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Introduction
Prof. N. Zgheib
Learning objectives
• Determine dimensions and units of physical quantities
• Identify key fluid properties used in the analysis of fluid behavior
• Calculate common fluid properties given appropriate information
• Understand the concepts of viscosity, vapor pressure, and surface
tension
Air bubbles rising in a liquid
In soap In oil
Broad range of flow conditions – flow scales
• Length scale: physical size of the Length scale
flow
• Velocity scale: speed of the flow
Pressure scale
• Pressure scale: flow pressure
• Density scale: Typical density of
the flow Velocity scale
𝐹 𝑉
𝐹 𝜏= ∝𝜇
𝜏= ∝𝛼 𝐴 ℎ
𝐴
Normal vs shear stress
Be consistent!
Analysis of fluid behavior
• Conservation of mass
• Conservation of momentum
• Conservation of energy
• Specific weight 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝜌
• Specific gravity SG =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 is measured at 4𝑜 𝐶
𝜔
Viscometer: a device to measure fluid viscosity
𝜔
Vapor pressure
• Liquids will evaporate if placed in a
container open to the atmosphere Vapor exerts pressure
on liquid and slows
• Evaporation takes place because
some liquid molecules at the evaporation.
surface have sufficient momentum
to overcome the intermolecular
cohesive forces and escape into the
atmosphere. Evaporation stops once
• This is also because atmospheric pressure reaches 𝑝v ,
pressure is low enough to allow the the vapor pressure.
liquid to evaporate.
In flowing liquids it is possible for
the pressure in localized regions to
Vapor pressure reach vapor pressure thereby
causing cavitation.
• Vapor pressure depends on
temperature.
• If liquid pressure is reduced below
vapor pressure, what will happen?
• Liquid begins to boil!
• Water, at standard atmospheric
pressure, will boil when
temperature reaches 100𝑜 𝐶 —that
is, the vapor pressure of water at
100𝑜 𝐶 is 1 atm.
• 𝑝v of water at 69𝑜 𝐶 is 0.3 atm.
Cavitation
• In flowing fluids it is possible to develop
very low pressure due to the fluid motion
• If the pressure is lowered to the vapor
pressure, boiling will occur.
• This phenomenon may occur in flow
through the irregular, narrowed passages
of a valve or pump.
• When vapor bubbles are formed in a
flowing fluid, they are swept along into
regions of higher pressure where they
suddenly collapse with sufficient intensity
to actually cause structural damage.
• The formation and subsequent collapse of
vapor bubbles in a flowing fluid, called
cavitation.
Surface tension
• At the interface between a liquid and
a gas, or between two immiscible
liquids, forces develop in the liquid
surface which cause the surface to
behave as if it were a “skin” or
“membrane” stretched over the fluid
mass.
• Small droplets of mercury will form
into spheres when placed on a
smooth surface because the cohesive
forces in the surface tend to hold all
the molecules together in a compact
shape.
• A sphere has the largest volume per
surface area.
Surface tension
• These various types of surface
phenomena are due to the
unbalanced cohesive forces acting on
the liquid molecules at the fluid
surface.
• Molecules in the interior of the fluid
mass are surrounded by molecules
that are attracted to each other
equally.
• However, molecules along the surface
are subjected to a net force toward
the interior.
• It is hard for an object to displace the
surface molecules to penetrate the
surface of the liquid
Surface tension
• The pulling force on the surface
is termed surface tension 𝜎𝑠
with dimensions 𝐹𝐿−1
• For a given liquid the surface
tension depends on temperature
as well as the other fluid it is in
contact with at the interface
Surface tension
• The pressure inside a drop of fluid
can be calculated using the free-
body diagram.
• The spherical drop is cut in half, the
force developed around the edge
due to surface tension is 2𝜋𝑅𝜎.
• This force must be balanced by the
pressure difference Δ𝑝, between
the internal pressure 𝑝𝑖, and the
external pressure 𝑝𝑒, acting over
the circular area 𝜋𝑅2
Surface tension
2𝜋𝑅𝜎 = Δ𝑝𝜋𝑅 2