a straight line of unit slope is obtained.
• As the superficial velocity
approaches umf the bed starts to
expand, at higher velocities it
becomes fluidized.
• At higher velocities, voidage is
higher, pressure gradient decreases
because weight of particles per unit
bed is smaller
• With even higher velocities transport
of the solid particles occur and
pressure gradient increases.
 Effect of Fluidized Bed on Pressure Drop
When pressure drop across the whole bed is plotted against velocity using
logarithmic coordinates.
• A linear relationship occurs up to
point A where expansion of the bed
starts.
• The pressure drop reaches a
maximum at point B.
• It then decreases to point C.
• Beyond point C, the pressure drop is
independent of the superficial
velocity
• If the fluid velocity is reduced
again, the bed contracts until it
reaches the condition where the
particles are just resting on one
another, point E.
• The pressure drop (EF) across this
reformed fixed bed at any fluid
velocity is then less than that before
fluidisation.
 Pressure Drop
• When the gas velocity is high enough that the frictional drag force
on the particles equals the weight of the particles (m×g) the bed
becomes fluidized.
• -∆P is equal the bed weight per unit cross-sectional area.
• Thus, in a bed of unit cross-sectional area, depth l, and porosity e,
the pressure drop across the bed caused by the layout weight of
particles is given by:
−∆𝑃 = 1 − 𝑒 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌 𝑙𝑔 (1)
Where
l – is length of bed
e – porosity of the bed
 p - density of solid
 - density of fluid
g – acceleration due to gravity
 Pressure Drop
• Equation (1) applies from the expansion of the bed until
transport/flight of solids occur.
• In a streamline flow in a fixed bed of spherical particles, the
following relation between fluid velocity uc and pressure
drop applies (Carman-Kozeny equation)

𝑒3 −∆𝑃𝑑 2
𝑢𝑐 = 0.0055 2
(2)
1−𝑒 𝜇𝑙

• For a fluidized bed, the weight of particles is

counterbalanced by frictional drag, substitute (1) into (2)
𝑒3 2
𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌 𝑔
𝑢𝑐 = 0.0055 𝑑 3
(1 − 𝑒) 𝜇
 Pressure Drop
Increasing superficial velocity will lead to the point of
incipient fluidization, where particles are just supported in
the fluid, eqn. (4) applies with voidage at umf being emf
3
𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌 𝑔𝑑2
𝑢𝑚𝑓 = 0.0055 (4)
1 − 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝜇

The value of emf depends on shape, size distribution and

surface properties of particles.
emf  0.4
A typical value is
0.00059d 2 ( s −  )g
Then eqn. 4 becomes umf ( e = (5)
mf = 0 .4 )

 Minimum Fluidizing Velocity

• Equations (4) and (5) apply only at streamline flow and

they are therefore restricted to fine particles only.

• For large particles, where streamline flow cannot be

achieved at incipient fluidization, the Ergun equation is
applied
 Minimum Fluidizing Velocity
Substituting for e=emf at incipient fluidization and -∆P from
equation (1)

(1 − emf )(  s −  ) g = 150
(1 − emf ) 2 umf
+ 1.75
(
1 − e ) u
mf
2
mf
(7 )
3 2 3
emf d emf d

d 3
Multiplying eqn. (7) by  2 (1 − emf ) yields

 (  p −  ) gd (1 − emf )  umf d  1.75  umf d 

3 2 2

= 150   + 3   (8)
 2
emf
3
   emf   
 Minimum Fluidizing Velocity

 (  p −  ) gd (1 − emf )  umf d  1.75  umf d 

3 2 2

= 150   + 3   (8)
 2
emf
3
   emf   

 (  p −  ) gd 3
= Ga Ga is the Galileo number
 2

umf d Remf is the Reynolds number at the

= Re mf
 minimum fluidizing velocity
 Minimum Fluidizing Velocity
The Galileo number, Ga, is used in viscous flow and thermal expansion calculations—for
example, to describe fluid film flow over walls. These flows apply to condensers or
chemical columns.
Where
 (  p −  ) gd 3 d – diameter of particles (m)
= Ga ρs – density of particles (kg/m³)
 2
ρ – density of fluid (kg/m³)
g – acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)

The Reynolds number, Re, is a dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics to predict
flow patterns in different fluid flow situations.

Where
d – diameter of particles (m)
𝑢𝜌𝑑 u – velocity of the fluid relative (m/s)
= 𝑅𝑒 ρ – density of the fluid (kg/m³)
𝜇
μ – dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Ns/m2)
 Minimum Fluidizing Velocity
Equation (8) can be written as

150(1 − emf )
Ga = 3
1.75 2
Re mf + 3 Re mf (9)
emf emf
Equation 9 is a quadratic equation!!!

For a typical value of emf = 0.4, eqn. (9) becomes

Ga = 1406 Re mf + 27.3 Re 2 mf (10)

Solving Remf Re mf = 25.7[ (1 + 5.53 10 −5 Ga) − 1] (11)

 Minimum Fluidizing Velocity
Similarly, for emf = 0.45

Re mf = 23.6[ (1 + 9.39 10 −5 Ga) − 1] (12)

umf d
Therefore by definition, if  = Re mf , then the minimum
fluidization velocity is obtained from:


umf = Re mf (13)
d
 Example 1
A bed consists of uniform spherical particles of diameter
3mm and density 4200kg/m3, what will be the minimum
fluidizing velocity in a liquid of viscosity 3 x10-3 Pasm-2
and density of 1100kg/m3, Assume emf = 0.4
 (  p −  ) gd 3
Ga =
2
(3x10 −3 )31100(4200 − 1100)9.81
Ga =
(3x10 −3 ) 2
5
= 1.0035 x 10
 Example 1

Assuming emf = 0.4 from equation (11)

Re mf = 25.7[ (1 + 5.53 10 −5 )(1.0035 105 ) − 1] = 8115.78

 8115.78(3x10 −3 )
Re mf = umf = = 7.377m / s
d −3
3x10 1100
 Minimum Fluidizing Velocity
In the case of non-spherical particles, to use the above equations, we account for non
sphericity as follows, from eqn. (8)

 (  p −  ) gd 3  1 − emf  1  d p umf  1.75  umf d p  

2 2 2

= 150    + 3   (14)
2  e 3   2   
 mf 
 2 
 mf  e 
Where
- mean linear dimension of the particles
d p- particle shape factor

When either e mf and / or  are unknown, the following

approximations by Wen and Yu (1966) can be used
1 1 − emf
e 3
  11 (15)
mf
14 and  e
2 3
mf
 Shape Factors
The void fraction e is defined as

volume of voids in bed

e= (16)
total volume of bed (voids + solids )

The specific area of the particle a v is given by

Sp Where
av = (17 ) S p surface area of the particle
Vp volume of the particle
Vp
 Shape Factors
For non spherical particles, the effective diameter Dp is
defined as
6
Dp = (18)
av

Since (1- e) is the volume fraction of particles in the bed,

 6 
a = av (1 − e ) =  (1 − e ) (19)
D 
 p 

Where a, is the ratio of the total surface area in the bed to

the total volume of the bed (void volume + particle
volume)
 Shape Factors

The sphericity shape factor ϕ of a particle is the ratio of the

surface area of the sphere having the same volume as
the particle to the actual surface area of the particle.
S p = D p2

The surface area of a sphere,

D 3p
Vp =
6
And the volume;
 Shape Factors
For any particle, the shape factor  is given by
D p 2

=
Sp
Where
S p actual surface of the particle
Dp is the equivalent diameter of the sphere having the same
volume as the particle.
Therefore the specific area av of an irregular particle is:
  D p 2  
 
  
av =
Sp
=   = 6
( 20)
Vp   D p  
3
 Dp
   
  6 

 
 
 Shape Factors
Therefore, for irregular shapes
Sp 6
av = = (20)
Vp  Dp

For a sphere ϕ = 1

For a Cylinder where diameter = length, ϕ= 0.874

For a cube ϕ = 0.806

 Bed Height & Porosity Relationship
The porosity of a packed bed is given by
 p − b
e=
p
Where
p - density of the solid particle
 b - bulk density of the bed
The relationship between the height of packed bed and fluidized bed
is then
Lp 1− ef
=
Lf 1− ep
Height of bed at minimum fluidizing conditions
Lp 1 − e mf
=
Lmf 1− ep
 Heat Transfer
Fluidized beds have extremely good heat transfer properties

Nu is a dimensionless parameter used in calculations of heat transfer

between a moving fluid and a solid body.

' 𝑐𝑝𝜇
Where N u for the particle = hd Pr for the particle =
K 𝐾

Re 'c for the particle = u c d p


u c- the superficial velocity
 Heat Transfer
The Nusselt number (Nu) is a dimensionless parameter used in fluid mechanics and
heat transfer to characterize the convective heat transfer coefficient.

Where:
Nu – Nusselt number,
h – Convective heat transfer coefficient (W/(m²·K))
L – Characteristic length scale (such as the length of a surface
or the diameter of a pipe) (m)
K – Thermal conductivity of the fluid (W/(m·K))

The Prandtl number (Pr) is a dimensionless parameter used in fluid mechanics and
heat transfer to characterize the relative importance of momentum diffusivity
(viscosity) to thermal diffusivity in a fluid.
Where:
Pr – Prandtl number,
𝜇𝑐𝑝 μ – dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m²)
Pr = Cp – Specific heat capacity of the fluid at constant pressure (J/(kg·K))
𝐾
K – thermal conductivity of the fluid (W/(m·K))
 Heat Transfer
Equation (29) is valued for
10 −1  Re 'c  10 3 (Reynolds Number)
22  Pr  14000 (Prantl Number)
0.4  e  0.9 (porosity Number)

For gas – solid systems

 (1 − e)
0.25 0.80
 uc d t  
0.65 0.17
hdt  dt   dt 
= 0.55        (30)
k l  d  epcp    
 Example 2
Spherical catalyst pellets 3 mm in diameter are to be fluidized with
nitrogen at 101.3 kPa at 60 0C. The density of the catalyst particles are
980 kg/m3. The molecular weight of nitrogen is 29 kg/kmol. If it is
assumed that the point of incipient fluidization is reached
at emf = 0.43, Calculate the minimum fluidization velocity in the
vessel. Nitrogen is considered here to be an ideal gas with µ=
0.0000207 Ns/m2.
Ergun Equation

R (gas constant) = 8.314 m3∙Pa/(mol.K), g =9.81m/s2

 Example 2 Solution
The pressure drop across the bed caused by the layout weight of
particles is given by

−∆𝑃 = 1 − 𝑒 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌 𝑙𝑔 (1)

Combining equation (1) and the Ergun equation

(1 − emf )(  s −  ) g = 150
(1 − emf ) 2 umf
+ 1.75
(
1 − e ) u
mf
2
mf
(7 )
3 2 3
emf d emf d

This equation can be simplified to

2 3
1.75𝑑𝜌𝑢𝑚𝑓 + 150 1 − 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝜇𝑢𝑚𝑓 − 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌 𝑔𝑑 2 𝑒𝑚𝑓 =0
 Example 2 Solution
ρnitrogen is unknown

PM r 101300 x 29
a = =
RT 8.314 (273 + 60 )x1000 mol / k mol
= 1.061092365 k g / m 3

2 3
1.75𝑑𝜌𝑢𝑚𝑓 + 150 1 − 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝜇𝑢𝑚𝑓 − 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌 𝑔𝑑 2 𝑒𝑚𝑓 =0

(1.75)(0.003)(1.061092365)umf
2
+ 150(1 − 0.43)(0.0000207 )u mf
− (980 − 1.061092365)(9.81)(0.43) (0.003) = 0
3 2

2
0.0055707349 2u mf + 1.76985 x10 −3 u mf − 6.87183105 x10 −3 = 0

u mf  0 Ignore negative root

 Example 3
Non spherical catalyst pellets, 4mm in diameter, shape factor of
1.1, are to be fluidized with air at 101.3 kPa at 70 0C. The density
of the catalyst particles are 1100 kg/m3. Take the molecular weight
of air as 26.9 kg/kmol. If it is assumed that the point of incipient
fluidization is reached at  mf = 0.43 , calculate the minimum
fluidizing velocity in the vessel. Air is considered here to be an
ideal gas with  air = 0.0000207 Ns/m2.
 Example 3 Solution
At minimum fluidization velocity
150(1 − emf ) umf 1.75(1 − emf )umf
2 2

(1 − e )( −  )g = + (7 )
 d e e d
mf s 2 2 3 3
mf mf

 → shape factor = 1.1

emf = 0.43

PM r 101.3 x103 Pa  26.3 g / mol

= = = 933.83 g / m 3
= 0.9338kg / m 3

RT 8.314m 3  Pa / K  mol  343.15 K

 Example 3 Solution
Substitute values into equation (7)

(1 − 0.43)(1100 − 0.9338)9.81 =
2
( )
150(1 − 0.43) 2.07 x10 −5 umf
+
(1.1) (0.004) (0.43 )
2 2 3

1.75(1 − 0.43)(0.9338)umf
(0.43)3 (1.1)(0.004)

− 6145 .6 + 655 .39 u mf + 2662 .61u 2

mf =0

655 .39  (655 .39 )2 − 4(− 6145 .6)(2662 .61)

u mf = = 1.401m / s
2 x 2662 .61