6 CURRICULUM AIMS AND

OUTCOMES

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter reviews the following approaches to planning aims and outcomes:

• Goal setting in backward design • Competencies

• Aims and objectives • Standards
• Learning outcomes • Process outcomes

Case study 10 Developing a course on discussion skills 4PJOHLS.YPѝU

Introduction
It was suggested in Chapter 2 that early planners of English language courses saw the purpose of
SHUN\HNL [LHJOPUN HZ ZLSML]PKLU[ 0[ ^HZ Z\ѝJPLU[ [V Z[H[L [OH[ [OL NVHS VM H JV\YZL ^HZ [V [LHJO
English. However, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and the English for Special Purposes
(ESP) movement argued that this approach was inadequate and that in order to teach English it was
ULJLZZHY`[VÄUKHUZ^LYZ[VT\JOTVYLZWLJPÄJX\LZ[PVUZ!>OH[RPUKVM,UNSPZO&([^OH[SL]LSVM
WYVÄJPLUJ`&(UKMVY^OH[W\YWVZLZ&5LLKZHUHS`ZPZZLLRZ[VWYV]PKLHUZ^LYZ[V[OLZLX\LZ[PVUZ
and situation analysis seeks to identify the role of contextual factors in implementing curriculum
change. In this chapter we will consider another crucial dimension of decision making in curriculum
planning: determining the goals and outcomes of a program.
Several key assumptions about learning outcomes underlie approaches to goal setting in language
teaching:
• 7LVWSLHYLNLULYHSS`TV[P]H[LK[VW\YZ\LZWLJPÄJNVHSZ
• ;OL\ZLVMNVHSZPU[LHJOPUNPTWYV]LZ[OLLќLJ[P]LULZZVM[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUN
• (WYVNYHT^PSSILLќLJ[P]L[V[OLL_[LU[[OH[P[ZNVHSZHYLZV\UKHUKJSLHYS`KLZJYPILK

These principles appear to be self-evident and uncontroversial, and most language programs have
clearly described statements of the learning outcomes the program seeks to achieve. However, it
is not always the case that goal setting is seen as unproblematic in teaching, as we will see later in
this chapter. In deciding on goals, planners choose from among alternatives based on assumptions
about the nature of language and the nature of teaching and learning, as we saw in Chapters 2
HUK-VYT\SH[PUNNVHSZPZUV[[OLYLMVYLHUVIQLJ[P]LZJPLU[PÄJLU[LYWYPZLI\[HQ\KNTLU[JHSS-VY
this reason, the nature of goals in the design of educational programs has aroused considerable
controversy and debate in the curriculum literature, and continues to do so. In this chapter we will
L_HTPULKPќLYLU[HWWYVHJOLZ[VNVHSZL[[PUNPUSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN

0U ^OH[ MVYTHYLSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZKLZJYPILKPU`V\YZJOVVSVYPUZ[P[\[PVU&+V`V\YLMLY[V

[OLTPUWSHUUPUN`V\Y[LHJOPUN&

140
 6 Curriculum aims and outcomes • 141

6.1 Goal setting in backward design

Describing learning outcomes is an essential aspect of backward design. There are a number of ways
in which these can be described, and in this chapter we will distinguish between aims, objectives,
SLHYUPUN V\[JVTLZ, and JVTWL[LUJPLZ. Descriptions of outcomes for use as planning tools in
curriculum development are developed from the information obtained from needs analysis and are
part of what we referred to earlier as a product approach to the curriculum.
The process of starting with a description of aims and outcomes is a well-established tradition in
curriculum design in general education; however, in recent years it has reemerged as a prominent
curriculum development approach in language teaching. As we saw in earlier chapters, it is sometimes
described as an as an LUKZ¶TLHUZ approach, as seen in the work of Tyler (1949) and Taba (1962),
^OV]PL^LKPUZ[Y\J[PVUHZ[OLZWLJPÄJH[PVUVMLUKZHZHWYLYLX\PZP[L[VKL]PZPUN[OLTLHUZ[VYLHJO
them, a process which consists of a sequence of activities beginning with needs analysis, describing
objectives, selecting and organizing content (i.e., syllabus design), methodology, and assessment. As
Leung (2012, 161–162) comments:

In a large number of places such as Australia, the United States, and many parts of Europe, the
prominence of outcomes-based teaching in the past thirty years or so can be associated with
the wider public policy environments in which the twin doctrines of corporatist management
(whereby the activities in different segments of society are subordinated to the goals of the
state) and public accountability (which requires professionals to justify their activities in rela-
tion to declared public policy goals) have predominated.

The standards-based approach is part of the process of accountability and results-driven educational
change that is popular in many countries today. Hence in many countries, schools are increasingly
required to use criterion-referenced tests based on state or national standards, which are used as
benchmarks for achievement across the curriculum.

/HZ`V\YJV\U[Y`HKVW[LKHZ[HUKHYKZIHZLKHWWYVHJO[VJ\YYPJ\S\TWSHUUPUN&

In order to understand the ways in which aims and outcomes have been understood in language
J\YYPJ\S\T KL]LSVWTLU[ P[ ^PSS ÄYZ[ IL \ZLM\S [V JSHYPM` [OL KPќLYLUJL IL[^LLU aims (or NVHSZ),
objectives, SLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZ, and JVTWL[LUJPLZ.

6.2 Aims, objectives, learning outcomes, competencies

Aims
In curriculum discussions the terms NVHSZand aims are used interchangeably to refer to a description
of the general purposes of a curriculum, and objectives [V YLMLY [V H TVYL ZWLJPÄJ HUK JVUJYL[L
KLZJYPW[PVUVMW\YWVZLZ>L^PSS\ZL[OL[LYTZaims and objectives here. An aim refers to a statement
of a general change that a program seeks to bring about in learners. The most general statement
of the aims of a course is often part of a JV\YZLYH[PVUHSL – a brief description of the reasons for the
course and the nature of it. It seeks to answer the following questions:
• >OVPZ[OPZJV\YZLMVY&
• >OH[PZ[OLJV\YZLHIV\[&
• >OH[RPUKZVM[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUN^PSS[HRLWSHJLPU[OLJV\YZL&
142 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

The course rationale answers these questions by describing the beliefs, values, and goals that
underlie the course and which provide a succinct statement of the course philosophy for anyone who
may need such information, including students, teachers, and potential clients. Developing a rationale
also helps provide focus and direction to some of the deliberations involved in course planning. The
rationale is intended for any stakeholder who has an interest in the course. It serves the purposes of
(i) guiding the planning of the various components of the course, (ii) emphasizing the kinds of teaching
and learning the course should exemplify, and (iii) providing a check on the consistency of the various
course components in terms of the course values and goals (Posner and Rudnitsky 1986).
Below is an example of a course rationale:

&RXUVHWLWOH(σHFWLYH&RPPXQLFDWLRQ6NLOOV

This course is designed for working adults who wish to improve their communication skills in English
in order to improve their employment prospects. It teaches the basic communication skills needed
[VJVTT\UPJH[LPUH]HYPL[`VMKPќLYLU[^VYRZL[[PUNZ;OLJV\YZLZLLRZ[VLUHISLWHY[PJPWHU[Z[V
YLJVNUPaL[OLPYZ[YLUN[OZHUKULLKZPUSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUNHUK[VNP]L[OLT[OLJVUÄKLUJL[V\ZL
,UNSPZOTVYLLќLJ[P]LS`[VHJOPL]L[OLPYV^UNVHSZ0[HSZVZLLRZ[VKL]LSVW[OLWHY[PJPWHU[Z»ZRPSSZPU
independent learning outside of the classroom.

Aim statements, then, provide a general description of the intended outcomes of the course. Their
functions are as follows:
• ;VWYV]PKLHJSLHYKLÄUP[PVUVM[OLW\YWVZLZVMHSHUN\HNLWYVNYHT
• To provide guidelines for teachers, learners, and materials writers.
• To help provide a focus for instruction.
• To describe important and realizable changes in learning.

-\Y[OLYL_HTWSLZVMHPTZ[H[LTLU[ZMVYH]HYPL[`VMKPќLYLU[JV\YZLZHYLNP]LUILSV^
A primary school English course:

;VLUHISLJOPSKYLU[VJVTT\UPJH[LLќLJ[P]LS`PUIV[OZWLLJOHUK^YP[PUNPUL]LY`KH`ZP[\H[PVUZ[V
TLL[[OLKLTHUKZVMZVJPL[`

;VOLSWJOPSKYLUHJX\PYLNVVKYLHKPUNOHIP[Z[V\UKLYZ[HUKLUQV`HUKHWWYLJPH[LH^PKLYHUNLVM
[L_[ZPUJS\KPUN[OLSP[LYH[\YLVMV[OLYJ\S[\YLZ

;VKL]LSVWJOPSKYLU»ZHIPSP[`[VL_WYLZZ[OLTZLS]LZPTHNPUH[P]LS`HUKJYLH[P]LS`

A business English course:

;VKL]LSVWIHZPJJVTT\UPJH[PVUZRPSSZMVY\ZLPUI\ZPULZZJVU[L_[Z

(JV\YZLMVYOV[LSMYVU[KLZRZ[Hќ!

;VKL]LSVW[OLJVTT\UPJH[PVUZRPSSZULLKLK[VHUZ^LYHUKYLZWVUKHWWYVWYPH[LS`[VN\LZ[LUX\PYPLZ

A course in study-skills for university students:

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 6 Curriculum aims and outcomes • 143

A course in English for tourism:

;VWYLWHYLZ[\KLU[Z[VJVTT\UPJH[LPU,UNSPZOH[HIHZPJSL]LSMVYW\YWVZLZVM[YH]LSHUK[V\YPZT

(JV\YZLPUYLHKPUNZRPSSZMVYÄYZ[`LHY\UP]LYZP[`Z[\KLU[Z!

;VYLHKH\[OLU[PJUVUZWLJPHSPZ[UVUÄJ[PVU[L_[ZPU,UNSPZO^P[OJVTWYLOLUZPVUHUKH[HYLHZVUHISL
ZWLLK

>OH[^V\SKHUHPTZ[H[LTLU[SVVRSPRLMVYHJV\YZLPUJVTWVZP[PVUMVYJVSSLNLZ[\KLU[Z&

Aim statements such as these are generally derived from information gathered during a needs
analysis. Aim statements, however, should not be confused with descriptions of the activities learners
will take part in. The following, for example, are not aims:

:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUHIV\[I\ZPULZZSL[[LY^YP[PUNPU,UNSPZO

:[\KLU[Z^PSSZ[\K`SPZ[LUPUNZRPSSZ

:[\KLU[Z^PSSWYHJ[PJLJVTWVZP[PVUZRPSSZPU,UNSPZO

:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYU,UNSPZOMVY[V\YPZT

For these to become aims, they need to focus on the changes in the learners that will result. Consider
the following, for example:

:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUOV^[V^YP[LLќLJ[P]LI\ZPULZZSL[[LYZMVY\ZLPU[OLOV[LSHUK[V\YPZT
PUK\Z[YPLZ

:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUOV^[VSPZ[LULќLJ[P]LS`PUJVU]LYZH[PVUHSPU[LYHJ[PVUZHUKOV^[VKL]LSVWIL[[LY
SPZ[LUPUNZ[YH[LNPLZ

:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUOV^[VJVTT\UPJH[LPUMVYTH[PVUHUKPKLHZJYLH[P]LS`HUKLќLJ[P]LS`[OYV\NO^YP[PUN

:[\KLU[Z^PSSILHISL[VJVTT\UPJH[LPU,UNSPZOH[HIHZPJSL]LSMVYW\YWVZLZVM[V\YPZT

>OH[PZ[OLKPќLYLUJLIL[^LLU[OL[^VZL[ZVMHPTZ[H[LTLU[ZHIV]L&

Objectives
Aims are very general statements of the purpose or purposes of a program. They can be interpreted
PUTHU`KPќLYLU[^H`Z-VYL_HTWSLJVUZPKLY[OLMVSSV^PUNHPTZ[H[LTLU[!

:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUOV^[V^YP[LLќLJ[P]LI\ZPULZZSL[[LYZMVY\ZLPU[OLOV[LSHUK[V\YPZTPUK\Z[YPLZ

Although this statement provides a clear description of the focus of a program, it does not describe
[OL RPUKZ VM I\ZPULZZ SL[[LYZ Z[\KLU[Z ^PSS SLHYU OV^ [V ^YP[L VY JSHYPM` ^OH[ PZ TLHU[ I` LќLJ[P]L
business letters. In order to give a more precise focus to program goals, aims are often accompanied
144 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

I`Z[H[LTLU[ZVMTVYLZWLJPÄJW\YWVZLZ;OLZLHYLRUV^UHZVIQLJ[P]LZ(They are also sometimes

referred to as PUZ[Y\J[PVUHS VIQLJ[P]LZ or [LHJOPUN VIQLJ[P]LZ) An objective refers to a statement of
ZWLJPÄJJOHUNLZHWYVNYHTZLLRZ[VIYPUNHIV\[HUKPZKL]LSVWLKI`IYLHRPUNHPTZKV^UPU[V[OLPY
KPќLYLU[JVTWVULU[Z6IQLJ[P]LZNLULYHSS`KLZJYPIL^OH[[OLHPTZLLRZ[VHJOPL]LPU[LYTZVMZTHSSLY
units of learning and provide a basis for the organization of teaching activities. They also describe
learning in terms of observable behavior or performance.
;OLHK]HU[HNLZVMKLZJYPIPUN[OLHPTZVMHJV\YZLPU[LYTZVMVIQLJ[P]LZHYLÄYZ[[OH[[OL`MHJPSP[H[L
planning: once objectives have been agreed on, course planning, materials preparation, textbook
selection, and related processes can begin. Secondly, they provide measurable outcomes and
thus provide accountability: given a set of objectives, the success or failure of a program to teach
the objectives can be measured. Thirdly, they are prescriptive: they describe how planning should
proceed and do away with subjective interpretations and personal opinions.
In relation to an aim such as :[\KLU[Z ^PSS SLHYU OV^ [V \UKLYZ[HUK SLJ[\YLZ NP]LU PU ,UNSPZO,
objectives such as the following could be described:

‹ :[\KLU[Z^PSSILHISL[VMVSSV^HUHYN\TLU[[OLTLVY[OLZPZVMHSLJ[\YL

‹ :[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUOV^[VYLJVNUPaL[OLMVSSV^PUNHZWLJ[ZVMHSLJ[\YL!

JH\ZLHUKLќLJ[YLSH[PVUZOPWZ

JVTWHYPZVUZHUKJVU[YHZ[Z

WYLTPZLZ\ZLKPUWLYZ\HZP]LHYN\TLU[Z

Z\WWVY[PUNKL[HPSZ\ZLKPUWLYZ\HZP]LHYN\TLU[Z

From the example above, we can see that in order to prepare statements of learning outcomes
we need to have a clear understanding of the aspects of language use a course seeks to address;
in other words, we need to understand the nature of the content domain the course covers. For
example, what is understood by “communicative competence,” “listening comprehension,” “language
WYVÄJPLUJ`¹ ¸YLHKPUN ZRPSSZ¹ ¸HJHKLTPJ ^YP[PUN¹ VY ¸I\ZPULZZ ,UNSPZO¹& ;OPZ PU]VS]LZ HUZ^LYPUN H
U\TILYVMM\Y[OLYX\LZ[PVUZZ\JOHZ^OH[RUV^SLKNLHUKZRPSSZKVLZLHJOKVTHPUPUJS\KL&>OH[
HYLP[ZJVTWVULU[Z&>OH[KVLZWYVÄJPLUJ`PU[OPZKVTHPUJVUZPZ[VM&
Statements of objectives usually have the following characteristics:
6IQLJ[P]LZKLZJYPILHUPU[LUKLKSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLIn writing objectives, expressions like ^PSSZ[\K`,
^PSS SLHYU HIV\[, ^PSS WYLWHYL Z[\KLU[Z MVY are avoided because they do not describe the result of
SLHYUPUNI\[YH[OLY^OH[Z[\KLU[Z^PSSKVK\YPUNHJV\YZL6IQLJ[P]LZJHUILKLZJYPILK^P[OWOYHZLZ
like ^PSSOH]L,^PSSSLHYUOV^[V,^PSSILHISL[V
6IQLJ[P]LZZOV\SKILJVUZPZ[LU[^P[O[OLJ\YYPJ\S\THPT6US`VIQLJ[P]LZ[OH[JSLHYS`ZLY]L[VYLHSPaLHU
aim should be included. For example, the objective below is unrelated to the curriculum aim which states:

:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUOV^[V^YP[LLќLJ[P]LI\ZPULZZSL[[LYZMVY\ZLPU[OLOV[LSHUK[V\YPZTPUK\Z[YPLZ

Faulty objective: ;OLZ[\KLU[^PSSKL]LSVW[OLHIPSP[`[V[HRLWHY[PUKPZJ\ZZPVUZ

Because the aim relates to writing business letters, an objective in the domain of discussion skills
does not correspond with this aim. Either an aim statement should be added to allow for this objective
or the objective should not be included.
 6 Curriculum aims and outcomes • 145

6IQLJ[P]LZZOV\SKKLZJYPIL^OH[SLHYULYZ^PSSSLHYU[VKVHZHYLZ\S[VMPUZ[Y\J[PVU6IQLJ[P]LZZOV\SK
focus on the learner rather than what the teacher will do. The following objective describes the
[LHJOLY»ZILOH]PVYYH[OLY[OHUHSLHYUPUNNVHS!

;VKL]LSVW[OLSLHYULY»ZJVUÄKLUJLPUZWLHRPUNHUKSPZ[LUPUN

And the following describes course content rather than learning outcomes:

;VWYV]PKLPUW\[PUYLHSYLSL]HU[HUKYLHSPZ[PJ,UNSPZO

6IQLJ[P]LZZOV\SKILWYLJPZL6IQLJ[P]LZ[OH[HYL]HN\LHUKHTIPN\V\ZHYLUV[\ZLM\S;OPZPZZLLU
in the following objective for a conversation course:

:[\KLU[Z^PSSRUV^OV^[V\ZL\ZLM\SJVU]LYZH[PVUL_WYLZZPVUZ

A more precise objective would be:

:[\KLU[Z^PSS\ZLJVU]LYZH[PVUL_WYLZZPVUZMVYNYLL[PUNWLVWSLHUKVWLUPUNHUKJSVZPUNJVU]LYZH[PVUZ

6IQLJ[P]LZ ZOV\SK IL MLHZPISL 6IQLJ[P]LZ ZOV\SK KLZJYPIL V\[JVTLZ [OH[ HYL H[[HPUHISL PU [OL [PTL
available during a course. The following objective is probably not attainable in a 60-hour English course:

:[\KLU[Z^PSSILHISL[VMVSSV^JVU]LYZH[PVUZZWVRLUI`UH[P]LZWLHRLYZ

The following is a more feasible objective:

:[\KLU[Z^PSSILHISL[VNL[[OLNPZ[VMZOVY[JVU]LYZH[PVUZPUZPTWSL,UNSPZOVU[VWPJZYLSH[LK[VKHPS`
SPMLHUKSLPZ\YL

The following objectives (adapted from Pratt 1980) from a short course on English for travel and
tourism designed to prepare students for travel in English-speaking countries illustrate the relationship
between aims and objectives:

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(PT! To prepare students to communicate in English at a basic level for purposes of travel and tourism.

6IQLJ[P]LZ!

1. The student will have a reading vocabulary of 300 common words and abbreviations.

2. The student will have a listening vocabulary of 300 common words plus numbers up to 100.

3. The student can understand simple written notices, signs, and menus.

4. The student can understand simple questions, statements, greetings, and directions.

5. The student can get the gist of simple conversations in spoken English.

6. ;OLZ[\KLU[JHUWPJRV\[\UMHTPSPHYWOYHZLZMYVTJVU]LYZH[PVUZHUKYLWLH[[OLTMVYJSHYPÄJH[PVU

7. The student can use in speech 200 common words plus numbers up to 100 for time, quantity,
and price.
146 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

8. The student can use about 50 useful survival phrases, questions, requests, greetings,
statements, and responses.

9. The student can hold a bilingual conversation, speaking English slowly and clearly in simple
words.

10. The student can use and understand appropriate gestures.

 ;
 OLZ[\KLU[^PSSOH]L[OLJVUÄKLUJL[VPUP[PH[LJVU]LYZH[PVUZPU,UNSPZOIL\UHMYHPKVMTHRPUN
mistakes, and attempt utterances outside his or her competence.

 ;
 OLZ[\KLU[^PSSIL^PSSPUN[VSLHYUMYVTHUH[P]LZWLHRLY»ZJVYYLJ[PVUVMOPZVYOLYLYYVYZ

13. The student will have a “success experience” of making himself or herself understood in, and
understand, a foreign language.

The following example illustrates the goals of a spoken English course:

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(PTZ!

• ;
 V\ZL,UNSPZOMVYZVJPHSPU[LYHJ[PVU^P[OHWWYVWYPH[LHJJ\YHJ`Å\LUJ`PU[LSSPNPIPSP[`\ZPUN
appropriate norms of interaction.

• To initiate and maintain conversations on topics commonly used in social interaction

6IQLJ[P]LZ!

To develop skills in the following areas of conversation:

Using greetings, introductions, openings and closings in short conversation.

Making small talk as a part of social interaction.

Introducing topics in small talk.

Asking and answering simple questions about everyday matters.

Using back channeling and turn taking to maintain interaction.

<ZPUNJSHYPÄJH[PVUYLX\LZ[Z[VTHPU[HPU\UKLYZ[HUKPUN

Using narratives and personal recounts to relate past incidents and events.

(YL[OLSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZPU`V\YJV\YZLZKLZJYPILKPU[LYTZVMIV[OHPTZHUKVIQLJ[P]LZ&

>LSSKL]LSVWLKZ[H[LTLU[ZVMVIQLJ[P]LZPUSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUNHYLIHZLKVUHU\UKLYZ[HUKPUNVM[OL
nature of the subject matter being taught (e.g., listening, speaking, reading, writing, business English,
academic essays), an awareness of attainable levels of learning for basic, intermediate, or advanced-
level learners, and the ability to be able to describe course aims in terms of logical and well-structured
\UP[ZVMVYNHUPaH[PVU6IQLJ[P]LZHYL[OLYLMVYLUVYTHSS`WYVK\JLKI`HNYV\WVM[LHJOLYZVYWSHUULYZ
^OV^YP[LZHTWSLVIQLJ[P]LZIHZLKVU[OLPYRUV^SLKNLHUKL_WLYPLUJLHUKYL]PZLHUKYLÄUL[OLT
over time. In developing objectives, it is necessary to make use of a variety of sources, such as
KPHNUVZ[PJPUMVYTH[PVUJVUJLYUPUNZ[\KLU[Z»SLHYUPUNKPѝJ\S[PLZKLZJYPW[PVUZVMZRPSSLKWLYMVYTHUJL
PUKPќLYLU[SHUN\HNLKVTHPUZPUMVYTH[PVUHIV\[KPќLYLU[SHUN\HNLSL]LSZHZPZMV\UKPU[OL*,-9HZ
 6 Curriculum aims and outcomes • 147

^LSSHZJOHYHJ[LYPaH[PVUZVM[OLZRPSSZPU]VS]LKPUKPќLYLU[KVTHPUZVMSHUN\HNL\ZL6IQLJ[P]LZJHUUV[
[OLYLMVYLILYLNHYKLKHZÄ_LK(ZPUZ[Y\J[PVUWYVJLLKZZVTLTH`OH]L[VILYL]PZLKZVTLKYVWWLK
because they are unrealistic, and others added to address gaps.

Learning outcomes
>OPSL IV[O HPTZ HUK VIQLJ[P]LZ KLZJYPIL SLHYUPUN W\YWVZLZ, it is sometimes useful to identify the
observable YLZ\S[Z of learning, that is the kinds of performance or language practices that the learner
JHUKLTVUZ[YH[LH[[OLLUKVMH\UP[VMSLHYUPUN>OH[JHU[OLSLHYULYHJ[\HSS`KV as a demonstration
VM^OH[OLVYZOLOHZSLHYULK&:[H[LTLU[ZVMSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZHYLOLUJLL_HTWSLZVM[OLYLHSPaH[PVU
of objectives expressed in the form of “can do” statements. Consider the following statements:

(PT!Students will learn how to understand lectures given in English.

6IQLJ[P]L! Students will be able to follow an argument, theme, or thesis of a lecture and write key
points in note form.

3LHYUPUNV\[JVTL! Students can watch a 10-minute TED talk and write accurately in note form, the
main points of the talk.

4PJRHU¶JSHYPÄLZ[OLYLSH[PVUIL[^LLUV\[JVTLZHUKVIQLJ[P]LZ!

The outcomes are based on objectives. They describe learners’ participation and progression
in a structured programme – what language practices learners will be able to take part in by
the end of a programme. Outcomes provide teachers and students with measures of progress
towards goals. For teachers they provide a standard for assessment or testing. For students
they provide a map, detailing interim progression, or milestones towards a goal, as well as a
sense of making progress as they experience achievement through participation in practices.

Below are some further examples of objectives and the learning outcomes that relate to them:

6IQLJ[P]L! Students will learn how to present information, ideas and feelings clearly and coherently in
spoken English.

:HTWSLSLHYUPUNV\[JVTL! Students can present a two-minute talk to the class, describing an

interesting thing that they did over the weekend and how they felt about it.

6IQLJ[P]L! Students will learn how to participate in social communication with people and manage the
opening and closing of short exchanges.

:HTWSLSLHYUPUNV\[JVTL! Students can take part in class role-play activities in which they greet
foreign visitors, ask and answer polite questions, and wish them well.

6IQLJ[P]L! Students will learn how to describe a process involving a sequence of events.

:HTWSLSLHYUPUNV\[JVTL!:[\KLU[ZJHUKLZJYPILPUÄ]LTPU\[LZOV^[VWYLWHYLVULVM[OLPYMH]VYP[L
dishes, including the ingredients and equipment used and the steps involved in making the dish.

>OH[TPNO[HSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLILMVY[OPZVIQLJ[P]L&
:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUOV^[VL_WYLZZUHYYH[P]LZPUIV[OZWVRLUHUK^YP[[LU,UNSPZO
148 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

Competencies
The term JVTWL[LUJPLZ is also frequently used in describing aims and outcomes and is sometimes
used in a similar way to VIQLJ[P]LZ 0Z [OLYL H KPќLYLUJL& 6UL ^H` [OL` JHU IL KPZ[PUN\PZOLK PZ [V
use objective to refer to a purpose or learning outcome, and to use JVTWL[LUJPLZ to refer to the
TVYL KL[HPSLK RUV^SLKNL HUK ZWLJPÄJ ZRPSSZ ULLKLK [V HJOPL]L [OPZ V\[JVTL ;OH[ IV[O ZRPSSZ HUK
knowledge are included in competencies is seen in the following example:

(PT!;V[LHJO[OLJVTT\UPJH[PVUZRPSSZULLKLKMVYMYVU[KLZRZ[HќPUHOV[LS

:HTWSLVIQLJ[P]L! To learn how to conduct arrival and check-in procedures with arriving hotel guests.

:HTWSLJVTWL[LUJPLZ!

• Use appropriate greetings and welcoming remarks.

• (ZRHUKHUZ^LYX\LZ[PVUZHIV\[[OLJSPLU[»ZYLZLY]H[PVUHUKULLKZ

• Provide information on the rooms and their facilities.

If we now add a statement of a learning outcome it would be as follows:

;OLZ[\KLU[JHU[HRLWHY[PUHMV\YTPU\[LYVSLWSH`IL[^LLU[OLJSLYRHUKHN\LZ[^LSJVTPUN[OL
N\LZ[ÄUKPUNV\[HIV\[OPZVYOLYYLX\PYLTLU[ZHUKTHRPUNHYYHUNLTLU[ZMVY[OLN\LZ[»ZZ[H`PU[OL
OV[LS

Thus we can distinguish aims, objectives, learning outcomes, and competencies as follows:
Aim = a general purpose
Objective$HTVYLZWLJPÄJZ[H[LTLU[VMW\YWVZLZ
3LHYUPUNV\[JVTL$an example of what the learner can do as a result of mastering the objective
and the competencies
*VTWL[LUJPLZ = the knowledge and skills needed to achieve the purpose

>OH[ HYL ZVTL VM [OL JVTWL[LUJPLZ ULLKLK I` HU ,UNSPZO [LHJOLY ^OV \ZLZ VUS` ,UNSPZO
^OPSLOLVYZOLPZ[LHJOPUN&

The following is an example of part of a curriculum described in terms of objectives, learning outcomes,
and competencies (adapted from 3VUL:[HY*VSSLNL,:63J\YYPJ\S\TN\PKL 2013–2014, 27–28).

(62/5HDGLQJ/HYHO

(PT! Students will learn to develop basic reading skills using materials based on concrete topics.
 6 Curriculum aims and outcomes • 149

OBJECTIVES COMPETENCIES LEARNING OUTCOMES

Students learn how to apply Interpret ideas from articles, sim- Can demonstrate literal com-
literal comprehension read- ple short stories, and articles to prehension of short texts
ing skills. enhance meaning and understand- based on concrete topics.
ing.

Students learn how to read Read information texts, focusing Can identify the stated main
a variety of informational on key vocabulary, purpose, format, idea of a short passage on a
texts. main idea, and detail. familiar topic.

Can extract basic information

Students learn how to con-
nect reading across con-
tents and experiences.
Relate ideas from experience, other
classes, personal knowledge, and
media to texts read in class.
from simple illustrations such
as graphs and charts.
Can write a response to a
reading by conveying an idea,
opinion, feeling or experience.

The use of competencies as the basis for organizing a course are further discussed in Chapter 7.

6.3 Standards
A related approach to backward design is through the use of standards (also known as benchmarks,
JVYL ZRPSSZ WLYMVYTHUJL WYVÄSLZ HUK [HYNL[ JVTWL[LUJPLZ 3PRL JVTWL[LUJPLZ Z[HUKHYKZ HYL
KLZJYPW[PVUZVM[OLV\[JVTLZVY[HYNL[Z[OH[Z[\KLU[ZZOV\SKILHISL[VYLHJOPUKPќLYLU[KVTHPUZ
of curriculum content, including language learning. They describe the knowledge and skills of a
KPZJPWSPULZ\JOHZ,UNSPZOTH[OHUKYLHKPUNHUKYLÅLJ[^OH[[OLWSHUULYZHUKZ[HRLOVSKLYZVMHU
educational system believe are the essential components of teaching and learning. The standards
describe in a general way the core content and skills students should master, and these form the
basis for program development, teaching, and assessment. Like competencies and objectives, they
do not prescribe any particular teaching approach or mode of course organization and delivery.
Their purpose is described as follows: “Education standards describe for all stakeholders (program
HKTPUPZ[YH[VYZ [LHJOLYZ HUK V[OLY ZJOVVS HUK KPZ[YPJ[ Z[Hќ WHYLU[Z Z[\KLU[Z LTWSV`LYZ HUK
policymakers) the goals, teaching and learning conditions, and expected outcomes of education
programs” (Young and Smith 2006).
Katz and Snow (2009, 67) describe the advantages that standards bring to curriculum planning:

Standards may be described as tools that can be used to improve outcomes. The kind of out-
comes desired depends on the goals for improvement – whether they target teachers, teacher
trainers, educational leaders, students, programs – and so on. The major benefit of standards
is that they set out clear expectations for all involved in the educational enterprise, including
the public. They provide a “common language” for talking about the process of teaching and
learning. For teachers and administrators, they provide guidelines for designing instruction,
curricula, and assessment.

(K]VJH[LZVMZ[HUKHYKZZ\JOHZ;VNUVSPUPHUK:[HUSL`HYN\L[OH[Z[HUKHYKZZOV\SKYLÅLJ[H
ZVSPK\UKLYZ[HUKPUNVM[OLJVU[LU[KVTHPU[OL`KLZJYPILLNYLHKPUNVYSPZ[LUPUN[OL`ZOV\SKYLÅLJ[
a sound account of how students learn, they should be clearly described as well and should aim to
150 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

HSPNU[LHJOPUNHUK[LZ[PUN;OLMVSSV^PUNL_HTWSLYLSH[PUN[V[OLKL]LSVWTLU[VMYLHKPUNHIPSP[`VќLYZ
an idea of what standards may look like.

In reading, students will develop knowledge and understanding of:

• the relationship between texts and contexts;

• cultural reference in text;

• the relationship between purposes and structures of texts;

• language forms and features of texts.

:[HUKHYKZ HYL NLULYHSS` HJJVTWHUPLK I` TVYL ZWLJPÄJ ¸PUKPJH[VYZ¹ VY ILUJOTHYRZ [OH[ ¸KLZJYPIL
assessable, observable activities or behaviors that may be performed to show the standard is being
met” (Katz and Snow 2009, 67). These are often described in terms of competencies. The following
(adapted from Goh and Burns 2012, 180) is an example of a standard with related indicators in the
domain of oral language use:

:[HUKHYK! the learner can participate in casual conversation

0UKPJH[VYZ!

• Can use strategies to open and close conversations.

• Can initiate a topic in casual conversation.

• Can select vocabulary appropriate to the topic.

• Can give appropriate feedback responses.

• Can provide relevant evaluative comments through back channeling.

• Can take turns at appropriate points in the conversation.

• *HUHZRMVYJSHYPÄJH[PVUHUKYLWL[P[PVU

• Can use strategies for repairing misunderstanding.

• Can use appropriate intonation and stress patterns to express meaning intelligibly.

In the 4HZZHJO\ZL[[Z (K\S[ )HZPJ ,K\JH[PVU *\YYPJ\S\T -YHTL^VYR MVY ,UNSPZO MVY :WLHRLYZ VM
6[OLY3HUN\HNLZ(Massachusetts Department of Education 2005), standards for speaking skills are
accompanied by benchmarks that demonstrate expected progress over time in speaking:

Massachusetts (MA) Adult Basic Education Curriculum Framework for English for Speakers of Other
Languages and the National Reporting System

MA Speaking Standard 1: “Express themselves orally in English for a variety of purposes.”

Benchmarks
• S1.3a (NRS high beginning level): “Produce simple statements, providing more detail
without necessarily more complexity (e.g. a daily routine, a simple instruction, preferences,
and opinions).”

• S1.6a (NRS advanced level): “Express themselves on unfamiliar topics and/or in problematic
situations (e.g. giving information at the scene of an accident, talking to your child’s teacher).”
 6 Curriculum aims and outcomes • 151

MA Speaking Standard 2: “Acquire vocabulary and apply knowledge of English language

structure and mechanics to produce comprehensible speech in English.”
Benchmarks
• S2.3c (NRS high beginning level): “Use basic grammatical structures with less reliance on
learned phrases (e.g. some irregular past verb forms and future tenses, prepositional phrases,
some conjunctions and contractions).”

• S2.6c (NRS advanced level): “Use most verb tenses and forms, including present perfect and
past progressive tenses.” 

MA Speaking Standard 3: “Use a variety of strategies to acquire and convey meaning through
spoken English.”
Benchmarks
• S3.3c (NRS high beginning level): “Use conversation strategies to participate actively (e.g. turn-
taking, interrupting appropriately, attracting attention).”

• S3.6b (NRS advanced level) “Sequence and organize information for the listener (e.g. use of
more sophisticated transitional words and phrases such as, here’s another example; my point is;
in that case).”
(Massachusetts Department of Education 2005)

The use of standards in curriculum planning thus involves the following sequence of activities:
1. Identifying the domains of language use the learners need to acquire (e.g., reading, writing,
listening, speaking).
2. Describing standards and performance indicators for each domain.
3. Identifying the language skills and knowledge needed to achieve the standard.
4. Selecting teaching activities and materials.

Perhaps the most widespread example of backward design using standards in current use is the
*VTTVU,\YVWLHU-YHTL^VYRVM9LMLYLUJLMVY3HUN\HNLZ (CEFR), which is designed to provide a
“common basis for explicit description of objectives, content and methods of the study of modern
languages, within a wider purpose of elaboration of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines,
L_HTPUH[PVUZ[L_[IVVRZ»L[JHJYVZZ,\YVWL¹*V\UJPSVM,\YVWL0[KLZJYPILZZP_SL]LSZVM
achievement divided into three broad divisions, from lowest (A1) to highest (C2), that describe what a
learner should be able to do in reading, listening, speaking, and writing at each level.
Basic user – A1, A2
Independent user – B1, B2
7YVÄJPLU[\ZLY¶**
152 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

For example, the standards described for “conversation” in CEFR at levels B1 to C1 are described as
follows (Council of Europe 2001, 76):

Characteristics of conversation in the Common European Framework

C2 Can converse comfortably and appropriately, unhampered by any linguistic limitations in
conducting a full social and personal life.
C1 Can use language flexibly and effectively for social purposes, including emotional, allusive
and joking usage.
B2 Can engage in extended conversation on most general topics in a clearly participatory fash-
ion, even in a noisy environment.

Can sustain relationships with native speakers without unintentionally amusing or irritating
them or requiring them to behave other than they would with a native speaker.

Can convey degrees of emotion and highlight the personal significance of events and experiences.
B1 Can enter unprepared into conversation on familiar topics.

Can follow clearly articulated speech directed at him/her in everyday conversations, though
will sometimes have to ask for repetition of particular words and phrases.

Can maintain a conversation or discussion but may sometimes be difficult to follow when
trying to say exactly what he/she would like to.

Can express and respond to feelings such as surprise, happiness, sadness, interest and indif-
ference.

(YN\TLU[ZTHKLPUZ\WWVY[VM[OLWYVÄJPLUJ`ZJHSLZVM[OL*,-9LN2HU[HYJPVNS\HUK7HWHNLVYNPV\
2012) account for their popularity by highlighting how they comprehensively describe the learning
V\[JVTLZ [OH[ SLHYULYZ JHU HJOPL]L H[ KPќLYLU[ SL]LSZ VM WYVÄJPLUJ` HUK Z[H[L [OLZL V\[JVTLZ PU
terms of what the learner JHU rather than JHUUV[ do, which can be motivating for learners. However,
^P[O *,-9 UV ZWLJPÄJH[PVUZ HYL NP]LU MVY PUW\[ VY WYVJLZZ 0UKLLK P[ PZ [OL [LHJOLY»Z VY JV\YZL
KLZPNULY»Z YLZWVUZPIPSP[` [V ^VYR V\[ OV^ [OL V\[JVTLZ JHU IL HJOPL]LK HUK [V KL]LSVW [LHJOPUN
strategies and materials and content relevant to the context in which they are teaching. However, in
VYKLY[VOLSW[LHJOLYZHUKJV\YZLKLZPNULYZKV[OPZ[OL,UNSPZO7YVÄSLWYVQLJ[5VY[O"/HYYPZVU
and Barker 2015) is developing descriptions of the words, phrases, grammatical items, and functions
learners need to know and use at each level of the CEFR.
-\SJOLYWVPU[ZV\[[OH[HS[OV\NO[OLSL]LSZPKLU[PÄLKPUZ[HUKHYKZMYHTL^VYRZZ\JOHZ*,-9JHUUV[
ULJLZZHYPS` IL Q\Z[PÄLK LTWPYPJHSS` [OL` VM[LU OH]L WYHJ[PJHS ]HS\L PU [OH[ [OL` LUHISL SLHYULYZ [V
have a sense of progression from course to course or from year to year. Consequently, teachers and
TH[LYPHSZKL]LSVWLYZHYLMYLX\LU[S`YLX\PYLK[VTH[JO[OLPY[LHJOPUN[VZWLJPÄJSL]LSZVU[OL*,-9VY
V[OLYZJHSLZHUK[LZ[PUNPZZPTPSHYS`VM[LUSPURLK[V[OLZ[HUKHYKZ5\TLYV\ZZ[HUKHYKZKVJ\TLU[Z
and standards-based tests are available on the Internet. However, preparing statements of standards
can also be a valuable activity for teachers when they work together to develop standards for their
V^UJVU[L_[Z(Z-\SJOLYYLTHYRZ¸:[HUKHYKZL[[PUNPUHSVJHSJVU[L_[MVYJSLHYS`KLÄULK
purposes can be a focus of real professional development and curriculum renewal.”

6.4 Process outcomes

The discussion above has so far focused on the nature of learning outcomes from a backward-
design perspective, but outcomes objectives can also be considered from the process perspective
discussed in Chapter 1, an approach that makes use of what have been called “process objectives.”
 6 Curriculum aims and outcomes • 153

In general education, these are associated with the ideas of Bruner (1966) and Stenhouse (1975) and
HYLHSZVYLÅLJ[LKPU[OL^VYRVM[OL*HUHKPHUJ\YYPJ\S\TZWLJPHSPZ[(VRPZLL7PUHYHUK0Y^PU
Bruner argued that the curriculum should focus less on the outcomes of learning and more on the
knowledge and skills learners need to develop. These include the concepts and procedures that
children should acquire through the processes of inquiry and deliberation. And Aoki, criticizing the
dominant ends–means and competency-based approaches to curriculum, saw it as a technical and
reductionist view of language:

To understand a second language – or for that matter, any language – as an objectified tool of
communication, as a language code, or as a linguistic structure may be technically correct. But
in my view, such an approach commits an unwarranted reductionism by transforming human
beings into things. What seems urgent is the recovery of the fullness of language.
(Aoki 2005a, 238)

Stenhouse argued that the curriculum should focus on activities that engage learners in such
WYVJLZZLZ HZ PU]LZ[PNH[PVU KLJPZPVU THRPUN YLÅLJ[PVU KPZJ\ZZPVU PU[LYWYL[H[PVU THRPUN JOVPJLZ
HUKJVVWLYH[PVU;O\Z/HUSL`L[HS PKLU[PÄLK[OLHPTZVMHJV\YZL[P[SLK¸4HU!(*V\YZL
of Study” as being:

• To initiate and develop in youngsters a process of question posing

• To teach a research methodology where children can look for information

• To help youngsters develop the ability to use a variety of firsthand sources as evidence
from which to develop hypotheses and draw conclusions

• To conduct classroom discussions in which youngsters learn to listen to others as well as

to express their own view

• To legitimize the search, that is, to give sanction and support to open-ended discussions
where definitive answers to many questions are not found

• To encourage children to reflect on their own experiences

• To create a new role for the teacher, who becomes a resource rather than an authority

>P[O[OPZHWWYVHJOP[PZZ\NNLZ[LK[OH[KL[HPSLKZWLJPÄJH[PVUVMSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZPZUV[ULLKLK;OL
J\YYPJ\S\TZWLJPÄLZPUZ[LHK[OLJVU[LU[Z[\KLU[Z^PSSZ[\K`HUK[OLHJ[P]P[PLZHUKWYVJLZZLZ[OL`HYL
expected to engage in while studying the content.
>LYLMLYYLK[V[OPZLHYSPLYHZHULJVSVNPJHSHWWYVHJO. Tsui (2005, cited in Graves 2011, 168) contrasts
the ecological approaches with traditional product-based approaches by comparing the kinds of
questions a teacher might ask when considering these two approaches:

Product-based issues:

What linguistic forms do we want to teach?

How do we represent these items in the form of tasks or activities?

How do we get learners to use the target items to complete the tasks or activities, either
individually or in pairs/groups?

Are there any gaps between the target language structures/functions and those produced
by the students?
154 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

Process-based issues:

What opportunities are afforded for learners to participate in meaning making?

What kind of shared understanding needs to be established among the learners?

What kind of participation framework is being set up and what are the role configurations
for the group and for the individual learner over time?

What opportunities have been created by learners in the process of participation?

Both are legitimate and complementary questions. As Graves (2011, 169) observes: “The former type
VMX\LZ[PVUZHYLTVYLJVUJLYULK^P[OOV^ZWLJPÄJºPUW\[Z»ILJVTLVIZLY]HISLºV\[W\[»YH[OLY[OHU
with ways in which learners are themselves creators of meaning and collaborators in understanding
and extending it.”
As we noted in Chapter 1, a focus on process rather than product is also seen in Anderson
(2015), where it is recommended that teachers refer to “learning opportunities” in place of “learning
outcomes” in lesson plans to better capture a focus on potential learning processes rather than
[LHJOLY HPTZ >L[[L   ZPTPSHYS` KLZJYPILZ H WYVJLZZVYPLU[LK HWWYVHJO [V J\YYPJ\S\T HZ
one that sees it as “an organic progression involving the weaving of disparate but interconnected
threads.” Both product-oriented and process-oriented objectives are sometimes found in national
curricula. For example, a description of objectives for a national secondary school curriculum in an
EFL country includes the following statements that can be regarded as process objectives:

;OLJV\YZLZOV\SKKL]LSVWZ[\KLU[Z»H^HYLULZZVM[OLSLHYUPUNWYVJLZZHUK[OLPYYVSLHZSLHYULYZI`
developing the following knowledge and skills:

• ways of organizing learning and dividing learning tasks into smaller sub-tasks

• familiarity with how to use reference works designed to assist them in independent learning (e.g.,
dictionaries, reference grammars, study guides)

• awareness of their own learning styles, and strengths and weaknesses

• MHTPSPHYP[`^P[O]HYPV\Z[LJOUPX\LZVM]VJHI\SHY`SLHYUPUNHUKPKLU[PÄJH[PVUVM[LJOUPX\LZ[OH[HYL
particularly useful to themselves

• H
 ^HYLULZZVM[OLUH[\YLVMSLHYUPUNZ[YH[LNPLZHUK[OLKPќLYLUJLIL[^LLULќLJ[P]LHUKPULќLJ[P]L
strategies

• ability to monitor their own learning progress and ways of setting personal goals for language
improvement

/V^L]LY>PNNPUZHUK4J;PNOLWYVTPULU[HK]VJH[LZVMIHJR^HYKKLZPNUYLQLJ[[OLWYVJLZZ]PL^VM
learning outcomes, arguing that it fails to meet the criterion of good instructional design.

The error of activity-oriented design might be called “hands-on without being minds-on” –
engaging experiences that lead only accidentally, if at all, to insight or achievement … activity-
oriented curricula lack an explicit focus on important ideas and evidence of learning … [learners]
are led to think the learning is the activity instead of seeing that the learning comes from being
asked to consider the meaning of the activity … The shift, therefore, is away from starting with
such questions as “What book will we read?” or “What activities will we do?” or “What will we
discuss” to “What should [the learners] walk out the door able to understand [or do] regardless
of what activities or tests we use?” And “What is evidence of such ability?” and, therefore, “What
texts, activities, and methods will best enable such a result?”
(Wiggins and McTighe 2005, 16–17)
 6 Curriculum aims and outcomes • 155

Conclusions
0U [OPZ JOHW[LY ^L OH]L L_HTPULK ZL]LYHS KPќLYLU[ ^H`Z VM KLZJYPIPUN [OL SLHYUPUN V\[JVTLZ VM H
JV\YZL;OLZLKPќLYPUIV[O[OLKLNYLLHUK[OLUH[\YLVMZWLJPÄJH[PVU[OH[[OL`THRL\ZLVMLN
whether described in aims, objectives, learning outcomes, competencies) and in the extent to which
they focus on product or process dimensions of the curriculum. Decisions about the kind of learning
V\[JVTLZ[OH[^PSSIL\ZLKPUHJV\YZLYLÅLJ[[OLUH[\YLHUKJVU[L_[VM[OLJV\YZL0U[OLJHZLVMHU
PUZ[P[\[PVUHSJ\YYPJ\S\T^OLYLHU\TILYVMKPќLYLU[[LHJOLYZTH`IL[LHJOPUNVU[OLZHTLJV\YZL
KL[HPSLK ZWLJPÄJH[PVUZ VM V\[JVTLZ HYL \Z\HSS` YLX\PYLK [V LUZ\YL \UPMVYTP[` HJYVZZ [OL [LHJOPUN
program, to meet institutional requirements, to provide accountability to stakeholders, and to provide
H IHZPZ MVY JV\YZL KLZPNU TH[LYPHSZ KL]LSVWTLU[ HUK HZZLZZTLU[ >OLYL UV Z\JO YLX\PYLTLU[Z
are present (e.g., in a private institute with a constantly changing student population, which seeks to
ILJOHYHJ[LYPaLKI`P[ZÅL_PISLHUKJYLH[P]LHWWYVHJOLZ[V[LHJOPUNWYVNYHTNVHSZTH`ILZ[H[LK
very generally and more attention given to individual teacher choice and teaching approach, thereby
supporting a process-oriented approach to curriculum.
>P[OHIHJR^HYKKLZPNUHWWYVHJO[OLNVHSZVMHJV\YZL¶KLZJYPILKPU[LYTZVMHPTZVIQLJ[P]LZ
learning outcomes, or competencies – lay out a destination, but not the means to arrive at the
destination. It does not yet include a description of the language resources or items (e.g., grammar,
vocabulary, functions, text, skills) that need to be acquired in order to attain a particular outcome, the
sequence in which such items are best presented in a learning program, or the teaching methods that
will be made use of. Arriving at decisions of this kind is the focus of Chapters 7 and 8.

Discussion questions
1. Give examples of aim statements that are appropriate for the following kinds of courses:
• A course for English in primary school.
• A course in listening skills for intermediate-level learners.
2. Rewrite the following aim statements so that they describe changes in learners:
:[\KLU[Z^PSSZ[\K`,UNSPZONYHTTHY
:[\KLU[Z^PSSPTWYV]L[OLPYWYVU\UJPH[PVU
3. 7YLWHYLÄ]LZHTWSLVIQLJ[P]LZYLSH[LK[V[OPZHPT!
:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUOV^[V\ZLLќLJ[P]LVѝJLJVTT\UPJH[PVUZRPSSZPU,UNSPZO
4. /V^^V\SK`V\L_WSHPU[VHUV]PJL[LHJOLY[OLKPќLYLUJLIL[^LLUHPTZVIQLJ[P]LZHUKSLHYUPUN
V\[JVTLZ&
5. Prepare some learning outcomes based on the objectives given for the English for Travel and
Tourism course, on pages 145–146.
6. Prepare descriptions of competencies required to perform the following activities that are part of
the target competencies of a program for English for hotel employees:
• Handling guest check-in at the hotel reception desk.
• ;HRPUNN\LZ[Z»TLHSVYKLYZPUHYLZ[H\YHU[͒
• Dealing with guest inquiries at a tour desk.
7. +V`V\HNYLL^P[O>PNNPUZHUK4J;PNOL»ZJYP[PJPZTVMWYVJLZZVIQLJ[P]LZVUWHNL&
8. 9LHK*HZLZ[\K`I`4PJOHLS.YPѝUH[[OLLUKVM[OPZJOHW[LY>OH[^V\SKILZVTLZ\P[HISL
HPTZVIQLJ[P]LZHUKSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZMVY[OPZJV\YZL&
156 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

CASE STUDY 10 Developing a course on discussion skills

4PJOHLS.YPɉU
:KDWLVWKHFRQWH[WRIWKHFRXUVH"
0U[LYUH[PVUHS +PZJ\ZZPVU PZ H JV\YZL VќLYLK HZ WHY[ VM H NYHK\H[L ZJOVVS WYVNYHT PU 0U[LYUH[PVUHS
Studies at a South Korean university in Seoul. All courses in the program are conducted in English,
HUKZ[\KLU[ZJHUJOVVZL[VJVUJLU[YH[LVULP[OLY.SVIHS)\ZPULZZHUK-PUHUJLVY.SVIHS(ќHPYZHUK
Trade. There is a mix of nationalities in the program and around 50% of the students are South Korean.
:[\KLU[ZMYVTUVU,UNSPZOZWLHRPUNJV\U[YPLZPU[LYLZ[LKPUPTWYV]PUN[OLPY,UNSPZOÅ\LUJ`JHULUYVSS
PU [OL JV\YZL HZ VUL VM [OLPY [^V YLX\PYLK SHUN\HNL LSLJ[P]LZ >OPSL [OL 0U[LYUH[PVUHS +PZJ\ZZPVU
course encourages students to use knowledge gained in their other graduate school courses and
aims to make handling discussions in these other classes easier, there are no direct or explicit links to
V[OLYJV\YZLZPU[OL0U[LYUH[PVUHS:[\KPLZWYVNYHT;OL0U[LYUH[PVUHS+PZJ\ZZPVUJV\YZLPZHÅ\LUJ`
focused course organized around topics of interest and importance to the students. The class meets
once a week for three hours throughout a 16-week semester, and the class sizes are usually quite
small, ranging from three to eight students. There are usually two–three L1s in the class with Mandarin
and Korean being the most common. Students would typically be described as being somewhere
between intermediate and advanced.

:KDWDUHWKHJRDOVRIWKHFRXUVH"
The main goals of the course are to help students feel and be comfortable discussing big and small
[VWPJZPU[OL^VYSK;OLJV\YZLMVJ\ZLZVUÅ\LUJ`PU[LYTZVM[OPUNZSPRLWHJLHUKWH\ZPUNI\[HSZV
in the general sense of students conveying their ideas. There is also a focus on accurate usage and
“getting things right.” Additionally, there is an emphasis on conversation strategies and how to handle
TV]LZSPRLPU[LYY\W[PUNRLLWPUN[OLÅVVYI\`PUN[OPURPUN[PTL^OPSL[HSRPUNHUK[HRPUN[\YUZ-PUHSS`
[OL[LYTZHUKL_WYLZZPVUZYLSH[LK[V[OLZWLJPÄJ[VWPJZVMKPZJ\ZZPVUHYLHSZVHMVJ\Z

:KDWSODQQLQJZDVLQYROYHGLQGHYHORSLQJWKHFRXUVH"
Since the course is organized around topics, a key question in planning is and was which topics to
include. A related question was how many topics to choose beforehand (and thus how many to have
the class choose as a group) and how then to sequence the topics.
Another key consideration in the planning of the course was how to introduce and include the
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a work in progress. I usually have a menu of discussion strategies at the start of the course and then
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made to highlight and practice a discussion strategy each week as well.
The organization of the topics from week to week tends to go from smaller to bigger and from more
local to more global. After needs assessments and getting to know classmates, the topics at the
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for foreign visitors to Korea, and aspects of Korean culture that might be surprising or interesting to
 6 Curriculum aims and outcomes • 157

non-Koreans. The focus gets more global and international and perhaps more serious with issues like
climate change, terrorism, and gender equality toward the end of the course.
I usually choose some topics before the course begins and set them in advance. This decision
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topics that students might need to talk about in the near future but have not had much experience
discussing and would likely choose on their own if given the choice.
The weekly schedule is formed prior to the course with around 30% of the weekly topics listed as
“TBD” (to be decided). The negotiations on what topics should be selected as the main discussion
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end up choosing a few Korea-related topics as well as a few more international ones as a group. The
discussions on which topics to choose can provide opportunities to practice discussion strategies.
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are responsible for organizing and hosting the discussions. Students need not take the role of English
teacher or expert lecturing on a topic but instead simply host a discussion on a topic of interest.

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form” Task-Based Teaching and Learning and strong form Communicative Language Teaching. The
teaching itself is generally materials-light. Students are asked to rank, rate, and construct arguments
and to ask and answer questions around the weekly topics. Students also participate in mini-debates
and role plays around the topic of the week.
In terms of a framework, I frequently employ something of a Task-Teach-Test framework where
students are asked to discuss certain aspects of the weekly topic before corrections and input on
language are made, and then students are asked to discuss things with a new partner and a slightly
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be speaking for the vast majority of the time spent in class. After the speaking-intensive blocks, we
have a language-focused block where errors, mistakes, questions, and confusions as well as useful
language are highlighted and examined.

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and relevant links are shared. This page is also used for notes on English corrections and usage and
can act as a reference for students who might have missed class on a particular day. It is also a place
where articles or videos related to the discussions can be posted. Students have the ability to post
links, questions, responses, and anything else.
The classroom is equipped with a computer and projector, and the students or the teacher
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and students almost always have smartphones, tablets, notebook computers, or some combination
of these. The most frequent uses of these tools is to look up a word (and maybe collocations) in
English, to share a picture of something related to the conversation at hand, or to fact check what
has been said in class.
158 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

There is no coursebook for the class. The main materials (aside from student-created material) tend
to be news articles or opinion papers about the topics of discussion. Sometimes there are readings
about the topic shared before the class. This is more common for topics that students express a lack
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for all students. These articles are all authentic in the sense that they were not created for students
of English. Most of the reading is simply for background information so that students can feel more
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research in both English and L1 in preparation for the weekly topics.

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English-medium graduate school and major in International Studies, not all students are interested in
delving into major and complicated issues each week in their English language classes as well. This
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Another interesting challenge has been the role of accuracy as well as the consideration of native-
speaker norms for the course. Students often express a desire to sound just like a “native speaker,”
though the broader educational context is very much an ELF one. This means that decisions need to
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expressions to introduce in class. This also means that “native-speaker norms” relating to features
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introduced and emphasized as the best or proper way to organize and participate in discussions.
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and English-speaking lives. These students speak, read, listen to, and write English a great deal
in their lives as graduate students in the International Studies program. However, the students do
not have much opportunity to receive feedback on how well they communicate their ideas (beyond
perhaps seeing the confused face of their interlocutors). This means that a balance must be struck
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Continual and formative assessment plays a large role in the course, especially in terms of the day-
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for the discussion strategies, so students are continually assessed on these and attempts are made
to tailor the course to these needs.
Because of the very small class sizes, it is easy to hear students speaking for long periods of time
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course is as follows: 20% for Class Participation; 25% Midterm Speaking Exams; 20% on Student-led
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partner about a previously discussed topic selected at random for 10 minutes and to show they can
share their thoughts and opinions on the topic while involving their partner in the discussion. The
partners are switched after each 10-minute block.
 6 Curriculum aims and outcomes • 159

I have experimented with various ways of measuring and scoring the classroom participation
aspect, including having students give themselves a weekly score, but at the moment it is a mix of
attendance and a subjective view of how active students were in class. Because of the small classes
and generally motivated students, most students get full marks in this category and those who are in
danger of not doing so are warned in advance.
The weekly quizzes are a chance to see what students think or have learned about the topic at
hand. The quizzes take the form of casual written responses, typically given at the end of class (but
sometimes at the start or middle), where students are often asked to explain something related to
a topic or to give their opinion on the topic. The weekly quizzes give me, as a teacher, a chance
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include, “A letter to a non-Korean friend about _____” “My thoughts on _____,” “Three things I learned
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quiz can also act as a one-way channel of communication from the students to the teacher where
students give feedback on the course or ask English or course-related questions.
Finally, the student-led discussions are when students prepare the material and host a discussion on
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useful for their classmates and to be in charge of hosting a discussion for around 45 minutes. This is
scored on a rubric collaboratively decided on by students and the teacher.

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