CVE 111 Hydraulics I

Course Introduction
Introduction to Mechanics of Fluids
Fundamental Properties of Fluids

Kristine D. Sanchez, Ph.D.

Course Instructor
Contents [1]
• Overview
• Intended Learning Outcomes
• Objectives
• Course Information
• Course Description
• Course Aims
• Course Lecture Topics, Assessment tools
• Course Laboratory Topics, Assessment tools
• Grading System
Contents [2]
• What is fluid mechanics?
• What is a fluid
• Classification of fluids
• SI Units used in fluid mechanics
• Mass density of a substance
• Relative density of a body (𝑟𝑙 𝑑𝑛) [formerly specific gravity]
• Sample Problem 1.1
• Viscosity of a fluid
• Vapor pressure
• Surface tension
Contents [3]
• Capillarity
• Fluid pressure
• Unit Pressure
• Difference in pressure
• Pressure variations in a compressible fluid
• Pressure head, ℎ
• Sample problem 1.2
• Sample problem 1.3
• Sample problem 1.4
Contents [4]
• Bulk modulus of elasticity
• Compression of gases
• Sample Problem 1.5
• Compression of gases: Isothermal conditions
• Compression of gases: adiabatic or isentropic conditions
• Pressure disturbances
Overview

• This topic presents the course introduction and fundamental

properties of fluids.
Intended Learning Outcomes

• At the end of this topic, the student will:

• Become aware of the course requirements;
• Learn about the fundamental properties of fluids.
Objectives

• At the end of this topic, the student will be able to:

• Know about the course requirements, grading system and course topics;
• Enumerate the fundamental properties of fluids; and
• Solve problems related to the fundamental properties of fluids.
Course Information
• Course Title: Hydraulics I
• Course Code: CVE 111
• Credits: 3 units (2 hours lecture, 3 hours lab)
• Prerequisite: ENS 162 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies
Course Description

• This course deals with properties of fluids; fluid static, hydrokinetics

and hydrodynamics; ideal fluid flow for past external and internal
boundaries; flow similitude; computer and laboratory fluid
experiments.
Course Aims
The aims of the course are to:
1. Develop a good understanding of the properties of fluid and the
principles of fluid behavior.
2. Understand the principles involving physical ideas, as well as
mathematical ones, and includes derivations and analysis of resulting
equations, which describe fluid behavior.
3. Solve practical problems, which involve numerical calculations from
working formulas, often with the conclusion of experimentally
determined coefficient.
4. Make solutions and decisions on a particular problem incorporating
social and moral impact and put into mind that a mediocre solutions
could cause a loss of life and/or property.
Course Lecture Topics, Assessment tools [1]
No. Topic Module Assessment Tools
1 Course Introduction 1
2 Introduction to Mechanics of Fluids 1
3 Fundamental Properties of Fluids 1
4 Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 2
5 Hoop Tension in Circular Pipes and 2
Tanks
Topics 2, 3, 4, 5 Major Exam 1
6 Relative Equilibrium of Liquids 3
7 Principle of Archimedes (Buoyancy) 4
8 Stability of Floating Bodies 4
9 Dams 5
Course Lecture Topics, Assessment tools [2]
No. Topic Module Assessment Tools
10 Stability of Floating Bodies 5
Topics 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Major Exam 2
11 Kinematics of Fluid Flows*
12 Flows of Ideal, Real Fluids*
13 Transport Theorems 6
14 Momentum Equations of Fluid Flow 7
15 Bernoulli/Navier-Stokes Equation 8
16 Dimensional Analysis and Hydraulic Similitude*
17 The Boundary Layer in Incompressible Flow*
Topics 13, 14, 15 Major Exam 3
* Will not be discussed
Course Laboratory Topics, Assessment Tools
No. Topic Activity Assessment Tools (by Group)
1 Determination of Specific Gravity Using U-Tube Video Lab Exercise No. 1
2 Pressure Head Measurement Using Manometer Video Lab Exercise No. 2
3 Determination of Friction Loss Video Lab Exercise No. 3
4 Identification of Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Using Reynold’s Number*
5 Discharge Measurement Using Venturimeter Video Lab Exercise No. 4
6 Weir Calibration*
7 Fall Velocity of Sphere*
8 Determination of Pump Efficiency** Video Lab Exercise No. 5
* Will not be conducted
** Edited to Determination of Head Added due to Pump
Grading System
• Lecture 75%
• Term Exam 1 25%
• Term Exam 2 25%
• Term Exam 3 25%
• Total 75%
• Laboratory 25%
• Exercise 1 plus Quiz 10%
• Exercise 2 5%
• Exercise 3 5%
• Exercise 5 5%
• Total 25%
Passing grade: 60%
What is fluid mechanics?
• Fluid mechanics and hydraulics represent that branch of applied
mechanics dealing with the behavior of fluids at rest and in motion.
• In fluid statics, weight is the important property.
• Fluid flow, density and viscosity are predominant properties.
• Principles of thermodynamics apply under appreciable
compressibility.
• Vapor pressure is important when negative gage pressures are
involved.
• Surface tension affects static and flow conditions in small passages.
What is a fluid?
• Fluids are substances which are capable of flowing and which
conforms to the shape of containing vessels.
• When in equilibrium, fluids cannot sustain tangential or shear forces.
• All fluids have some degree of compressibility and offer little
resistance to change of form.
Classification of fluids
Practically incompressible
Liquids
Occupy definite volumes and have
free surfaces

Compressible
Gases
Expands until it occupies all portions
of any containing vessel
S. I. Units used in fluid mechanics
Type of dimension designation SI Units
Fundamental dimension mass 𝑘𝑔
Fundamental dimension length 𝑚
Fundamental dimension time 𝑠
Derived force 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
Derived volume 𝑚3
Derived acceleration 𝑚ൗ
𝑠2
Derived Work (force x distance) 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
Derived Pressure (force/normal area) 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙
Mass density of a substance (𝜌)
• It is the mass of the unit volume of the substance.
• For liquids, density is constant despite changes in pressure
• Density of pure water at 4°𝐶 : 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈Τ𝒎𝟑
• Density of gas is calculated by equation of state for the gas:
𝑝𝑣𝑠
= 𝑅 (Boyle’s and Charles’ laws) (1)
𝑇
• 𝑝: absolute pressure (Pa)
• 𝑣𝑠 : specific volume per unit mass (𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔)
• 𝑇: absolute temperature 273 + degrees Celcius 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝐽
• 𝑅: gas constant 𝐾
𝑘𝑔
• Since ρ = 1/𝑣𝑠 , Eq. (1) can be written as:
𝑝𝑣𝑠
=𝑅 (2)
𝑇
Relative density of a body (𝑟𝑙 𝑑𝑛) [formerly
specific gravity]
• The ratio of the mass of a body to the mass of an equal volume of a
substance taken as a standard.

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏 (3)

𝑟𝑙 𝑑𝑛 or 𝑠. 𝑔. = =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

• Commonly used fluids:

• Oil: 𝑟𝑙 𝑑𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 0.750
• Mercury: 𝑟𝑙 𝑑𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 = 13.57
• Water: 𝑟𝑙 𝑑𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.00
Sample Problem 1.1
• If 5.6 𝑚3 of oil weighs 46800 N, calculate it density and relative density.

• Solution:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 Τ𝑔 46800 𝑁Τ9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2

• density, ρ = = = = 𝟖𝟓𝟐 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 5.6 𝑚3

ρ𝑜𝑖𝑙 852 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

• relative density = = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟐
ρ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

• Answer: 852 kg/𝑚3 , rl dn = 0.852

Viscosity of a fluid [1]
• The property which determines the amount of its resistance to a shearing force. It
is due primarily to interaction between fluid molecules.
• Absolute (dynamic) viscosity of Newtonian fluids (𝑃𝑎 𝑠):
𝜏
𝜇=
𝑑𝑉 Τ𝑑𝑦 (4)

• Kinematic coefficient of viscosity 𝑚2 Τ𝑠 :

𝜇
𝜈= (5)
𝜌
Where 𝜏 = 𝐹/𝐴 is shear stress, 𝑉: velocity at a point , 𝑦: distance
Viscosity of a fluid [2]
• Viscosity of a liquid decreases as temperature increases but is not
affected appreciably by pressure.
• Absolute viscosity of gases increases with increase in temperature but
is not appreciably changed by pressure.
• The kinematic viscosity varies inversely with pressure.
Vapor pressure
• The partial pressure created by vapor molecules when evaporation
takes place within an enclosed space.
• Vapor pressures depend upon temperature and increase with it.
Surface tension (σ)
• The surface tension in the liquid is the work that must be done to
bring enough molecules from inside the liquid to the surface to form
one new unit area of that surface.
• In most problems of introductory fluid mechanics, surface tension is
not of particular importance.
Capillarity
• The rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube, or in a porous media, is
caused by the surface tension and depends on the relative
magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the
liquid to the walls of the containing vessel.

• Liquids rise in the tube they wet and fall in the tubes they do not wet.
• Capillarity is important when using tubes smaller than about 10 mm
in diameter.
Fluid pressure
• Fluid pressure is transmitted with equal intensity in all directions and
acts normal to any plane.
• In the same horizontal plane, the pressure intensities in a liquid are
equal.
• Gages are used to measure pressure.
• Gage pressures represent values above or below atmospheric
pressure.
Unit Pressure
• Force divided by area.
𝑑𝑃
𝑝= (6.1)
𝑑𝐴

• For conditions where force P is uniformly distributed over an area, we

have:
𝑃 (6.2)
𝑝=
𝐴

𝑃 (𝑁)
𝑝′ 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 𝑥 10−5 (6.3)
𝐴 (𝑚2 )
Difference in pressure
• Difference in pressure between any two points at different levels in a liquid
is given by:
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝜌𝑔 ℎ2 − ℎ1 (7.1)

𝑁
• Where 𝜌𝑔 is the unit weight of the liquid and ℎ2 − ℎ1 is the
𝑚3
difference in elevation (𝑚). Applicable as long as 𝜌 is constant.
• If point 1 is in the free surface of the liquid and ℎ is positive downward, the
above equation becomes

(7.2)
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ, gage pressure
Pressure variations in a compressible fluid
• These are usually very small because of the small unit weights and
the small differences of elevation being considered in hydraulic
calculations. The law of pressure variation may be written as:

𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑔𝑑ℎ (7.3)

• The negative sign indicates that the pressure decreases as the altitude
increases, with ℎ positive upward.
Pressure head, ℎ
• Pressure head represents the height of a column of homogeneous
fluid that will produce a given intensity of pressure.

𝑝 (𝑃𝑎) (7.4)
ℎ(𝑚) =
𝑁
𝜌𝑔
𝑚3
Sample Problem 1.2
• Determine the 3pressure in Pa at a depth of 6m below the free surface of a body of water.
Use 9810 𝑁/𝑚 for water.

• Solution:
• Using an average value of 9810 𝑁/𝑚3 for ρ𝑔 of water:
• 𝑝 = ρ𝑔ℎ = 9810 x 6 = 𝟓𝟖 𝟖𝟔𝟎 𝐏𝐚

• Answer: 58 860 Pa (Pascal or 𝑁/𝑚2 )

Sample Problem 1.3
• Convert a pressure head of 15 m of water to meters of oil, rl dn = 0.75.

• Solution:
ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 15 𝑚
• ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑙 = = = = 𝟐𝟎 𝒎
𝑟𝑙 𝑑𝑛 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠.𝑔. 𝑜𝑖𝑙 0.75

• Answer: 20 m
Sample Problem 1.4
Bulk modulus of elasticity (𝐸)
• This expresses the compressibility of a fluid.
• It is the ratio of the change in unit pressure to the corresponding
volume change per unit of volume.

𝑑𝑝′ 𝑃𝑎
𝐸= = 3 3 = 𝑃𝑎 (8)
−𝑑𝑣/𝑣 𝑚 /𝑚
Compression of gases
• May occur according to the various laws of thermodynamics
• For the same mass of gas subjected to two different conditions,
𝑝1 𝑣1 𝑝2 𝑣2
= = 𝑀𝑅 (9.1)
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑝1 𝑝2
= =𝑅 (9.2)
𝜌1 𝑇1 𝜌2 𝑇2

• where 𝑝 is the absolute pressure in 𝑃𝑎, 𝑣 is the volume 𝐽in 𝑚3 , 𝑀 is the mass in
𝑘𝑔, 𝜌 is the density in 𝑘𝑔/ 𝑚3 , 𝑅 is the gas constant in 𝐾, T is the absolute
𝑘𝑔
temperature in Kelvin 273 + °𝐶 .
Sample Problem 1.5
• The volume of a gas under standard atmospheric pressure 76 cm Hg is 200 in3.
Using Boyle’s Law, what is the volume when the pressure is 80 cm Hg, if the
temperature is unchanged? Express your answer in in3.

• Solution:

𝑝1 𝑣1 𝑝2 𝑣2
• =
𝑇1 𝑇2

• for 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 : 𝑝1 𝑣1 = 𝑝2 𝑣2 = 76 200 = 80 𝑣2 = 190 in3

• Answer: 𝑣2 = 190 in3

Compression of gases: Isothermal conditions
• For isothermal condition or constant temperature, Eq. (9) becomes:

𝜌1 𝑝1
𝑝1 𝑣1 = 𝑝2 𝑣2 and = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (10)
𝜌1 𝑝2

• Also,

𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝐸 = 𝑝 (𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑎) (11)

Compression of gases: adiabatic or isentropic
conditions
• In this condition, no heat is exchanged, leading to:
𝑘
𝜌1 𝑝1 (12 a, b)
𝑝1 𝑣1𝑘 = 𝑝2 𝑣2𝑘 and = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌2 𝑝2
• Also,
(𝑘−1)/𝑘
𝑇2 𝑝2
= (13)
𝑇1 𝑝1

𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑝 (𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑎) (14)

• Where 𝑘 is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific
heat at constant volume. It is known as the isentropic exponent.
Pressure disturbances
• Pressure disturbances imposed in a fluid move in waves. These
pressure waves move at a velocity equal to that of sound through the
fluid. The velocity, or celerity, in 𝑚/𝑠 is expressed in

𝑐= 𝐸/𝜌 (15)

• where 𝐸 must be in 𝑃𝑎. For gases, the acoustic velocity is

(16)
𝑐= 𝑘𝑝/𝜌 = 𝑘𝑅𝑇
Thank you.
• Source:
Giles, R. V. (1977). Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 2nd edition,
McGraw-Hill, Inc. Ch.1, pp. 1-21.