Environmental Science and Policy 87 (2018) 112–127

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Environmental Science and Policy

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South African local government perceptions of the state of water security T

a,b,⁎ a a a a
Richard Meissner , Maronel Steyn , Elliot Moyo , Justinus Shadung , Winile Masangane ,
Ngowenani Nohayia, Inga Jacobs-Mataa
a
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, P.O. Box 395, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
b
Centre for Water Resources Research, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, South Africa

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: South Africa is one of the 40 driest countries in the world with an annual average rainfall of less than 500 mm. In
Water security addition, South Africa’s rate of economic development is closely linked to its level of water security, as rising
Greater Sekhukhune District Municipality water stress and increasing supply variability, flooding, inadequate access to safe drinking water and sanitation,
eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality and higher levels of water pollution could be creating a drag on economic growth. Despite the high premium
Individuals
placed on our water resources, there is no commonly shared understanding of water security. This paper reports
Perceptions
Policy interventions
on a stakeholder analysis conducted in two South African municipalities to determine their perceived state of
water security. We investigated how people, from different lifestyles, perceive water security in the Greater
Sekhukhune District Municipality and the eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality. We specifically asked re-
spondents if water security had been achieved in the areas. The inland-situated Sekhukhune has a drier climate
and a rural socio-economic profile as opposed to the coastal, urbanised eThekwini with its complex economy and
diverse socio-economic structure. We conducted face-to-face structured interviews with a diverse stakeholder
group in the municipalities and focus groups in two communities of each municipality: Leeuwfontein and
Motetema (Sekhukhune) and Inanda and Ntshongweni (eThekwini). Following a qualitative analysis, we found
that water security, therefore, is a state of mind based on context-specific (i.e. localised and individualised)
perceptions and practices held by individuals of water-related threats and/or opportunities and how it influences
them, their surroundings and their interactions with others. For instance, people perceive drought to be a water
security challenge only when it affects their daily lives such as household water supply or the availability of
water for livestock. We propose a number of policy interventions and response strategies based on these context-
specific water security notions.

1. Introduction
There is not a dearth of water security literature in both academic
and non-academic circles (e.g. Clement, 2013; Pahl-Wostl et al., 2013;
Lankford et al., 2013; UN-Water, 2013; Global Water Partnership
(GWP, 2014; Gober et al., 2015; Soyapi, 2017). Gey and Sadoff (2007)
who popularised a definition of water security, which has been used by
other researchers writing on the subject (e.g. Pahl-Wostl et al., 2013).
UN-Water and the Global Water Partnership (GWP) have also devel-
oped definitions of water security. Their definitions are similar to the
one that Gey and Sadoff (2007) developed where ‘Water security refers
to the availability of an acceptable quantity and quality of water for
health, livelihoods, ecosystems and production, coupled with an ac-
ceptable level of water-related risks to people, environments and
economies.’ For the GWP, ‘[w]ater security, at any level from the
household to the global, means that every person has access to enough
safe water at affordable cost to lead a clean, healthy and productive life,
while ensuring that the natural environment is protected and en-
hanced.’ These definitions had been developed by researchers or in-
ternational organisations with a view to place water security as an issue
on the global agenda (e.g. UN-Water, 2013; Global Water Partnership
(GWP, 2014). These definitions are to a certain extent presented in an
objective way in that the definitions explain what water security is
based on observations that researchers have made over the years by
investigating water quantity and quality phenomenon ‘from a distance’.
Moreover, water security discourses have seen a very limited role for
local people and communities to play in decision-making processes
(Clement, 2013). Even so, water security can also be defined inter-
subjectively by individuals with different lifestyles from traditional
leaders to commercial farmers and mine workers to government offi-
cials. By investigating water security in such a way can bring to the fore
the finer nuances of the issue that are informed by people’s lived

⁎
Corresponding author at: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, P.O. Box 395, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa.
E-mail address: rmeissner@csir.co.za (R. Meissner).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2018.05.020
Received 23 April 2018; Received in revised form 30 May 2018; Accepted 30 May 2018
Available online 11 June 2018
1462-9011/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Meissner et al.
Fig. 1. Rural Sekhukhune.
experience and how they interact with water, other people, and the
environment on a daily basis (Meissner et al., 2018). Such an approach
can also give researchers and policy makers a sense of the perceived
state of water security within a specific geographic area.
In this paper, we report on an investigation to ascertain people’s
perceptions on the perceived state of water security in the Greater
Sekhukhune District Municipality (hereafter Sekhukhune) (Fig. 1) and
the eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality (hereafter eThekwini)
(Fig. 2), in South Africa (Fig. 3). Statistically, the two municipalities
have different water security profiles (Table 1). Looking closely at
Table 1, and specifically the percentage of people with access to rivers
or streams as a source of water, only 0.5% of people have access to this
particular source of water. For all five the local municipalities in Se-
khukhune this is vastly different, with a larger proportion of the po-
pulation relying on rivers or streams for a source of water. This in-
dicates that a larger proportion of eThekwini’s population has access to
a municipal source of water (90%) and by default, potable water of a
desirable quality than what the case is in the Greater Sekhukhune
District Municipality.
Even so, for the CSIR water security project, we specifically asked
Fig. 2. Part of Durban Harbour indicating eThekwini's complex economy.
113
Environmental Science and Policy 87 (2018) 112–127
respondents if water security had been achieved in these areas to get a
more nuanced view than what is presented by the statistics of access to
water in the two municipalities. We gathered data from a diverse set of
respondents with various lifestyles through face-to-face interviews and
focus group discussions, and analysed the gathered data qualitatively
by identifying water security themes. The paper contains the knowledge
we generated from respondents’ perceptions on whether they believe
the municipalities have achieved water security and why. In the pro-
cess, we are explaining and promoting a new approach to generate
water security knowledge garnered from individuals’ perceptions. We
also present a conceptualisation of water security based on the analysed
perceptions.
We outline an interpretivist view to analyse the diverse range of
water security standpoints. Interpretivism denies the existence of one
real world and instead argues that reality is a mental construct and
perceived by people. This means that people generate methods and
instruments such as theories and typologies to assist them to make sense
of the worlds they live in. People, therefore socially construct reality
because people develop, transmit and maintain knowledge in social
situations. This, furthermore, implies that there are multiple realities
R. Meissner et al. Environmental Science and Policy 87 (2018) 112–127

Fig. 3. The Municipalities in perspective.

(Sources: The Local Government Handbook, 2017 Stats SA, 2016a) (Map produced by Luanita Snyman-Van der Walt).

because there are different individuals and groups with different life-
styles and perspectives (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988). Because we based
our research on interpretivism, it means that we are able to generate a
deeper understanding of water security at local government level. The
interpretivist ontology outlines an inter-subjective vision of knowledge
generation, where the researcher, research subjects, and the realities in
which both operate are inseparable. Because of its subjective nature,
interpretivism advances people’s experiences of reality as mental con-
structs, social, and experience-based that are co-constructed by re-
searchers and individuals’ worldviews. This further means that people
construct their social reality through their located reference frames
(epistemology) (Guba and Lincoln, 2005; Lincoln et al., 2011; Meissner,
2017). Our argument is that individuals’ observations can yield valu-
able information on the perceived state of water security for use by
decision makers, particularly at the municipal level where water se-
curity conceptualisations vary drastically based on the context. This
means that residents and officials of municipalities experience water
security opportunities and challenges differently. That said, the re-
spondents have direct experience with water security opportunities and
problems. These experiences inform people’s water security perspec-
tives.
We structure the paper as follows. Section one describes the role and
importance of analysing perceptions. We then outline local authorities’
legislative water delivery roles and responsibilities. Thereafter, we ex-
plain our methodology and analysis. We briefly report on previous
South African municipal research and identify a number of causal
mechanisms responsible for service (non-)delivery at local government
level, before ending with a discussion and conclusion. During the dis-
cussion, we develop a number of practical interventions, based on a
policy intervention matrix, for practitioners’ consideration.
2. Analysing perceptions
We analysed data using the agential, ideational, material, and

Table 1
Selected statistical indicators of water security as the percentage of the population with access to water from different sources in the two Municipalities.
Population size is for 2011 according to the 2011 Census (Source: Stats SA, 2018).
Source of Water eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality Greater Sekhukhune’s Local Municipality

Elias Motsoaledi Ephraim Mogale Makhuduthamaga Greater Tubatse Lepele-Nkumpi

Population size 3 500 000 249 363 123 648 274 358 335 676 93 795
Municipal or other water service provider 90% 43.5% 66.1% 51.2% 43.5% 61.7%
Borehole 1.5% 19.3% 9.6% 8.9% 16.5% 10%
Spring 0.3% 2.7% 0.4% 4.4% 1.2% 1%
Rain water tank 0.3% 1.6% 0.9% 2.3% 2% 2.8%
River/stream 0.5% 9% 3% 17% 16.9% 11%
Water vendor 1.5% 9.2% 10.4% 2.9% 4.2% 2.1%
Water tanker 2.1% 4.3% 3.1% 2.7% 5.1% 3.5%

114
R. Meissner et al.
structural (Sil and Katzenstein, 2010) (AIMS) causal mechanism
methodology. Although this model had been devised for the interna-
tional level, it is also suitable for the local (government) level since
causal mechanisms are not level of analysis specific but are components
of the philosophy of science and the social sciences, specifically (e.g.
Hedström and Ylikoski, 2010). Moreover, causal mechanisms are the
processes characterised as the relations and interactions of a system’s
parts, its structure and environment (Hedström and Ylikoski, 2010).
Local governments are complex systems because they consist of a large
number of elements, or individual components (e.g. administrative
personnel, properties, governing structures like by-laws and councils,
funding mechanisms) that interact in non-linear ways with one another
(Vasileiadou and Safarsyńska, 2010). By agential mechanisms, we mean
the causes brought on by actors’ actions (Kurki, 2008) such as delivering
and purifying water. Ideational causes include perceptions, anticipation,
and ideologies and material causes include money, technology, and human
resources. Structural causes are policies, strategies, and the rule of law (e.g.
Kurki, 2008; Sil and Katzenstein, 2010; Meissner, 2017). The AIMS
procedure offers researchers and practitioners a deeper understanding
of issues because ‘[a] causal mechanism provides an explanatory ac-
count of observed results by describing the mediating process by which
the target factor could have produced the effect’ (Koslowski et al., 1989:
1317). For Rueschemeyer (2009: 21), a causal mechanism is ‘…a con-
dition, a relation, or a process that brings about certain events and
states.’ Considering these definitions, causal mechanisms institute both
processes of causation and ‘things’ that constitute change. Because of
this, causal mechanisms indicate that something is happening and why
or how it is taking place (Koslowski et al., 1989). These notions of
causal mechanisms shed light on the nature of a causal mechanism as
an explanatory account, a condition, relation, and process. We utilise
these descriptions to identify the nature of the specific causal me-
chanisms contained in the respondents’ answers to the question.
We relied on selected past local government research to identify
local government process - and context-specific (e.g. Green, 2000)
causal mechanisms at play in municipal service delivery and associated
activities (Table 2). These specific causal mechanisms give an indica-
tion of the various factors at local government level that could have an
impact (Green, 2000) on the respondents’ water security perceptions.
As already mentioned, municipalities are complex organisations
(Barichievy et al., 2005; Kroukamp, 2008). South African municipal
research identifies various municipality types, as well as procedural and
organisational structures, formal and informal relationships, cen-
tralisation and decentralisation, and variable degrees of power and
resource distribution (Beall et al., 2000; Beall, 2005; Barichievy et al.,
2005; Koma, 2010; Zybrands, 2011). Local governments, therefore, are
not like units; their variable characteristics mean they are not exact
replicas of one another. What happens in one municipality is not ne-
cessarily to follow in another. Identifying which causal mechanisms
local government researchers identified over the years, could help
municipal officials identify opportunities and problems and devise so-
lutions to these difficulties. That said, the causal mechanisms identified
in Table 2 indicate municipal processes and the context in which water
security opportunities and problems unfold.
3. The role of local government in water service provisioning
South Africa’s Constitution (Act No 108 of 1996) stipulates the
different spheres of governments’ water service provisioning and
management responsibilities (RSA, 1996; Van Koppen and Schreiner,
2014). In brief, national government’s constitutional mandate is the
executive and legislative custodianship of the country’s water re-
sources. This means that the Department of Water and Sanitation’s re-
sponsibility is the bulk management of the country’s water resources
(Stein, 2002) or water in its natural state, which is dealt with by the
National Water Act (No. 36 of 1998) (RSA, 1998). The Water Services
Act (No. 108 of 1997) (RSA, 1997), addresses treated water,
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Environmental Science and Policy 87 (2018) 112–127
reticulation to consumers, and sanitation services. These are local
government legislative responsibilities.
Municipalities, therefore, have legislative powers and duties re-
garding water and sanitation services to communities. These duties
have a direct bearing on people’s water security or insecurity. Even so,
water security at local government level does not only depend on the
correct interpretation and implementation of the various acts. There
are, furthermore, social, political, and ideological considerations when
investigating water security. Related to this argument, in 2002, the then
Minister for Provincial and Local Government, Sydney Mufamadi (cited
in Parnell et al., 2002), noted that:
‘Municipal government is at the heart of the democratic system that
has emerged in South Africa since the political transition.
Democracy makes sense when it connects with, and gives expression
to, the everyday challenges of ordinary South Africans. This means
that municipal government must be at the forefront of involving
citizens in all aspects of governance and development by providing
them with practical and effective opportunities for participation.’
Local government is ‘at the heart of the democratic system’ because
it is the government sphere closest to citizens (Zybrands, 2011;
Meissner, 2015). Because of this, Barichievy et al. (2005: 370) state that
‘local government is required to govern in ways more [inclusive] than
the provincial and national spheres.’ Proper contact between citizens
and local government is not only a theoretical exercise, but also en-
shrined in legislative arrangements and, therefore, have practical value
and implications. This argument partly explains the backlash of water
insecurity expressed through service delivery protests aimed towards
municipalities. Their water and sanitation services is the manifestation
of individual water security. Individual water security perceptions are
benchmarked against local government’s ability to supply the key water
services of purification, reticulation, and treatment. These perceptions
could be the yardstick for water service delivery in municipalities.
4. Methodology
4.1. Data gathering
The data collection strategy we employed was a participatory and
iterative one that incorporated a snowball technique for respondent
identification. Over a 20-month period, we conducted 17 fieldtrips and
collaborated with municipal officials and ward leaders to identify
governmental and non-governmental stakeholders. We administered a
structured questionnaire with open-ended questions that we used
during interviews and focus group discussions. We interacted with a
diverse group of stakeholders from academia and research; local, pro-
vincial, and national government; commercial and small-scale farmers;
community members and leaders; and private sector companies in the
retail, mining, and tourism industries. We conducted 62 interviews and
eight focus group discussions interacting with more than 250 individual
respondents. We also conducted reconnaissance site visits, affording us
an opportunity to engage with individuals and get a sense of their living
conditions and their water interacting experiences.
4.2. Data analysis
4.2.1. Interviews and focus groups
After data collection, we analysed the inputs using thematic
methods. The respondents had different ideas about water security. One
way in which they framed it, for instance, is to note that people should
get involved in securing their own water by helping municipalities
through water leak detection. Respondents also viewed water security
as an activity that begins and ends with water quality. For them, good
water quality will ensure healthy people, environments, and livelihoods
now an in the future (Nortje et al., 2018). When we asked people if
water security had been achieved in the area and why, we received a
R. Meissner et al.
Table 2
Causal mechanisms influencing opportunities and problems in South African local governments identified in past research.
Msunduzi (Pietermaritzburg) and
Buffalo (East London)
(Barichievy et al., 2005).
Gender equity in local governments
(Beall, 2005).
Environmental Science and Policy 87 (2018) 112–127
Causal mechanisms influencing Service Delivery Opportunities Identified by Service Delivery Problems Identified by
opportunities and problems Previous Research Previous Research
Agential Effective service delivery by involving the The public cannot participate in decision-
Participatory governance. public in decision-making. making as equals due to poorly designed
Lack of public participation. Good at performing ad hoc activities such as governance structures.
Lack of public engagement in roadshows. Unsatisfactory communication linking public
decision-making. Opposition party councillors can attend participation with council processes and
Lack of transparency. meetings. internal democratic operations.
Unsatisfactory communication. Strategic plans can alter organisational culture State building not getting the necessary
Exclusivity. for more effective public participation. attention.
Inclusivity. A need for a thoughtful strategic plan that Ward committees have power to access
Democratic objectives. could positively transform the organisational formal and informal systems but exclude
Internal democracy culture of a relatively democratic nature to one communities.
External autocracy that the councillors and community could more One wonders if the municipalities are
State building. easily accept. meeting democratic objectives such as public
No initiative. engagement in decision-making, service
Inefficient operation. delivery, and development.
Is service delivery being met? Lack of transparency since the Mayoral
Accessing formal and informal Committee holds meetings behind closed
systems. doors in the Buffalo Municipality.
Material No initiative to improve participatory and
External programmes. operational capacity.
Structural Exclusivity in Buffalo Municipality where the
Inefficient local government design Mayoral Committee exists only of ANC
Formal organisational structures and members elected by the mayor, which is not
legislation not implemented part of legislation.
productively resulting in a lack to carry Inclusivity in the Msunduzi Municipality
out duties. where all political party representatives can
Poorly designed ward committees. attend meetings.
A thoughtful strategic plan. Lack of formal organisational structures to
Lack of cohesion carry out duties.
Ideational External programmes not properly
Organisational culture implemented resulting in poor service
delivery.
Inefficient local government design and
organisational structure makes for a poor
connection between formal structures and
public needs.
Formal organisational structures and
legislation not implemented productively
resulting in a lack to carry out duties.
Ward committees not properly designed
making it nearly impossible to introduce
training and resourcing committee members.
Agential The effective engagement of women can Relationships, structures, and processes of
Informal relationships address their interests and issues. local governance can limit women’s
Women’s participation participation as well as the policies for
Ideational addressing gender issues.
Women’s interests and issues Decentralisation strategies and governance
Competing interests are not straightforward measures that will
Impulse for making decentralisation ensure gender equity.
more efficient Competing interests around power and
Material resources can exclude women.
Processes Systems and relationships can foster an
Structural impulse for making decentralisation more
Local government closest to the efficient rather than focusing on equity.
people.
Informal systems
Decentralisation structures
Decentralisation governance
Policies for addressing gender issues
(continued on next page)
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R. Meissner et al.
Table 2 (continued)
Local governments and the idea and
aspirations of a developmental
state (Koma, 2010).
Johannesburg Metropolitan
Municipality’s poverty reduction
strategies (Beall et al., 2000).
primary ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer along with a motivation. The ‘yes’ or ‘no’
answers formed the basis of the present analysis. We used these answers
to indicate whether people viewed water security’s achievement in the
area they live as positive (‘yes’) or negative (‘no’). We analysed 34 in-
terviews: 19 from Sekhukhune and 15 from eThekwini. Four of the
respondents did not give a specific ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer, but spoke about
water and sanitation problems generally in the Municipalities. We in-
cluded their answers.
Environmental Science and Policy 87 (2018) 112–127
Causal mechanisms influencing Service Delivery Opportunities Identified by Service Delivery Problems Identified by
opportunities and problems Previous Research Previous Research
Agential Local governments can contribute Mediocre attitude mares service delivery
Service delivery meaningfully to the idea and aspirations of a initiatives.
Implement responsibilities developmental state. The political and organisational leadership is
Poor performance A local government’s mandatory mission seemingly not steering local governments into
Lack of accountability specifies which and how it needs to deliver the right direction.
Act against poor performance and services to citizens. Suitably qualified personnel do not staff
lack of accountability Embrace service delivery excellence. municipalities.
Provincial monitoring of local Salient strategies can assist local governments A lack of training programmes in supply
governments in realising their mandatory mission. chain and financial management impairs
Functional planning Innovative and transformative political and local governments’ integrated development
Scientific and rigorous public executive leadership that has a clear vision of plan objectives.
administration research the municipality’s future. Compliance complexities inhibit rural
Ideational Follow the Competency Guidelines to appoint municipalities’ freedom in achieving their
Mandatory mission suitably qualified staff. integrated development plans.
Idea of the developmental state Provincial departments and treasuries need to
Mediocrity play a more strategic and focused role to
Service delivery excellence support and resource municipalities.
Innovative and transformative Differentiate between the various
political and executive leadership municipalities.
Clear vision
Uniformity approach
Free rural municipalities from
compliance complexities
Material
Needs of the community
Suitably qualified municipal staff
Recruitment agencies
Training
Performance management systems
Financial viability
Structural
Municipal Systems Act of 2000
Competency Guidelines for
Municipal Managers
Human resource strategy
Provincial treasuries
Provincial departments of local
government
Historical and socio-economic
conditions
Special legislation
Agential Reducing poverty, unemployment, and The apartheid legacy and accompanied
Reform inequality through well-developed and separate development initiatives, left large
Attract investment measured policies. portions of Johannesburg’s citizens without
Inadequate service delivery proper basic services.
Organisational change The problems are high poverty and
Good fiscal performance unemployment rates, and inequality.
Ideational Limited budgets, need for organisational
Apartheid legacy change, good fiscal performance, an
Competing for attention overloaded bureaucracy, and competing
Material attention and resources inhibit service
Citizen’s needs delivery.
High poverty
Unemployment
Inequality
Housing backlog
Informal settlements
Limited budget
Overloaded bureaucracy
Structural
Poverty reduction strategies
Apartheid
Separate development
We analysed each interview using a number of steps. The first stage
determined the interviewee or focus group’s context (e.g. whom we
interviewed and where). We then ascertained whether the person an-
swered ‘yes’ or ‘no’ and why to the question of: ‘Do you think that in
your municipal area water security has been achieved?’ From this, we
described the reasons’ elements, i.e. what respondents said about the
municipalities’ actions, and interpreted the answer based on the context
and lived experiences. During phase four, we interpreted the answers
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R. Meissner et al.
Fig. 4. Plot of the ‘Positive/Negative Definitive Answers’ answers
(R = Respondent, Number (e.g. 1) = Respondent Number, and
eTh = eThekwini and S = Sekhukhune.
further by summarising the causal mechanisms for these responses and
categorised these according to various themes, for instance, ‘the mu-
nicipality is playing its part to deliver water to businesses’. Another
example is ‘water supply delivery does not happen uniformly across the
municipality’. By tagging individual perceptions with causal mechan-
isms, we construct an intervention matrix that shows the positive and
negative aspects contained in the perception and whether the percep-
tion alludes to a short- or long-term view of water (in)security (Figs. 4 ,
7 and 9). The intervention matrix provides options for decision makers
to consider when designing policy interventions. For instance, should a
perception be in the negative and long-term section of the matrix, it
could give decision makers certain clues on how to move it from that
position to the positive short- or long-term position. This will depend on
the type of causal mechanism or cluster of causal mechanisms they
would want to employ to influence the future desirable state.
4.2.2. Perception analysis using the AIMS approach
Only five of the 34 respondents, or 14.71%, answered ‘yes’, and 24,
or 70.59%, answered ‘no’. Five, or 14.71%, answered generally. We
used the causal mechanisms summarised in Table 2 to inform current
motivations and causal mechanisms in our study. We will first report on
why people answered ‘yes’, before considering the ‘no’ and general
answers.
4.3. The positive/negative definitive responses
In Table 3, we summarise the positive/negative definitive answers,
and in Table 4 the positive/negative deductive answers. We label these
motivations positive/negative definitive because the respondents either
gave overwhelmingly positive or negative reasons.
4.4. The positive/negative and deductive responses
These answers are deductive because the respondent did not spe-
cifically say ‘yes’ or ‘no’ but indicated in her or his answer why they
view the perceived state of water security in the respective area as
being positive or negative. Most respondents indicated that the muni-
cipalities have not achieved water security. Table 4 summarises their
motivations and represents a complicated, if not complex, water se-
curity picture in both areas. The better-financed eThekwini is in a
slightly enhanced water security position than Sekhukhune with its
lower gross domestic product per capita. This is largely a result of ne-
gatively held perceptions of rural populations in both municipalities
contrasting with more positive perceptions held by urban communities
in eThekwini. A tension between socio-economic development prio-
rities and household service delivery also seems present in Sekhukhune.
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Environmental Science and Policy 87 (2018) 112–127
This raises equity and equality issues where large water consumers and
employers (e.g. the mines) seem to get preferential treatment for water
use over poor rural communities in Sekhukhune (Respondent 23).
When asked whether the municipalities had achieved water se-
curity, five respondents answered generally. It is still important to
consider their answers, since these represent data points that can aid
policy makers. Both Respondents 31 and 32 answered in this way be-
cause they do not receive municipal water. The farmer (Respondent 31)
utilises irrigation board water and groundwater for household pur-
poses. The lodge owner (Respondent 32) also depends on groundwater.
We have deduced that if respondents do not use municipal water, then
it is difficult for them to form a definite opinion around the perceived
state of water security in the municipality.
5. Discussion
The various positive aspects and problems people mentioned in-
dicate that water security’s nature and extent are individually perceived
and pervasive. It suggests that people do not experience water security
similarly; one actor's’ water security could be another’s insecurity or
non-security. The sources of water insecurity also take different forms:
from theft and vandalism, to inadequate infrastructure, and limited
knowledge of government structures. That said, water security is not
only about the resource, or the infrastructure delivering it, it is also
about what people know and how they use their knowledge to react and
rectify water insecurity. Having said that, various causal mechanism
configurations or combinations influence the perceived water security
state in Sekhukhune and eThekwini. The particular configuration a
respondent holds depends on the processes, practices, and context of
her/his lived-experience and constitutes whether the person has a long-
or short-term, positive or negative view of the state of water security.
What is important to note, in this regard, is not only the configuration
but also the type of occurrence the respondent is describing. In other
words, the particular examples the respondents conveyed during the
interview or focus group discussions tell us something about how they
experience their interaction with water resources in their households or
working environments. The respondents do not only derive their water
interactions through physical contact with water like collecting water
from a stream or seeing dirty (municipal) water flowing from a tap (e.g.
Respondent 21), but also from interactions with others (e.g.
Respondents 1, 14 and 15) and what they learn from others or read in
popular and scientific publications (e.g. Respondents 24 and 34). Water
security, therefore, is a state of mind based on context-specific (i.e. loca-
lised and individualised) perceptions and practices by individuals of water-
related threats and/or opportunities and how it influences them and their
surroundings and interactions with others.
How then, can decision-makers within local government and else-
where develop and implement programmes to improve water security
given its highly individualised understanding and conceptualisation?
The utility of AIMS is that it tries to understand motivations that lead to
a particular perception or practice. We therefore purport that by de-
veloping response strategies that directly address these causal me-
chanisms, practitioners would be able to influence perceptions and,
therefore, how stakeholders see water security and act to attain water
security.
In Figs. 4, 7 and 9 we plot the causal mechanisms we identified from
each respondent’s motivation. We divide each matrix into positive and
negative, short-term and long-term causal mechanisms. This allows us
to classify each respondent’s causal mechanism on each matrix. Fig. 3
graphically illustrates positive responses, while Fig. 4 illustrates nega-
tive responses, and Fig. 5 reflecting deductive responses.
From the positive illustration in Fig. 4, most plots are positive and
long-term where the dominant causal mechanism is agential implying a
sense of agency and/or empowerment on the part of residents. Going
hand in hand with the agential mechanism are material causal me-
chanisms. This implies that physical or tangible resources, apart from
 Table 3
Positive/negative Definitive Answers.
R. Meissner et al.

Respondent’s Stakeholder Type and Causal Respondent’s Motivation Of what is it a case or an occurrence? Nature of causal Long- or Positive (+) or
Number Municipality Mechanism Type mechanism Short-term Negative (-)

Respondent 1 Tourism sector (eThekwini) Material The municipality has ‘adequate infrastructure in place’ to The municipality is playing its part to deliver Explanatory Long-term +
supply their hotel with water. water to businesses. account
Ideational They are ‘happy’ with the current water supply Good past experience when the municipality Condition Short-term +
Agential arrangements because the municipality timely informs them announced water supply interruptions.
of water supply interruptions.
Material Agential ‘The municipality is on the ball; there is a tanker service in The municipality is playing its part to deliver Condition Short-term +
case of water shortages.’ water to businesses. Explanatory
account

Respondent 2 Tourism sector (eThekwini) Material The hotel has a water supply back-up system of 280 000 Preparedness. Condition Long-term +
(from the same company as litres acting as a reserve in case of longer than usual Risk aversion. Process
Respondent 1) disruptions. Maintaining a healthy hotel in case of lengthy
water supply disruptions.
A customer retention strategy.
Respondent 3 Community (Sekhukhune) Agential ‘I will say in a way yes but, a very strong BUT, because some Water supply delivery does not happen Explanatory Long-term +
areas are still struggling here…’ uniformly across the municipality. account
Respondent 4 Community (Sekhukhune) Material The communities experience ‘water cuts’. Inadequate water supply. Condition Short-term −
(same as respondent 3) Material Agential When communicating with the municipality, ‘they Inadequate water infrastructure and water Relation Short-term −
[municipality] said they bought a new pump and a supply. Process
compressor. They are still struggling. Sometimes we have Theft of water infrastructure.
asked the authorities about the problem of water supply A measure of distrust between these
cuts, they told us about a stolen water pump and gave us community members and the municipality.

119
inconsistent answers. Secondly they said pressure was not
enough.’
Respondent 5 Community (Sekhukhune) Material Agential ‘There is payment involved. You see government inspectors Trust erosion through perceived corruption. Relation Short-term −
(same as respondents 3 and 4) going into the farms to record water meter readings many Preferential treatment from municipal Process
times there is payment involved.’ officials to irrigation farmers.
Apartheid legacy of racially-based unequal
treatment.
Respondent 6 Representative from Agential ‘Yes, I think we [have] achieved water security because we Household water storage. Explanatory Long-term +
community organisation Material store water in the tanks. We have pipes, we do not waste the Culture and behaviour of using water account
(Sekhukhune) water, and we conserve our water very well. We use water sparingly. Process
without wasting it.’ Relying on government for assistance. Relation
‘[A ward] counsellor helped us to find someone to fund us so
that they can buy tanks to store water from boreholes for us.’
Respondent 7 Business owner (Sekhukhune) Agential Water security exists ‘to some degree, if people, like the Trust in scientific knowledge as the problem Relation Short-term +
Ideational CSIR, continue to do a good job.’ solver. Process
He seems happy with the municipality. He mentioned that The municipality playing its mandated role Condition
they receive warnings (communication) from the instils satisfaction and trust from citizenry.
municipality in case of water disruptions.
He says that ‘when the water pipes break, the municipality
usually warns us in advance if they are going to switch the
water off and there won’t be water.’
Respondent 8 Irrigation board (Sekhukhune) Agential Confused the irrigation board’s operational area with the Possibly not discriminating between different Explanatory Long-term +
Material municipality’s service delivery area. geographic scales. account
Views water security and the irrigation board’s operation as Irrigation board’s main function is to provide Process
interdependent. water security to farmers’ households. Relation
Farmers use the board’s water for household purposes.
Respondent 9 Irrigation farmer (Sekhukhune) Agential ‘We and our workers use the irrigation board’s water in our Saving financial and natural resources by Explanatory Long-term +
Material households after purifying it.’ using one water source instead of two sources account
(i.e. irrigation board and municipal water). Condition
Use an already reliable water supply. Process
Environmental Science and Policy 87 (2018) 112–127
 Table 4
Positive/Negative Deductive Responses.
Respondent’s Stakeholder Type and Causal Respondent’s Motivation Of what is it a case or an occurrence? Nature of causal Long- or Positive (+) or
Number Municipality Mechanism Type mechanism Short- Negative (-)
R. Meissner et al.

term

Respondent 10 Community member Agential ‘Sometimes when we report water leakages it takes a Personal observations of burst pipes and Explanatory Short- −
(eThekwini) Material very long time for them to get fixed… and there is a lot of communication with the municipality. account term
water wastage due to poor quality of water pipes. It Condition
usually takes a lot of time before pipe bursts are attended Relation
to… the plastic pipes are not durable and cannot
withstand water pressure.’
Respondent 11 Community member Agential ‘We also have a problem with theft and illegal Personal experience and observations of theft of Explanatory Short- −
(eThekwini) (same as Material connections. Sometimes those who have been provided water. account term
Respondent 10) with water supply do not get water due to illegal Condition
connections.’
Respondent 12 Municipal official (eThekwini) Agential ‘Durban… has not been able to provide water to every Water security is not only about fresh water but also Explanatory Long-term −
Material person in the municipality.’ about humans’ interaction with the marine account
Ideational ‘When it rains in summer a lot of stuff gets washed down environment polluted by inland water. Condition
into the storm water drains and into the sea. The main
concern here is pathogens. While the infrastructure is at
a vulnerable state, the dirty water contributes to
bacterial pollution.’
Respondent 13 Non-governmental Material ‘Because the dam near Durban was smelly. People could A binary water security explanation linked to poor Explanatory Long-term −
organisation (eThekwini) Ideational smell nuisance stuff coming off the water 8 km before water quality translating into the opposite of water account
Agential they got to the dam and that means the treatment is security. Condition
going to be expensive… This is the opposite of water Process
security.’
Respondent 14 Water Board in Material ‘Staff, personal experience, too few hands too tied… in Linking water security to labour practices and work Explanatory Long-term −

120
Pietermaritzburg supplying Agential getting real work done.’ ethic in the water board. account
water to eThekwini Condition
Respondent 15 Water Board (same as Agential ‘Again, it’s resource protection. We see the need and we Water resource protection through policies and Process Long-term −
respondent 14) Material see the gap. Because water affairs can’t do it. The infrastructure. Condition
municipality is slightly doing it. Their reticula system in Explanatory
particular is poor.’ account.
Respondent 16 School teacher (eThekwini) Material ‘Some places are without water, when there will be no Lack of water resources hampering social Condition Short- −
Agential water they are not warn in advance or communicated development and people caring for themselves. Process term
with. They have to let the learners go home earlier Explanatory
because of sanitation and hygiene. People steal water at account
night.’
Respondent 17 Researcher (Sekhukhune) Ideational ‘The thing is when coming to the planning part, if we Planning not taking a holistic view. Explanatory Long-term −
Material know that there are 90 new mines that are in the pipeline account
Agential in Limpopo, surely it’s a national issue now. Because Condition
there is no integrated planning, if I’m sitting here and I’m Process
the guy in charge in Limpopo, it’s about me… I’m
looking at what is going to benefit me now. But are we
looking at it as a nation.’
Respondent 18 Street vendor (Sekhukhune) Material ‘Now the municipality has bought about 3 to 5 water Water consumers do not know which (local) Explanatory Long-term −
Ideational tankers. And I cannot see their importance. Though the municipality is their service provider. account
Agential municipality has bought more tankers, we still receive Condition
Structural water once a week. When we tell the local municipality, Relation
they tell us that the tankers were bought by the district
municipality. They send us from pillar to post. When we
go to [the] local municipality, they refer us to the district
municipality. The municipal offices are not willing to
help us. I do not know how long we are going to suffer
like this.’
Respondent 19 Material Linking poor water quality with poor living standards. Long-term −
(continued on next page)
Environmental Science and Policy 87 (2018) 112–127
 Table 4 (continued)

Respondent’s Stakeholder Type and Causal Respondent’s Motivation Of what is it a case or an occurrence? Nature of causal Long- or Positive (+) or
Number Municipality Mechanism Type mechanism Short- Negative (-)
term
R. Meissner et al.

Bottled water business ‘Groblersdal urgently requires clean (good quality) water Condition
(Sekhukhune) – we have water but it isn’t clean. It won’t kill the people Process
if they drink it but it sends people especially women and Relation
children to the doctor.’
Respondent 20 Clinic (Sekhukhune) Material ‘There are some areas with high fluoride content. We do Having some water resources is better than having Condition Long-term −
Agential not filter the fluoride water because the maintenance nothing and linking politics with conflict over water. Process
Ideational cost of the filters is too expensive. But the alternative Relation
would be that people use contaminated surface water Explanatory
supplies. I don’t think that local municipalities have the account
capacity anymore to approach the water problems in a
good technical manner that they can be part of the
advising team and they have to rely on consultants. The
Loskop Dam’s water is political water, because if you
want some of that water there is a hell of a fight.’
Respondent 21 Mine (Sekhukhune) Agential ‘Everybody in town buys bottled water. The municipality Poor water quality leads to self (water) governance. Explanatory Short- −
Material also adds flocculants to the water. On the mine, we first account term
Ideational treat the municipal water before using it in our mining Condition
operations. We also supply the workers that are not near Relation
the offices with bottled water. The management of the
town’s water resources was somewhat shitty, and had
been taken over by private contractors.’
Respondent 22 Researcher (eThekwini) Ideational ‘I think [water security is] still a target for providing Water security is an aspiration and not a reached goal. Explanatory Long-term −
Agential drinking water and sanitation to rural communities.’ account
Condition

121
Respondent 23 Provincial government official
in Limpopo Province
Respondent 24 University lecturer in
Pietermaritzburg
Respondent 25 Non-governmental
organisation in
Pietermaritzburg
Respondent 26 Researcher (eThekwini)
Process
Ideational ‘The challenge usually is when the mine is able to Imbalanced power structures resulting in some having Condition Long-term −
Material access… water for their operation but you find that the more water than others. Relation
communities around… actually don’t have water. I wish
it could always be possible to ensure that whatever they
do they ensure that the communities around them are
able to have access to water.’
Agential ‘eThekwini is starting to speak to the [UMgungundlovu] Communication is better than having your head stuck Explanatory Long-term −
Ideational District [Municipality].’ Because this municipality is in the sand. account
upstream from eThekwini, what happens in the uMngeni A deeper understanding helping the various actors Relation
affects eThekwini. Upstream-downstream practice better water security decision-making.
communication can be seen as a water security
facilitation mechanism, where strategic thinking and
actions open ‘a window of opportunity… that we can
engage with the topic on a different scale and that there
is more awareness by government and the other decision
makers and stakeholders around the complexity of water
security.’
Material Human resource shortages (due to public administration Poor governance practices are not good for water Explanatory Short- −
Agential [mal] practices), can negatively influence water security. security. account term
Ideational What also negatively influences water security is a lack Human resources and their efficient allocation can Relation
Structural of communication between the municipality and help attain water security.
citizens. ‘And everybody keeps saying where are all the Water security involves the allocation of scarce
other plumbers, we’ve got a shortage of manpower, we resources.
need more plumbers, but they don’t tell you straight…
you don’t always get the full story.’
Ideational Having more knowledge could facilitate better water Condition Short- −
Material security practices at individual level. Relation term
Agential Process
(continued on next page)
Environmental Science and Policy 87 (2018) 112–127
 Table 4 (continued)

Respondent’s Stakeholder Type and Causal Respondent’s Motivation Of what is it a case or an occurrence? Nature of causal Long- or Positive (+) or
Number Municipality Mechanism Type mechanism Short- Negative (-)
term
R. Meissner et al.

‘[P]eople do not understand why the municipality can

only supply so much water and not more. Education is
key in this regard. People are not educated and this is
preventing us from achieving water security.’
Respondent 27 Traditional leader (eThekwini) Agential ‘[Y]ou see people when they are using water they are not Water security is an individual responsibility and not Relation Short- −
Ideational using it sparingly, you find someone living next to a a government one. Process term
Material leaking water pipe or your own tape, you find that
somebody goes past that thing and he doesn’t close the
tap and do not report it. But they think that this [is] the
work of the local municipality… that is the problem with
people; nobody reports it they do not take enough
precautions to save water.’
Respondent 28 Business owner (Sekhukhune) Ideational ‘I do not know if they put off the water or they are re- Questioning the reasons, linked to ulterior motives, Explanatory Short- −
Agential connecting or fixing pipes. But it can be for two days that for not having water. account term
Groblersdal will not have water. So we definitely have a Better communication facilitates water security. Condition
problem. ‘… [T]o be honest with you, the only way we
can find out is if government water can be on Facebook
and it happened like six hours and it came out like “oh
you will be without water” and it was a friend telling a
friend.’
Respondent 29 Municipal official Structural ‘What is also important for water security is proper Lack of public administrative processes bedevils Explanatory Long-term −
(Sekhukhune) Ideational public administration. If people do not trust the billing municipal water security. account
Material system, they are reluctant to pay. Elements of work Relation
culture and work ethic among municipal staff are

122
important in this regard. This is one of the reasons for the
low levels of cost recovery in the municipality.’
Respondent 30 Limpopo Government official Ideational ‘I’m concerned about our capacity in the [Limpopo] Financial resources going to waste constituting Condition Short- −
Material province to deliver… and I’m mentioning this because longer-term water insecurity. Relation term
Agential there [are] conditional grants that national government Process
Structural gives to the Province. Billions of Rands, and every year
we keep on returning those monies back because we
can’t spend them.’
Respondent 31 Farmer (Sekhukhune) Agential ‘There is surely a lot of malpractices, especially in the Malpractice in municipalities are unable to provide Explanatory Short- −
municipalities.’ water security for all. account term
Condition
Respondent 32 Lodge owner (Sekhukhune) Ideational ‘I have not heard a lot of complaints. I am not very Not enough knowledge of municipal water Explanatory Short- +
negative of the municipality.’ management practices. account term
Relation
Respondent 33 Lodge manager (Sekhukhune) Agential ‘No they have not yet achieved water security! Their Poor maintenance and inadequate infrastructure Explanatory Short- −
Ideational waste water treatment works are not functioning. Their together with people’s perception of potable water account term
roads are breaking up because of storm water overflow. linked to inadequate water treatment facilities and Condition
The sewerage runs into the Olifants River. The water longer-term water insecurity. Relation
treatment plant smells. The people in town are unhappy.
They say the water from their taps are rotten.’
Respondent 34 Researcher (eThekwini) Ideational Water security for rural areas is an aspiration and Explanatory Long-term −
Agential media reports can paint a picture that is not account
Structural necessarily true in reality. Condition
Relation
Process
(continued on next page)
Environmental Science and Policy 87 (2018) 112–127
R. Meissner et al. Environmental Science and Policy 87 (2018) 112–127

Positive (+) or water, are necessary elements that enable agential mechanisms. For
Negative (-) instance, for a municipality to minimise water disruptions to busi-
nesses, it has to have a dedicated tanker service (Fig. 5) in place to
deliver water in case of water cuts (e.g. Respondent 1).
Given that long-term positive views are the most favourable, the
question for policy-makers is how to influence short-term positive at-
Long- or

titudes to become long-term ones. The dominant causal mechanism for

Short-
term

short-term positive responses was found to be material and, therefore,

depends on optimal resource allocation to supply a service. Another key
theme in short-term responses is the level of regularity and consistency
Nature of causal

of communication and reporting on the part of the municipality to re-

mechanism

sidents as well as perceived corruption. Communication, as an agential

causal mechanism, requires dedicated resources in the form of various
communication channels (e.g. a municipal spokesperson [human re-
sources], and social and popular media outlets [information technology
and communication budgets]). Slightly negative views in this regard
could be dealt with by regular and timeous communication and accu-
rate feedback depending not only on the mentioned resources, but also
on ideational commitments to improve residents’ living conditions.
Of what is it a case or an occurrence?

Below we present a number of possible interventions relating to com-

munication and resources needed for such strategies.
Response R1eTh pertains to the satisfaction expressed that the
municipality regularly and timeously communicates water disruptions
and provides adequate alternative water supply in the case of shortages.
To make this perception a long-term one, municipal officials need to
constantly and consistently deliver on this communication objective
and the alternative water supply objective by keeping residents in-
formed of changes and disruptions to water supply. As Respondent 28
expressed, the use of social media such as Facebook and WhatsApp may
be quicker in getting key communication messages across. Response
‘I think it’s still a target for providing drinking water and

working towards it or ahead of the game as opposed to it

being a neglected area but this just based on this popular
it’s been shown to some public media that I read about
probably one of the more advanced municipalities and

R4S relates to inconsistent communication and feedback of inadequate

articles where I’ve seen them receiving international
managing the resource. So I think they probably are
excellent programmes and performance in terms of

water infrastructure and water supply. Again, regular and accurate

proceeded. I think that eThekwini Municipality is

reporting will help build resident confidence in the municipality’s

sanitation to rural communities, who have not

challenges and could foster a sense of citizen participation in helping to

alleviate the plight of others, as explained by Respondent 23, for in-
stance. Respondent R5S refers to an erosion of trust through perceived
corruption. Again, the municipality can put in place mechanisms to
guard against corruption by creating an ethics hotline where unethical
behaviour could be reported, providing better incentives for municipal
Respondent’s Motivation

officials to conduct themselves ethically and by adopting water in-

tegrity principals as a municipality.
Below we present our suggested interventions not directly targeted
at municipalities, but rather individual actions. Water security should
awards.’

not be a ‘struggle’ for citizens. People with such a view could translate
this ‘struggle’ into civil disobedience and violence to attract attention to
their plight. Our suggested intervention is for stakeholders to design
Mechanism Type

governance structures so that people can participate in long-term de-

cision-making, and not only through elections every 5 years. We see this
manifesting in some of the previous local government research, where
Causal

researchers identified inadequate and unequal governance structures as

problem areas (e.g. Barichievy et al., 2005 and Beall, 2005). This should
go hand-in-glove with transparency (i.e. to quall corrupt practices) and
inclusivity when communicating with citizens about long-term and
temporary water cuts. Such measures could build long-term trust. Sta-
Stakeholder Type and

keholders can enhance their water security through ‘back-up’ infra-

structure in times of temporary shortages (Fig. 6). Municipalities could
Municipality

encourage the use of rain-water harvesting and grey-water re-use for

example. Water allocated to irrigation can be utilised for household
purposes resulting in indirect municipal water savings.
From the plotting of negative responses in Fig. 7, the majority of
Table 4 (continued)

negative views held are long-term and deeply entrenched. Moreover,

the dominant causal mechanisms underlying long-term negative re-
Respondent’s

sponses are agential, material, and ideational. The presence of idea-

Number

tional mechanisms points to a configuration that potentially indicates

behaviour linked to entrenched ideas on how to treat water resources
(i.e. saving or wasting it). To move long-term negative views to long-

123
R. Meissner et al. Environmental Science and Policy 87 (2018) 112–127

Fig. 5. A water tanker making its rounds in eThekwini.

term positive views is exceedingly difficult and time-consuming parti-
cularly because, in this instance, negative views relate to the sense of
agency that residents feel they have or do not have, their world views
and ideological mind-sets. It is also about ingrained practices, linked to
mind-sets, which could take an extended period of time to change, like
not giving adequate warning of water supply disruptions (e.g. Re-
spondent 16) and neglecting communal water needs in favour of sup-
plying water to mines over a long period of time (e.g. Respondent 23).
Several long-term negative answers point to the underlying theme of
the inability of the municipality to provide safe, drinking water to re-
sidents (e.g. Respondent 12). Other negative responses point to issues of
capacity i.e. that the municipality is either under capacitated and
overstretched in terms of service delivery over a large geographic area
(e.g. Respondent 14); or capacity challenges existing in other institu-
tions that the municipality now has to fill (e.g. Respondent 15). These
issues have also been highlighted in previous municipal research, and

Fig. 6. A water tank for storing water during water disruptions.

124
R. Meissner et al. Environmental Science and Policy 87 (2018) 112–127

Fig. 7. Plot of Negative Responses (R = Respondent with corresponding

number as indicated in the preceding tables; eTh = eThekwini; and
S = Sekhukhune).

particularly by Koma (2010) when he said that a local government’s

mission points directly to the particular services it needs to deliver to
citizens, and how such services need to be delivered. Mandatory gov-
ernment structures are direction finding beacons for such service de-
livery practices.
Additionally, two other important emerging themes worth noting
are the lack of integrated planning and coordination between different
municipal departments or water institutions (e.g. Respondents 17 and
18). Local government integrated planning and coordination, are
practices that come about through years of experience and knowledge
accumulation by municipal officials, the municipality’s biophysical
environment, resource opportunities and constraints and intimate
knowledge of citizen needs (e.g. Beall et al., 2000 and Koma, 2010). To Fig. 8. A stolen transformer resulted in this water purification plant to stop
improve on the lack of integrated planning and coordination would supplying water to a community in Sekhukhune (Meissner, 2015).
require a combination of causal mechanisms. Municipal officials
should, in this regard, guard against relying solely on structural causal
mechanisms to ameliorate such a situation. Structural mechanisms like
policy and legislation should be viewed as direction-finding beacons, as
already mentioned. That said, a well though through configuration of
agential, ideational, and material causal mechanisms, to give effect to
legislative requirements, could aid officials in ameliorating a lack of
integrated planning and coordination.
The lack of infrastructure maintenance, theft and vandalism,
dealing with growing water quality concerns, capacity challenges and
the lack of integrated planning and coordination are long-term chal-
lenges that municipalities are aware of and regularly cite. They are not
necessarily easy to address either, but can be ameliorated through long-
term strategic and adequate budget planning processes, which are again
guided by mandatory structures and adequate knowledge of legislative
provisioning.
Short-term negative responses tended to have a dominant material
Fig. 9. Plot of Deductive Responses (R = Respondent with corresponding
causal mechanism, and issues articulated can be resolved with relative number; eTh = eThekwini; and S = Sekhukhune).
ease such as timely and consistent communication (e.g. Respondents 10
and 16). Theft and vandalism of water and water infrastructure (Fig. 8),
could be addressed by mobilising community members to report such two short-term negative views expressed. Most responses are also re-
incidents and by establishing appropriate structures, like community commendations and suggestions for improvement. For example, posi-
police forums, to bring perpetrators to book (Meissner, 2015). tive responses refer to the need for strategic communication between
The other underlying theme for short-term negative responses relate upstream and downstream users (e.g. Respondent 24); and the need for
to the smell and taste, and resultant perceived quality, of water (e.g. public awareness and education (e.g. Respondent 26).
Respondents 13 and 19). These views can be addressed through ade- Long-term negative views in this regard reflect a range of causal
quate public awareness and education on suitable drinking water mechanisms with the dominant being agential and ideational. Similar
quality standards and what citizens can do to ensure water is safe to to the long-term negative responses capture in Fig. 7, the deductive
use. long-term negative responses captured in Fig. 9 also pertain to human
From the ‘deductive’ responses (Fig. 9), most plots express long- resource shortages and capacity (e.g. Respondent 25); and a lack of
term views split almost evenly between positive and negative, with only public awareness and education (e.g. Respondent 27). Additionally, the

125
R. Meissner et al.
Fig. 10. Leak repair in action.
theme of improper public administration was also emphasised in these
responses (e.g. Respondent 29).
People view water leaks and illegal water connections as serious
water security threats (Fig. 10). This implies that people view ‘old’ and
insufficient infrastructure as critically important with municipalities
not responding adequately to their water woes. Public administration is
a major factor in getting things done around water security.
People also questioned spending on certain types of water infra-
structure like water tankers. Despite these woes, people can resort to
buying bottled water, if they can afford it. Our suggested intervention is
when planning for the long-term, it is important to consider equity
between water users and not only to apportion water to the perceived
large job creators (i.e. mines and industry). Non-governmental stake-
holders should raise their voices when they observe such instances.
Knowledge and other ideational causal mechanisms, like people not
understanding why it is important to close a leaking tap (e.g.
Respondent 27) feature frequently during these responses. This could
explain the long-term nature of the negative classifications since idea-
tional mechanisms, like attitudes towards a scarce resource, takes time.
Ideational causal mechanisms could also hold the key to move negative
perceptions and actions into the positive frame. This would entail long-
term interventions and could involve communicative learning, whereby
water users are taught the value of water and the repercussions of
wastage from a leaking tap. Such learning initiatives could involve non-
governmental organisations and community-based organisations. Local
governments could also ‘teach’ consumers through a number of ways
how to ‘read’ municipal utility bills, and in so doing, possibly reduce
distrust. Communication and the cross fertilization of ideas between
municipalities is also promising.
6. Conclusion
Our purpose in this paper was to report on people’s perceptions of
the perceived state of water security in Sekhukhune and eThekwini. We
found that their views of water security, and what the municipalities
are doing to improve residents’ water security situations, largely de-
pends on the biophysical environment, their interaction with water
126
Environmental Science and Policy 87 (2018) 112–127
resources, as well as their relations with other people in the commu-
nities and further afield. The research fills a gap by outlining people
from different lifestyles’ water security views and how such under-
standings could enhance policies and practices to improve livelihoods
of those facing water insecurity. This paper, therefore, advances a
methodology whereby qualitative analysis of perceptions can enhance a
deeper understanding of water security situations and how practitioners
in local government and other institutions could react to such situations
and settings to better residents’ living conditions.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Karen Nortje and Nikki Funke from the
CSIR, for valuable comments and information on the paper. To Engela
van Heerden and Blessed Matsi we would also like to express our
heartfelt thanks for their literature searches. We would also like to
acknowledge and thank Luanita Snyman-Van der Walt for producing
the maps contained in this paper. Funding for this paper was received
from the Parliamentary Grant research funding stream of the South
African Department of Science and Technology.
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