Chapter 1

Introduction
Prepared by N. Zgheib
Learning objectives
• Determine dimensions and units of physical quantities
• Identify key fluid properties used in the analysis of fluid behavior
• Calculate common fluid properties given appropriate information
• Understand the concepts of viscosity, vapor pressure, and surface
tension
 Air bubbles rising in a liquid

In soap In oil
Broad range of flow conditions – flow scales
• Length scale: physical size of the Length scale
flow
• Velocity scale: speed of the flow
Pressure scale
• Pressure scale: flow pressure
• Density scale: Typical density of
the flow Velocity scale

• Temperature scale: typical

temperature of the flow
•…
Length scale (size) 𝐿
• Every flow has a characteristic (or
typical) length scale associated with it.
• It can come from geometry
• Inherent length scale from the flow
• Pipe diameter
• broad range: meter to nanometer
• Pipe length
• Surface roughness
• Particle diameter (or particle cluster
size) in case of particle-laden flow
• …
Velocity scale (speed) 𝑉
• Flow speed can significantly
affect flow properties
• High speed flow (energetic flow)
• Creeping flow (low speed flow)
Pressure scale 𝑃
• Flow pressure can significantly
affect flow properties
• 690 Mpa (Hydraulic ram of earth
mover)
• 14 × 10−6 kpa (sound wave
pressure at ordinary talking level)
Fluids vs solids
• Solid: can resist an applied • Fluid: deforms continuously
shear by deforming. Stress is under applied shear. Stress is
proportional to strain proportional to strain rate.

𝐹 𝑉
𝐹 𝜏= ∝𝜇
𝜏= ∝𝛼 𝐴 ℎ
𝐴
 Normal vs shear stress

For a fluid at rest, shear stress is zero

For a fluid at rest, normal stress is fluid

pressure
Microscopic vs macroscopic properties
• It is not practical to differentiate
fluid properties based on
individual molecules.
• Macroscopic (or average
quantities) properties are more
appropriate.
The continuum assumption
• We assume that all fluid
characteristics of interest
(pressure, velocity, temperature,
…) vary continuously throughout
the fluid.
• This is a valid assumption
because we are averaging a very
large number of molecules in a
very small area.
• Molecule spacing 10−6 𝑚𝑚 for
gases
• Molecule spacing 10−6 𝑚𝑚 for
liquids
• 1018 molecules in 1 𝑚𝑚3 for
gases
• 1021 molecules in 1 𝑚𝑚3 for
liquids
Basic dimensions
• We distinguish between • Length 𝐿, time 𝑇, and mass 𝑀.
qualitative (such as length, time, These are called primary
stress, velocity, …) and quantities (or basic dimensions).
quantitative (numerical • Secondary quantities may be
measure) characteristics derived from these primary
• For a wide variety of problems, quantities.
three basic quantities are 𝐿
required for a qualitative • 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐿2 , 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑇
description • 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ?
• 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ?
Dimensionally homogeneous
• All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous
𝑉 = 𝑉0 + 𝑎𝑡
𝐿𝑇 −1 = 𝐿𝑇 −1 + 𝐿𝑇 −2 𝑇

• Is this equation dimensionally homogeneous

𝑑 = 5.2𝑡 2
• The constant 5.2 must have the dimensions of 𝐿𝑇 −2
System of units
• International System (SI)
• British Gravitational (BG) System
• English Engineering (EE) System

Be consistent!
Analysis of fluid behavior
• Conservation of mass
• Conservation of momentum
• Conservation of energy

Similar to solid mechanics!

Fluid properties
• Gases are lighter and easier to compress than liquids
• Honey is “thicker” than water and thus flows more slowly than water

What are the fluid properties that

are responsible for such behavior?
Measure of fluid mass and weight
mass
• Density 𝜌 =
volume

• Specific weight 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔

𝜌
• Specific gravity SG =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 is measured at 4𝑜 𝐶

We use these properties to characterize fluids

Viscosity
• The properties of density and specific weight are measures of the
“heaviness” of a fluid.
• Two fluids can have similar densities but different “fluidity” (readiness
to flow)
• The “fluidity” of a fluid is controlled by its viscosity 𝝁
Mental experiment
• Consider 2 very large parallel
plates of area 𝐴
• Bottom plate is fixed
• Top plate slides due to force 𝑃
𝑃
• 𝑃 results in shear stress 𝜏 =
𝐴
• If filling material is solid
𝛿ด
𝛽 ∝ ณ
𝜏
shearing strain shear st𝑟ess
Couette flow
• If fluid replaces solid, upper
plate moves continuously with a
velocity 𝑈.
𝑢 𝑦=𝑏 =𝑈
𝑢 𝑦=0 =0
𝑢 𝑦 = 𝑈 𝑦/𝑏
• Velocity gradient
𝑑𝑢 𝑈
= ≠0
𝑑𝑦 𝑏
No-slip condition
• Velocity gradient is not always
constant
• However no-slip condition is still
satisfied for flows in complex
geometries
• The velocity of a fluid in contact
with a solid is the same as the
velocity of the solid
• The fluid “sticks” to solid
boundaries
• This is known as the no-slip
condition and applies to both
liquids and gases
Stress-strain relationship
• During time 𝛿𝑡, imaginary line 𝐴𝐵
rotates by 𝛿𝛽
• For 𝛿𝑡 ≪ 1, tan 𝛿𝛽 ≈ 𝛿𝛽= 𝛿𝑎/𝑏
• But 𝛿𝑎 = 𝑈𝛿𝑡
• Therefore 𝛿𝛽 = 𝑈𝛿𝑡/𝑏
• Unlike solids, in fluids 𝛿𝛽 = 𝛿𝛽(𝑡)
• But rate of shearing strain
𝛾ሶ = 𝛿𝛽/𝛿𝑡 is time independent
Stress-strain relationship
𝑈 𝑑𝑢
𝛾ሶ = =
𝑏 𝑑𝑦
• From experiments we find that
𝜏 ∝ 𝛾ሶ
𝑑𝑢
𝜏∝
𝑑𝑦
• The constant of proportionality
is viscosity 𝜇 (also called
dynamic viscosity or absolute
viscosity)
Newtonian fluids
• Fluids with linear relationship
between stress and rate of strain
are known as Newtonian fluids
• Most fluids are Newtonian fluids
Non-Newtonian fluids
• Fluids with a non-linear
relationship between stress and
rate of strain are known as non-
Newtonian fluids
• The slope of the shearing stress
versus rate of shearing strain is
known as apparent viscosity 𝜇𝑎𝑝
• Most common non-Newtonian
fluids are shown in graph
Shear-thinning fluids
• For shear thinning fluids the
apparent viscosity decreases with
increasing shear rate—the harder
the fluid is sheared, the less viscous
it becomes.
• Latex paint does not drip from the
brush because the shear rate is
small and the apparent viscosity is
large.
• However, it flows smoothly onto
the wall because the thin layer of
paint between the wall and the
brush causes a large shear rate and
a small apparent viscosity.
Shear-thickening fluids
• For shear thickening fluids the
apparent viscosity increases with
increasing shear rate—the
harder the fluid is sheared, the
more viscous it becomes.
• Water–sand mixture(quicksand)
is a common example.
• The difficulty inremoving an
object from quicksand increases
dramatically as the speed of
removal increases.
Bingham plastic
• Bingham plastic, is neither a fluid nor a
solid.
• Such material can withstand nonzero
shear stress without motion (hence, it is
not a fluid), but once the yield stress is
exceeded it flows like a fluid (hence it is
not a solid).
• Toothpaste and mayonnaise are common
examples of Bingham plastic materials.
• Mayonnaise can sit in a pile on a slice of
bread (the shear stress less than the yield
stress),but it flows smoothly into a thin
layer when the knife increases the stress
above the yield stress.
Viscosity
• Dimension of viscosity is
𝐹𝑇𝐿−2
• In SI units this gives
𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠
• Viscosity is a strong function of
temperature
• Liquids: Viscosity usually
decreases with temperature
• Gases: Viscosity usually
increases with temperature
Viscometer: a device to measure fluid viscosity
• A rotating viscometer.
• Two concentric cylinders with a fluid in
the small gap ℓ.
• Inner cylinder is rotating, outer one is
fixed.
• Recall that shear stress is defined as
𝑑𝑢
𝜏 = 𝜇𝐴
𝑑𝑦
• If ℓ/𝑅 ≪ 1 , then cylinders can be
modeled as flat plates.
• Torque 𝑇 = 𝐹𝑅, and tangential
velocity 𝑉 = 𝜔𝑅 are measured
• Wetted surface area 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐿.
• Measure 𝑇 and 𝜔 to compute 𝜇
Vapor pressure
• Liquids will evaporate if placed in a
container open to the atmosphere Vapor exerts pressure
on liquid and slows
• Evaporation takes place because
some liquid molecules at the evaporation.
surface have sufficient momentum
to overcome the intermolecular
cohesive forces and escape into the
atmosphere. Evaporation stops once
• This is also because atmospheric pressure reaches 𝑝v ,
pressure is low enough to allow the the vapor pressure.
liquid to evaporate.
 In flowing liquids it is possible for
the pressure in localized regions to
Vapor pressure reach vapor pressure thereby
causing cavitation.
• Vapor pressure depends on
temperature.
• If liquid pressure is reduced to
vapor pressure, what will happen?
• Liquid begins to boil!
• Water, at standard atmospheric
pressure, will boil when
temperature reaches 100𝑜 𝐶 —that
is, the vapor pressure of water at
100𝑜 𝐶 is 1 atm.
• 𝑝v of water at 69𝑜 𝐶 is 0.3 atm.
Cavitation
• In flowing fluids it is possible to develop very low pressure due to the
fluid motion
• If the pressure is lowered to the vapor pressure, boiling will occur.
• This phenomenon may occur in flow through the irregular, narrowed
passages of a valve or pump.
• When vapor bubbles are formed in a flowing fluid, they are swept
along into regions of higher pressure where they suddenly collapse
with sufficient intensity to actually cause structural damage.
• The formation and subsequent collapse of vapor bubbles in a flowing
fluid, called cavitation.
Surface tension
• At the interface between a liquid and
a gas, or between two immiscible
liquids, forces develop in the liquid
surface which cause the surface to
behave as if it were a “skin” or
“membrane” stretched over the fluid
mass.
• Small droplets of mercury will form
into spheres when placed on a
smooth surface because the cohesive
forces in the surface tend to hold all
the molecules together in a compact
shape.
• A sphere has the largest volume per
surface area.
Surface tension
• These various types of surface
phenomena are due to the
unbalanced cohesive forces acting on
the liquid molecules at the fluid
surface.
• Molecules in the interior of the fluid
mass are surrounded by molecules
that are attracted to each other
equally.
• However, molecules along the surface
are subjected to a net force toward
the interior.
• It is hard for an object to displace the
surface molecules to penetrate the
surface of the liquid
Surface tension
• The pulling force on the surface
is termed surface tension 𝜎𝑠
with dimensions 𝐹𝐿−1
• For a given liquid the surface
tension depends on temperature
as well as the other fluid it is in
contact with at the interface
Surface tension
• The pressure inside a drop of fluid
can be calculated using the free-
body diagram.
• The spherical drop is cut in half, the
force developed around the edge
due to surface tension is 2𝜋𝑅𝜎.
• This force must be balanced by the
pressure difference Δ𝑝, between
the internal pressure 𝑝𝑖 , and the
external pressure 𝑝𝑒 , acting over
the circular area 𝜋𝑅2
Surface tension
2𝜋𝑅𝜎 = Δ𝑝𝜋𝑅2
2𝜎
Δ𝑝 = 𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑒 =
𝑅
• Would the pressure drop across
an air bubble formed in water be
the same as that across a drop
of water in air. Both have the
same diameter and are at the
same temperature?
Capillary rise
• Capillary action is the rise or fall
of fluid within capillary (small)
tubes
• Capillary action, which involves a
liquid– gas–solid interface, is
caused by surface tension.
Capillary rise
• Force balance
2𝜋𝑅𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝛾𝜋𝑅2 ℎ
2𝜎 cos 𝜃
ℎ=
𝛾𝑅
• The contact angle 𝜃 is a function
of both the liquid and the
surface.
• It also depends on temperature
Capillary rise
• The height is inversely
proportional to the tube radius
• The rise of a liquid in a tube as a
result of capillary action
becomes increasingly
pronounced as the tube radius is
decreased.
Wetting vs non-wetting fluids
Water meniscus curves
• If adhesion of molecules to the up because water is a
solid surface is weak compared wetting fluid
to the cohesion between
molecules, the liquid will not
wet the surface and the level in
a tube placed in a nonwetting
liquid will actually be depressed.
• For wetting liquids the angle of
contact is less than 90° Mercury
meniscus
• For nonwetting liquids the angle curves down
of contact is greater than 90° because
mercury is a
nonwetting
fluid.