4 NEEDS ANALYSIS

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
The following aspects of needs analysis will be considered in this chapter:

• The nature of needs • The target population

• 3LHYULYZ^P[OV\[ZWLJPÄJULLKZ • Procedures for large-scale needs analysis
• Larger-scale needs analysis • Making use of the information obtained
• The goals of needs analysis • (WWS`PUN[OLÄUKPUNZVMULLKHUHS`ZPZ
• The users of needs analysis

Case study 6 Planning a course in technical communication Lindsay Miller

Case study 7 Developing a foundation course for college students Rob Haines

Introduction
It would seem obvious that in planning a language course the goal is to help prepare learners to use
English beyond the classroom. For most, but not all, learners, therefore, language learning is not a goal
in itself but a means to an end. The goal is generally to develop skills in English that will facilitate social
survival, work, travel, education, and so on. Collecting information on the kinds of activities and purposes
the learner will use English for is therefore an essential phase in curriculum development. Determining the
nature of these activities and their linguistic features and demands is known as needs analysis. nature of activities
As we saw in Chapter 3, needs analysis was introduced into language teaching through the ESP movement
in the 1960s, drawing on procedures that had been developed in other areas of curriculum planning. From
the 1960s, the demand for specialized language programs grew, and applied linguists increasingly began
to employ needs analysis procedures in language teaching. By the 1980s, in many parts of the world, a
“needs-based philosophy” emerged in language teaching, particularly in relation to ESP and vocationally
oriented program design (Munby 1978; Brindley 1984). Needs analysis as a practical classroom procedure
also emerged as part of the philosophy of learner-centeredness and learner autonomy in language
teaching (Nunan 1988). It is a core dimension of backward design in curriculum development.

NEEDS
goals syllabus instruction assessment
ANALYSIS

5LLKZHUHS`ZPZJHUILZTHSSPUZJHSLZ\JOHZ^OLUH[LHJOLYZLLRZ[VÄUKV\[HZT\JOHZWVZZPISL
about the needs of learners in his or her class. It can also have a much larger scope, such as when
HUPUZ[P[\[LVYSHUN\HNL[YHPUPUNVYNHUPaH[PVUPZJVU[YHJ[LK[VKL]LSVWHJV\YZLMVYHZWLJPÄJNYV\W
VM SLHYULYZ LN IHURPUN LTWSV`LLZ ÅPNO[ H[[LUKHU[Z PU[LYUH[PVUHS Z[\KLU[Z PU H <: VY )YP[PZO
university) and uses a variety of needs analysis procedures to determine what might be relevant goals
and content for such a course (Gonzalez-Lloret 2014).

+V [OL SLHYULYZ `V\ [LHJO VY H NYV\W [OH[ `V\ HYL MHTPSPHY ^P[O OH]L ZWLJPÄJ ULLKZ MVY
English? How do you assess their needs?

79
80 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

4.1 The nature of needs

The term needs is not as straightforward as it might appear, and hence the term is sometimes used
to refer to wants, desires, demands, expectations, motivations, lacks, constraints, and requirements
)YPUKSL` ;OLKLÄUP[PVUVMULLKZKLWLUKZVU^OVZLWVPU[VM]PL^^LHYLHKKYLZZPUN¶[OL
learner, the teacher, or a school director. Needs from the point of view of the learner can refer to
learners’ preferences for certain kinds of classroom activities as well as what they feel they should
focus on in class (i.e., subjective needs). A teacher or administrator, however, may consider needs
PU[LYTZVMNHWZVYKLÄJPLUJPLZPU[OLSLHYULY»ZWLYMVYTHUJL[OH[PZ[OLKPќLYLUJLIL[^LLU^OH[H
learner can presently do in a language and what he or she should be able to do. This latter view of
ULLKZ Z\NNLZ[Z [OH[ ULLKZ OH]L VIQLJ[P]L YLHSP[` HUK HYL ZPTWS` [OLYL ^HP[PUN [V IL PKLU[PÄLK HUK
HUHS`aLKVIQLJ[P]LULLKZ7VYJOLY PU)YPUKSL`  VќLYZHKPќLYLU[WLYZWLJ[P]L!¸5LLK
is not a thing that exists and might be encountered ready-made on the street. It is a thing that is
constructed, the center of conceptual networks and the product of a number of epistemological
JOVPJLZ^OPJOHYLUV[PUUVJLU[[OLTZLS]LZVMJV\YZL¹>OH[PZPKLU[PÄLKHZHULLKPZKLWLUKLU[VU
Q\KNTLU[HUKYLÅLJ[Z[OLPU[LYLZ[ZHUK]HS\LZVM[OVZLTHRPUNZ\JOHQ\KNTLU[;LHJOLYZSLHYULYZ
employers, parents, and other stakeholders TH`[O\ZHSSOH]LKPќLYLU[]PL^ZHZ[V^OH[ULLKZHYL
HUKPKLU[PM`PUN[OLWLYJLW[PVUZHUKILSPLMZVMKPќLYLU[Z[HRLOVSKLYZHSZVYLMLYYLK[VHZZ[HRLOVSKLY
analysis) is an important dimension of needs analysis (see section 4.4).

>OH[ HYL ZVTL ^H`Z PU ^OPJO SLHYULYZ HUK [OLPY [LHJOLY TH` OH]L KPќLYLU[ ]PL^Z VM [OL
learners’ needs?

For example, in considering the needs of immigrants, representatives of the majority population may
see the immigrants’ needs as achieving cultural and linguistic assimilation as quickly as possible
and hence may want a needs analysis to identify the language skills immigrants require in order to
survive, and ultimately, assimilate into the dominant culture. The immigrants themselves, however,
may see their goals as concerned with communication for survival and independence, particularly
economic survival, but may have no wish to assimilate into the dominant culture (Burnett 1998). Their
need relates to housing, health care, access to schooling for their children, access to community
agencies and services, and ways of addressing exploitation and discrimination in the workplace.
How can the curriculum give learners the linguistic and other resources they need to understand and
access resources they have the right to make use of in the community and to articulate and defend
their own rights and interests? Planning an ESL curriculum in this case involves not only identifying
students’ language needs, but also seeking “to enable them to critically examine [the existing order]
and become active in shaping their own roles in it” (Auerbach 1995, 15). Auerbach has pointed out
that English language teaching has often been viewed as a “neutral transfer of skills, knowledge, or
competencies” and that such an approach is based on the needs of social institutions, rather than
language learners, and ignores questions of power:

Pedagogical choices about curriculum development, content, materials, classroom processes,

and language use, although appearing to be informed by apolitical professional considera-
tions, are in fact inherently ideological in nature, with significant implications for learners’
socioeconomic roles.
(Auerbach 1995, 9)

Apart from language needs, do your learners (or a group of learners you are familiar with) have
other kinds of needs that a language program could address?
 4 Needs analysis • 81

4.2 Course design for learners who may have no specific needs
5LLKZHUHS`ZPZPZVM[LUHSHYNLZJHSLYLZLHYJOHJ[P]P[`[OH[ZLLRZ[VÄUKPUMVYTH[PVUVU[OLSHUN\HNL
ULLKZVMSLHYULYZ^OVHYLZ[\K`PUN,UNSPZOMVYZWLJPÄJVJJ\WH[PVUHSLK\JH[PVUHSVYZVJPHSW\YWVZLZ
3VUN  /V^L]LY THU` SLHYULYZ TH` OH]L UV JSLHYS` KLÄULK W\YWVZL MVY Z[\K`PUN ,UNSPZO ¶
indeed, it may simply be a requirement of the school system, as it is for many young people in countries
where English is a required subject at primary and secondary school. As Cameron (2001, 30) observes:

Many children do not use the foreign language much outside the classroom, except perhaps
on holiday, with tourists to their country, and when using computers. Beyond these limited
domains, their outside lives do not readily provide a needs-related syllabus for foreign lan-
guage learning. Furthermore, their adult lives and possible needs for the language are still
too far away to give content to lessons … The best we can do is aim for dynamic congruence:
choosing activities and content that are appropriate for the children’s age and sociocultural
experience, and language that will grow with the children …

Hence, for many young learners, learning English for use in the classroom becomes the primary
goal, and the activities and experiences provided in the classroom serve as both means and ends of
learning. With young learners there is often no formal language-based syllabus at this stage. Songs,
games, and other motivational activities provide the source for learning and for language use (Pinter
2002). Vale and Feunteun (1998, 33) suggest that the goals of teaching English to young learners are:

• to build confidence

• to provide the motivation to learn English

• to encourage ownership of language

• to encourage children to communicate with whatever language they have at their disposal
(mime, gesture, key word, drawings, etc.) argument, muntimedology,

• to encourage children to treat English as a communication tool, not as an end product

• to show children that English is fun

• to establish a trusting relationship with children and encourage them to do the same with
their classmates

• to give children an experience of a wide range of English language in a non-threatening

environment.

Is English taught at primary or grade school in your country? If so, what is the purpose of
including English in the curriculum?

For older learners such as teenagers, the classroom may still be a primary source of contact with
English; however, increasingly, out-of-class experiences through travel, the media, and the Internet
add another source of potential learning opportunities and would therefore fall within the scope of
needs analysis. Legutke (2012, 113), commenting on teenagers as language learners, observes:

Although the classroom has never been the only space for encounters with English, no past gener-
ation has had such wide out-of-school exposure to English. Three main sources have been identified:
media, personal networks (family and friends), and intercultural contacts through travelling.

<USPRLHK\S[Z^OVVM[LUZ[\K`,UNSPZOI`JOVPJLHUK^OVTH`OH]L]LY`ZWLJPÄJULLKZMVYSLHYUPUN
English, teenage learners may have had no choice in the fact that they are studying English. The
82 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

ILULÄ[ZVMRUV^PUN,UNSPZOPU[OLM\[\YLTH`UV[ILHWWHYLU[[V[OLTH[[OPZWVPU[PU[OLPYSP]LZ;OL`
may not see the purpose of some learning activities, because unlike older learners, they do not look
ahead to consider what the skills they are practicing will lead to. Teenage learners tend to evaluate
activities according to how intrinsically interesting or motivating they are, rather than in terms of how
well these activities prepare them for something external to the classroom.
*V\YZLZMVY`V\UNSLHYULYZHUK[LLUHNLYZ[OLYLMVYLYLX\PYLHKPќLYLU[HWWYVHJO[VULLKZHUHS`ZPZ
In these cases teachers need to know as much as they can about their learners, including what their
J\YYLU[WYVÄJPLUJ`SL]LSPZPU,UNSPZO^OH[[OLPYWYL]PV\ZSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUNL_WLYPLUJLZOH]LILLU
how they like to learn, the kinds of topics and activities they prefer, how they see their role and that of
their teacher in the classroom, and the kinds of problems they experience learning English. Gathering
information of this kind can also be considered as a form of needs analysis. For example, a needs
analysis project for teachers in Spain, designed for a group of teenagers aged 13 to 16, sought
information on three issues:
• Learning needs (learning styles, motivations to learn, thinking styles, preferences and types of
intelligences they use when learning).
• Language needs (skills they wanted to improve such as grammar, reading, speaking, listening,
writing, vocabulary, pronunciation).
• Social needs (background features, gender, culture, personality and interests).

0UMVYTH[PVU^HZVI[HPULKMYVTZ\Y]L`ZVIZLY]H[PVUHUKÄLSKUV[LZZ[\KLU[Z»WLYZVUHSQV\YUHSHUK
an attitude scale. (See Joomag 2014.)
0U JV\YZLZ MVY `V\UN SLHYULYZ HUK [LLUHNLYZ ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ TH` OH]L H U\TILY VM KPќLYLU[
purposes. For example:
• ;VKL[LYTPUL[OLSLHYULYZ»J\YYLU[SL]LSVMWYVÄJPLUJ`PU,UNSPZO
• ;VÄUKV\[^OH[HZWLJ[ZVM,UNSPZOSLHYUPUN[OL`LUQV`TVZ[HUKSLHZ[Z\JOHZYLHKPUN
listening, video viewing.
• ;VÄUKV\[HIV\[[OLPYWYL]PV\ZL_WLYPLUJLZ^P[OSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUN
• To determine their preferences for classroom learning activities.
• ;VÄUKV\[HIV\[[OLPYPU[LYLZ[ZHUK[OLRPUKZVM[VWPJZHUKJVU[LU[[OL`^V\SKSPRL[VMVJ\ZVU
• ;VÄUKV\[[OLPYWYLMLYLUJLZMVYSLHYUPUNHYYHUNLTLU[ZZ\JOHZ^OVSLJSHZZ[LHJOPUNNYV\W
work, or individual work.
• ;VÄUKV\[[OLPY]PL^ZHUKILSPLMZHIV\[Z\JOPZZ\LZHZ[OLPTWVY[HUJLVMNYHTTHY]VJHI\SHY`
LYYVYJVYYLJ[PVUÅ\LUJ`HJ[P]P[PLZNYV\W^VYR

In this context needs analysis refers to relatively informal procedures that teachers can use to identify
the beliefs, predispositions, learning preferences, and so on that learners bring to the classroom.
-VY L_HTWSL WYVÄJPLUJ` HUK KPHNUVZ[PJ [LZ[Z JHU IL \ZLK [V HZZLZZ SLHYULYZ» SHUN\HNL SL]LS
8\LZ[PVUUHPYLZHZ^LSSHZJVU]LYZH[PVUZ^P[O[OLSLHYULYZ[OLTZLS]LZJHUIL\ZLK[VÄUKHUZ^LYZ[V
many of the questions above (see Appendix 1).

4.3 Larger-scale needs analysis

Larger-scale needs analysis is often necessary in developing programs with wide application, such
HZ PU WSHUUPUN UH[PVUHS VY PUZ[P[\[PVUHS J\YYPJ\SH MVY SLHYULYZ ^P[O ZWLJPÄJ ULLKZ 5LLKZ HUHS`ZPZ HZ
a distinct and necessary phase in planning educational programs emerged in the 1960s as part of
 4 Needs analysis • 83

the systems approach to curriculum development and was a feature of the prevalent philosophy of
LK\JH[PVUHSHJJV\U[HIPSP[`:[\ўLILHTL[HS 0MWYV]PKLYZVM[YHPUPUNWYVNYHTZ^HU[LKW\ISPJVY
V[OLYZV\YJLZVMM\UKPUNPUVYKLY[VWYV]PKLKPќLYLU[RPUKZVM[YHPUPUNWYVNYHTZ[OL`^LYLYLX\PYLK[V
demonstrate that a proposed program was a response to a genuine need (Pratt 1980). Subsequently,
as Berwick (1989, 51) suggests, needs analysis developed into something of an industry.

The need for convincing precision in educational needs assessment was also reinforced during
this period by the “behavioral objectives” movement in educational planning, particularly in
North America, which insisted on specifying in measurable form all goals of importance with-
in an educational system. The emphasis on precision and accountability clearly influenced the
appearance of needs assessment as a form of educational technology and its diversification
into a collection of educational research methodologies.

In language program design, procedures for conducting needs analysis have been developed
particularly for use in planning ESP courses (see Chapter 3), EAP courses, and vocational courses,
but are also essential in developing client-based courses (e.g., business English courses) in the
private sector (Huhta et al. 2013).

4.4 The goals of needs analysis

Needs analysis in language teaching is generally thought of as the starting point in many cases of
JV\YZLKLZPNU¶WHY[PJ\SHYS`^P[OPUHIHJR^HYKKLZPNUHWWYVHJO¶HUKHZZ\JOTH`OH]LHU\TILY
of related purposes, such as the following:
• To understand the context in which a learner uses or will use English.
• ;VÄUKV\[^OH[SHUN\HNLZRPSSZHSLHYULYULLKZPUVYKLY[VWLYMVYTHWHY[PJ\SHYYVSLZ\JOHZ
sales manager, tour guide, or university student.
• ;VÄUKV\[[OLTVZ[MYLX\LU[HUKTVZ[KLTHUKPUNZP[\H[PVUZMVY^OPJO[OLSLHYULYULLKZ,UNSPZO
• ;VÄUKV\[[OLRPUKZVM[HZRZHUKHJ[P]P[PLZ[OLSLHYULYZULLK[V\ZL,UNSPZOMVYV\[ZPKLVM[OL
classroom.
• To identify a gap between what students are able to do and what they need to be able to do,
sometimes called the “training gap.” their expectation
• To determine the learners’ preferred teaching and learning style. vieew of student and thie principles
• ;VSLHYUHIV\[KPќLYLU[Z[HRLOVSKLYZ»]PL^ZVM^OH[[OLSLHYULYZULLK
• ;VOLSWH[LHJOLYWSHUSLZZVUZ[OH[YLÅLJ[SLHYULYZ»ULLKZKPѝJ\S[PLZHUKWYLMLYYLKSLHYUPUNZ[`SLZ when you
• To help determine if an existing course adequately addresses the needs of potential students. know then
have actvities
• To determine which students from a group are most in need of training in particular language skills. and apply for
• To collect information about a particular problem learners are experiencing. difficulits or problems them

;OL ÄYZ[ Z[LW PU JVUK\J[PUN H ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ PZ [OLYLMVYL [V KLJPKL L_HJ[S` ^OH[ P[Z W\YWVZL VY
purposes are. As Huhta et al. (2013, 10) comment:

first it is essential to establish whose needs we are interested in. This also involves considera-
tion of not just one perspective or one context but multiple perspectives and multiple con-
texts. Needs may be investigated from the perspective of teachers, that of the learners or that
of the employers who are funding the language course. Then within the learner group itself,
perspectives on what can be learned, what should be learned and why will differ from learner
to learner.
84 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

If you were to carry out a needs analysis of your learners (or a group of learners you are familiar
with), what would the purposes be for the needs analysis?

For example, when a needs analysis of restaurant employees is conducted, the purposes might be:
• [VKL[LYTPULJ\YYLU[SL]LSZVMSHUN\HNLWYVÄJPLUJ`VMLTWSV`LLZ"
• to determine how many employees are in need of the language training;
• [VPKLU[PM`[OLYLZ[H\YHU[V^ULY»ZHUKTHUHNLTLU[Z[Hќ»ZWLYJLW[PVUVMSHUN\HNLWYVISLTZ
employees have on the job;
• [VPKLU[PM`LTWSV`LLZ»WLYJLW[PVUZVMSHUN\HNLKPѝJ\S[PLZ[OL`MHJLVU[OLQVI"
• to ascertain the types of transactions employees typically perform in English;
• to determine the language characteristics of those transactions;
• to assess the extent to which employees’ needs are met by currently available programs and
textbooks.

Those who have an interest in the outcomes of the needs analysis are known as stakeholders.
*VUULSS` HUK *SHUKPUPU    KLÄUL H Z[HRLOVSKLY HZ ¸H WLYZVU VY NYV\W VM WLYZVUZ ^P[O
H YPNO[ [V JVTTLU[ VU HUK OH]L PUW\[ PU[V [OL J\YYPJ\S\T WYVJLZZ VќLYLK PU ZJOVVSZ¹ (Z UV[LK
HIV]L[LHJOLYZSLHYULYZWHYLU[ZLTWSV`LYZHUKVѝJPHSZPUHTPUPZ[Y`VMLK\JH[PVUHYLHSSL_HTWSLZ
VM Z[HRLOVSKLYZ PU H J\YYPJ\S\T HUK ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ ZLLRZ [V VI[HPU PUMVYTH[PVU MYVT [OL KPќLYLU[
stakeholders involved. In many cases, learners’ language needs may be relatively easy to determine,
WHY[PJ\SHYS`PMSLHYULYZULLK[VSLHYUHSHUN\HNLMVY]LY`ZWLJPÄJW\YWVZLZMVYL_HTWSLLTWSV`TLU[
PUÄLSKZZ\JOHZ[V\YPZTU\YZPUNVY[OLOV[LSPUK\Z[Y`0U[OPZJHZL[OL[HZRZLTWSV`LLZ[`WPJHSS`JHYY`
out in English can be observed and the language needs of those tasks determined. The information
obtained can then serve as a basis for planning a training program.
In other cases, learners’ needs may not be so immediate, as we noted above with young learners,
and similarly for students learning English as a secondary school subject in an EFL context. Here
English may be a compulsory subject that is considered an important part of a child’s general
education. However, even though the students may not have any immediate perceptions of needs,
J\YYPJ\S\T WSHUULYZ ^PSS NLULYHSS` OH]L JVUZ\S[LK LTWSV`LYZ WHYLU[Z [LHJOLYZ HUK V[OLYZ [V ÄUK
out what knowledge of English they expect high school graduates to achieve. In many countries, the
introduction of English or another foreign language in elementary or secondary school is based on
what curriculum planners consider it best for students to study at school in the same way that math,
history, and physical education are included in the school curriculum. Learners are not consulted as
to whether they perceive a “need” for such knowledge. Their needs have been decided for them by
those concerned with their long-term welfare. Needs analysis thus includes the study of perceived
and present needs as well as potential and unrecognized needs.

In considering the needs of secondary school language learners, who would the primary
stakeholders be?

Needs analysis may take place prior to, during, or after a language program. Much of the literature
on needs analysis is based on the assumption that it is part of the planning that takes place during
the development of a course. It assumes that time and resources are available to plan, collect, and
analyze relevant information for a planned program of instruction. This a priori approach to needs
 4 Needs analysis • 85

analysis requires long-term planning and assumes adequate time and resources to devote to needs
analysis, such as is proposed in Long (2005, 2015). However, as Hall (2013, 2) points out, this is
not always possible: “it is unfortunately the case that teachers often operate within very restrictive
time and funding constraints, and it is unrealistic for most people called upon to design and deliver a
ZWLJPÄJW\YWVZLJV\YZL[VPUP[PH[LHSLUN[O`HUKPUKLW[OPU]LZ[PNH[PVU¹
At other times, it may not have been possible to collect information prior to a course, and the bulk
of the information that constitutes the needs analysis may be collected during the course or after the
JV\YZLPZÄUPZOLK;OLPUMVYTH[PVUJVSSLJ[LKJHUIL\ZLK[VÄUL[\UL[OLJV\YZLK\YPUNKLSP]LY`VY
as a basis for evaluating and revising the program.

4.5 The users of needs analysis who use

( ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ TH` IL JVUK\J[LK MVY H ]HYPL[` VM KPќLYLU[ \ZLYZ -VY L_HTWSL PU JVUK\J[PUN H
needs analysis to help revise the secondary school English curriculum in a country, the end users
could include:
• J\YYPJ\S\TVѝJLYZPU[OLTPUPZ[Y`VMLK\JH[PVU^OVTH`^PZO[V\ZL[OLPUMVYTH[PVU[VL]HS\H[L
the adequacy of existing syllabuses, curricula, and materials;
• teachers who will teach from the new curriculum;
• learners, who will be taught from the curriculum;
• writers, who are preparing new textbooks;
• testing personnel, who are involved in developing end-of-school assessments;
• Z[HќVM[LY[PHY`PUZ[P[\[PVUZ^OVHYLPU[LYLZ[LKPURUV^PUN^OH[[OLL_WLJ[LKSL]LSVMZ[\KLU[Z
exiting the schools will be and what problems they face.

With small-scale needs analysis, such as that carried out by a single teacher on his or her class, the
audience might consist of the teacher, other teachers, and the program coordinator. In cases of large-
scale needs analysis, there will be multiple audiences for the results of a needs analysis. Determining
[OLSPRLS`H\KPLUJLZPZHUPTWVY[HU[ÄYZ[Z[LWPUWSHUUPUNHULLKZHUHS`ZPZPUVYKLY[VLUZ\YL[OH[[OL
information they need is obtained and that the needs analysis will have the impact it is designed to
OH]L:[\ўLILHTL[HS JVTTLU[!¸0[PZPTWVY[HU[[VYLTLTILY[OH[UV[HSSRL`H\KPLUJLZ
HYLSPRLS`[VILPKLU[PÄLKH[[OLZ[HY[VMHZ[\K`(SZVP[PZLU[PYLS`WVZZPISL[OH[[OLYLSH[P]LPTWVY[HUJL
of various audiences will change during the study.”
0U HU` ZP[\H[PVU ^OLYL ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ PZ ILPUN \UKLY[HRLU [OLYL HYL [O\Z KPќLYLU[ Z[HRLOVSKLYZ
that is, those who have a particular interest or involvement in the issues or programs that are being
L_HTPULK HUK P[ PZ PTWVY[HU[ [V [Y` [V NL[ H ZLUZL VM ^OH[ [OLPY KPќLYLU[ HNLUKHZ HYL +PќLYLU[
Z[HRLOVSKLYZ^PSS^HU[KPќLYLU[[OPUNZMYVT[OLJ\YYPJ\S\T

4.6 The target population

The target population in a needs analysis refers to the people about whom information will be
collected. Typically in language programs, these will be language learners or potential language
learners, but others are also often involved depending on whether they can provide information that is
useful in meeting the purposes of the needs analysis. For example, in conducting a needs analysis to
determine the focus of an English program in public secondary schools, the target population might
PUJS\KL WVSPJ`THRLYZ TPUPZ[Y` VM LK\JH[PVU VѝJPHSZ [LHJOLYZ Z[\KLU[Z HJHKLTPJZ LTWSV`LYZ
]VJH[PVUHS [YHPUPUN ZWLJPHSPZ[Z WHYLU[Z PUÅ\LU[PHS PUKP]PK\HSZ HUK WYLZZ\YL NYV\WZ HJHKLTPJ
86 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

specialists, and community agencies. Within each target group, subcategories of respondents might
ILULLKLK[VWYV]PKLKPќLYLU[WLYZWLJ[P]LZVUULLKZ

In assessing the needs of international students studying in an English-medium university,

what would the target population consist of?

In determining the target population, an important issue is that of sampling. In some cases, the
population is small enough for every learner to be included in the sample. In other cases this approach
is not feasible, and so decisions must be made about the size of the sample to be included in a needs
analysis. Sampling involves asking a portion of the potential target population rather than the whole
of it and therefore seeks to create a sample that is representative of the total target population. A
U\TILY VM MHJ[VYZ PUÅ\LUJL [OL HWWYVHJO [V ZHTWSPUN Z\JO HZ [OL OVTVNLULP[` VM [OL WVW\SH[PVU
in terms of the kinds of skills, attitudes, or knowledge being sought or the need to study subgroups
^P[OPU[OLZHTWSL¶MVYL_HTWSLIHZLKVUZL_SHUN\HNLNYV\WVYV[OLYMHJ[VYZ>OLYL[OL[HYNL[
population is large, specialized advice is often needed to determine what approach to sampling best
suits the purpose of the study and the sources of information available.
For example, Lambert (2010) describes an approach that was used as part of the planning of an
English program at a Japanese university. To help provide a focus for the program, information was
obtained on graduates’ future language needs. Five sources of information were used:
1. ,_[HU[QVIWSHJLTLU[YLJVYKZPU[OL6ѝJLVM:[\KLU[(ќHPYZ
2. Interviews with two experienced informants.
3. (UVWLUP[LTKPYLJ[THPSZ\Y]L`VMNYHK\H[LZV]LY[OLÄ]L`LHYWLYPVKWYLJLKPUN[OLZ[\K`
4. (MVSSV^\WLTHPSZ\Y]L`VMHZ\INYV\WVMYLZWVUKLU[Z[V[OLÄYZ[Z\Y]L`
5. A closed-item direct-mail survey of graduates over the 25-year period preceding the study.

;OLZ[\K`YL]LHSLK[OH[,UNSPZOTHQVYZH[[OL\UP]LYZP[`ULLKLK[VILHISL[VJVTWSL[LH[SLHZ[Ä]L
types of tasks for positions in business and education (locating information, translating Japanese to
English, summarizing information, editing English documents, interpreting Japanese-English).

4.7 Procedures for conducting large-scale needs analysis

A variety of procedures can be used in conducting needs analysis, and the kind of information obtained
is often dependent on the type of procedure selected (Huhta et al. 2013). Since any one source of
information is likely to be incomplete or partial, a triangular approach (i.e., collecting information from
[OYLL VY TVYL ZV\YJLZ PZ HK]PZHISL 4HU` KPќLYLU[ ZV\YJLZ VM PUMVYTH[PVU ZOV\SK IL ZV\NO[ -VY
example, when a needs analysis of the writing problems encountered by foreign students enrolled in
English-medium universities is conducted, information could be obtained from the following sources:
• Samples of student writing.
• Test data on student performance.
• Reports by teachers on typical problems students face.
• Opinions of experts.
• Information from students via interviews and questionnaires.
• Analyses of textbooks teaching academic writing.
• Surveys or related literature.
 4 Needs analysis • 87

• Examples of writing programs from other institutions.

• ,_HTWSLZVM^YP[PUNHZZPNUTLU[ZNP]LU[VÄYZ[`LHY\UP]LYZP[`Z[\KLU[Z

>OH[ ^V\SK IL [OYLL ^H`Z VM JVSSLJ[PUN PUMVYTH[PVU VU [OL SHUN\HNL ULLKZ VM ÅPNO[
attendants?

4HU` KPќLYLU[ WYVJLK\YLZ JHU IL \ZLK [V JVSSLJ[ PUMVYTH[PVU HZ WHY[ VM H ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ HUK H
U\TILYVM[OLZLHYLKLZJYPILKIYPLÅ`ILSV^

Analysis of available information

In any situation where a needs analysis is required, a large amount of relevant information can usually
IL HJX\PYLK MYVT ZV\YJLZ Z\JO HZ IVVRZ QV\YUHS HY[PJSLZ YLWVY[Z HUK Z\Y]L`Z YLJVYKZ HUK ÄSLZ
0UKLLK HU HUHS`ZPZ VM Z\JO PUMVYTH[PVU PZ UVYTHSS` [OL ÄYZ[ Z[LW PU JHYY`PUN V\[ H ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ
because there are very few problems in language teaching that have not already been written about
or analyzed somewhere.

Expert advice
Consultation with experts or knowledgeable persons can also provide useful insights and advice.
Although information of this kind is easy to obtain, it may represent the opinions of only one or two
individuals and may not be reliable.

Questionnaires
Questionnaires are one of the most common instruments used in needs analysis. They are relatively easy
to prepare, can be used with large numbers of subjects, and produce information that is relatively easy
[V[HI\SH[LHUKHUHS`aL;OL`JHUHSZVIL\ZLK[VLSPJP[PUMVYTH[PVUHIV\[THU`KPќLYLU[RPUKZVMPZZ\LZ
Z\JOHZSHUN\HNL\ZLJVTT\UPJH[PVUKPѝJ\S[PLZWYLMLYYLKSLHYUPUNZ[`SLZWYLMLYYLKJSHZZYVVTHJ[P]P[PLZ
and attitudes and beliefs. Many such questionnaires these days are web-based. However, information
VI[HPULKMYVTX\LZ[PVUUHPYLZTH`ILMHPYS`Z\WLYÄJPHSVYPTWYLJPZLHUK^PSSVM[LUULLKMVSSV^\W[VNHPU
HM\SSLY\UKLYZ[HUKPUNVM^OH[YLZWVUKLU[ZPU[LUK:LL(WWLUKP_LZ¶MVYL_HTWSLZVMX\LZ[PVUUHPYLZ

Self-ratings
Self-ratings consist of scales that students or others use to rate their knowledge or abilities. (Self-
ratings might also be included as part of a questionnaire.) For example, a student might rate how
well he or she can handle a job interview in English. The disadvantage of such an instrument is that
it provides only impressionistic information that is not very precise.

Learner diaries and journals

As part of their regular language course, learners might keep a diary or journal in which they record
accounts of successful and unsuccessful attempts to use English, and monitor their language use and
other aspects of their learning experience. Such accounts provide insider accounts of language learning,
but they are not systematic or comprehensive and may be time-consuming to produce and analyze.

Interviews
Interviews allow for a more in-depth exploration of issues than is possible with a questionnaire,
though they take longer to administer and are only feasible for smaller groups. An interview may often
be useful at the preliminary stage of designing a questionnaire, since it will help the designer get a
sense of what topics and issues can be focused on in the questionnaire. A structured interview in
88 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

which a set series of questions is used allows more consistency across responses to be obtained.
Interviews can be conducted face to face, over the telephone, or on the Internet.

Meetings
A meeting allows a large amount of information to be collected in a fairly short time. For example, a
meeting of teachers on the topic “students’ problems with listening comprehension” might generate a
wide range of ideas. However, information obtained in this way may be impressionistic and subjective
HUKYLÅLJ[[OLPKLHZVMTVYLV\[ZWVRLUTLTILYZVMHNYV\W

Observation
Observations of learners’ behavior in a target situation is another way of assessing their needs. For
example, observing clerks performing their jobs in a bank will enable the observer to arrive at certain
conclusions about their language needs. However, people often do not perform well when they are
being observed, so this has to be taken into account. In addition, observation is a specialized skill.
Knowing how to observe, what to look for, and how to make use of the information obtained generally
requires specialized training.

Shadowing
Shadowing involves following an individual over a period of time to observe his or her natural
interaction, behavior, and language use. For example, a nurse may be shadowed for one or more
days in order to collect information on his or her daily work activities and tasks and the language
demands involved. However while relatively easy to set up, it is time-consuming and may not provide
information that is reliable or representative.

Participant observation
This is a type of observation in which the observer locates him- or herself within the social setting to
be observed and participates in it actively. For example, in order to learn about the communicative
demands of tour guides, the observer may assist a tour guide during the course of the guide’s
regular work. An example of this approach is Astika (2004), who used observation, interviews with
tour guides, interviews with experts, and interviews with teachers of tour guides in order to identify
tasks and subtasks for use in a course for tour guides. This produced the information presented in
Table 4.1 below:

Table 4.1 Tasks identified in a needs analysis for tour guides

TASKS
Taking tourists to the hotel for check in
Taking tourists on a day tour
SUBTASKS
1. Meeting tourists at the airport
2. Giving information on the way to the hotel
3. Helping tourists with registration
1. Meeting tourists at the hotel lobby
2. Beginning the tour
3. Describing the itinerary
4. Describing objects on the way to the
destination
5. Describing religious objects
6. Describing processes
7. Taking tourists to restaurants
8. Describing sites
 4 Needs analysis • 89

While providing an “insider perspective” on the activity of guiding, information collected from
participant observation may not be representative, as it is limited to only one kind of informant and is
usually time-consuming to analyze. In the example above, the results do little to clarify the language
KLTHUKZVM[OL[HZRZPKLU[PÄLK^OPJO^V\SKILLZZLU[PHSPUKLZPNUPUNHJV\YZL

Collecting learner language samples

*VSSLJ[PUN KH[H VU OV^ ^LSS SLHYULYZ WLYMVYT VU KPќLYLU[ SHUN\HNL [HZRZ LN I\ZPULZZ SL[[LYZ
interviews, telephone calls) and documenting the typical problems they have are a useful and direct
means of acquiring information about learners’ language needs. Language samples may be collected
through the following means:
• Written or oral tasks: Examples of students’ written or oral work are collected.
• Simulations or role plays: Students are given simulations to carry out and their performance is
observed or recorded.
• Achievement tests: :[\KLU[ZHYL[LZ[LKMVY[OLPYHIPSP[PLZPUKPќLYLU[KVTHPUZVMSHUN\HNL\ZL
• Performance tests: Students are tested on job-related or task-related behaviors, such as how
well a job interview can be carried out in English.

Task analysis
Task analysis refers to analysis of the kinds of tasks the learners will have to carry out in English
in a future occupational or educational setting and analysis of the linguistic characteristics and
demands of the tasks. For example, a hotel employee might have to perform the following tasks
in English:
• Greet hotel guests.
• Inquire about their accommodation needs.
• Inform them of accommodation available at the hotel.
• Help them make a suitable choice of accommodation.
• Handle check-in procedures.

:LL [OL [V\Y N\PKL L_HTWSL PU ;HISL  VU W  ^OLYL [HZRZ ^LYL PKLU[PÄLK [OYV\NO WHY[PJPWHU[
VIZLY]H[PVU6UJL[HYNL[[HZRZOH]LILLUPKLU[PÄLK[OLPYSPUN\PZ[PJJOHYHJ[LYPZ[PJZHYLZ[\KPLKHZH
basis for designing a language course or training materials (Long 2005).

Case studies
With a case study, a single student or a selected group of students is followed through a relevant work
or educational experience in order to determine the characteristics of that situation. For example, a
newly arrived immigrant might be studied for three months, during which time the student keeps a
log of his or her daily language experiences in English, the situations in which the language is used,
and the problems he or she encounters. Although it is generally not possible to generalize from a
case study, it provides a very rich source of information that may complement information obtained
from other sources.

From the procedures described above, choose three that would be suitable to use in studying
the needs of nurses working on a general ward in a public hospital.
90 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

4.8 Making use of the information obtained

;OL YLZ\S[Z VM H ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ ^PSS NLULYHSS` JVUZPZ[ VM PUMVYTH[PVU [HRLU MYVT ZL]LYHS KPќLYLU[
ZV\YJLZHUKZ\TTHYPaLKPU[OLMVYTVMYHURLKSPZ[ZVMKPќLYLU[RPUKZZ\JOHZ[OLMVSSV^PUN!
• Situations in which English is frequently used.
• :P[\H[PVUZPU^OPJOKPѝJ\S[PLZHYLLUJV\U[LYLK
• +PќLYLUJLZIL[^LLU[OLSLHYULYZ»J\YYLU[WYVÄJPLUJ`SL]LSHUK[OLKLZPYLK[HYNL[SL]LS
• Comments most often made by people on learners’ performance.
• -YLX\LUJPLZ^P[O^OPJOKPќLYLU[[YHUZHJ[PVUZHYLJHYYPLKV\[
• 7LYJLP]LKKPѝJ\S[PLZ^P[OKPќLYLU[HZWLJ[ZVMSHUN\HNL\ZL
• 7YLMLYLUJLZMVYKPќLYLU[RPUKZVMHJ[P]P[PLZPU[LHJOPUN
• -YLX\LUJPLZVMLYYVYZTHKLPUKPќLYLU[[`WLZVMZP[\H[PVUZVYHJ[P]P[PLZ
• *VTTVUJVTT\UPJH[PVUWYVISLTZPUKPќLYLU[ZP[\H[PVUZ
• :\NNLZ[PVUZHUKVWPUPVUZHIV\[KPќLYLU[HZWLJ[ZVMSLHYULYZ»WYVISLTZ
• -YLX\LUJPLZVMSPUN\PZ[PJP[LTZVY\UP[ZPUKPќLYLU[[L_[ZVYZP[\H[PVUZ

6UL VM [OL ÄUKPUNZ VM H ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ VM WYVISLTZ VM ,:3 Z[\KLU[Z H[[LUKPUN \UP]LYZP[` SLJ[\YLZ
^HZ H SPZ[ VM [OL MYLX\LUJ` ^P[O ^OPJO Z[\KLU[Z L_WLYPLUJLK KPѝJ\S[PLZ ^P[O ZWLHRPUNHUK SPZ[LUPUN
ZRPSSZ.YH]H[[9PJOHYKZHUK3L^PZ ;OLTVZ[JVTTVUKPѝJ\S[PLZYLWVY[LK^LYLI`YHUR!
1. Large-group discussions
2. Class discussions
3. Interactions with native speakers
4. Out-of-class projects
5. Small-group work
6. Demonstrator interactions
7. Class participation

However, such a listing provides little useful information about the precise types of problems the
learners experience in relation to each event. Even if more detailed information had been provided,
the results would still be impressionistic. For example, in relation to event 1 (large-group discussions),
TVYLKL[HPSLKPUMVYTH[PVUJV\SKOH]LILLUZV\NO[MYVT^OPJOHM\Y[OLYSPZ[PUNTPNO[OH]LYLZ\S[LK¶
[OLTVZ[KPѝJ\S[HZWLJ[ZVM[HRPUNWHY[PUNYV\WKPZJ\ZZPVUZ1VOUZHUK1VOUZ WYV]PKLZ\JO
a list based on a needs analysis of problems students have with discussions. The most frequent
KPѝJ\S[PLZUV[LK^LYLHZMVSSV^Z!
1. +PѝJ\S[PLZPU\UKLYZ[HUKPUNZWVRLU,UNSPZOK\L[V[OLZWLHRLY»ZZWLLKVMZWLHRPUNPKPVTH[PJ
vocabulary, and unclear words.
2. Inability to respond quickly to a question.
3. Fear of saying something incorrectly.
4. Inability to express a meaning in English.
5. <UMHTPSPHYP[`^P[O[OLTVZ[HWWYVWYPH[L^H`[VL_WYLZZHM\UJ[PVUPU,UNSPZO
6. <UHISL[VLU[LYPU[VHKPZJ\ZZPVU^P[OV[OLYZ[\KLU[ZILJH\ZLZVTLKVTPUH[L[OLKPZJ\ZZPVU
 4 Needs analysis • 91

Yet even with this more detailed breakdown, no direct application to program design is possible.
More analysis and research would be needed to understand what is implied by “comprehension of
spoken English” and before the information obtained could be used in course planning. Although the
information gathered is useful, a number of questions still remain unanswered and therefore it still has
to be subjected to a great deal of interpretation before it can be usefully applied in program planning.

4.9 Applying the findings of needs analysis

0U[OLJV\YZLVMJHYY`PUNV\[HULLKZHUHS`ZPZHSHYNLU\TILYVMWV[LU[PHSULLKZTH`ILPKLU[PÄLK
However, these needs will have to be prioritized because it may not be practical to address all of them
in a language program, especially in light of the time constraints of the program. Moreover, the mere
MHJ[[OH[ULLKZOH]LILLUPKLU[PÄLKKVLZUV[H\[VTH[PJHSS`PTWS`[OH[JOHUNLZ^PSSOH]L[VILTHKL
in the curriculum. First, the existing curriculum (when there is one) has to be examined to see to what
L_[LU[[OLULLKZ[OH[OH]LILLUPKLU[PÄLKHYLILPUNTL[+LJPZPVUZ^PSS[OLYLMVYLOH]L[VILTHKL
concerning which of the needs are critical, which are important, and which are merely desirable. In
addition, some needs will be immediate and others longer term. For some, solutions will be feasible;
for others, they may be impractical.
It is also important to remember that because needs are not objective facts but subjective
interpretations of information, from a large variety of sources, a great deal of consultation is needed
with the various stakeholders to ensure that the conclusions drawn from a needs analysis are
appropriate and relevant. It often happens that some of the information may be contradictory. As
:[\ўLILHTL[HS YLTPUK\Z!

The process of analysis [of the results of a needs analysis] involves efforts that are thoughtful,
investigatory, systematic, and carefully recorded so that they can be replicated and reviewed.
The primary goal of analysis is to bring meaning to the obtained information and to do so in the
context of some philosophy, relevant perspectives, and value positions that may be in conflict.

Thus, for example, in a needs analysis that formed part of curriculum renewal in a state education
Z`Z[LTKPќLYLU[]PL^ZVMWYVISLTZPU[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TLTLYNLK(YHUNLVM]PL^Z^HZHSZVL_WYLZZLK
therefore about what should be changed:
• Learners’ view: more support for learning needed and reduction in the amount of material
required to study.
• Academics’ view: better preparation for tertiary studies needed in terms of reading and writing
skills.
• Employers’ view: better preparation for employment required in terms of basic communication skills.
• Teachers’ view: better grasp of grammar needed by learners.

)YPUKSL`  HKPZJ\ZZLZKPќLYLUJLZIL[^LLUSLHYULYZ»HUK[LHJOLYZ»]PL^ZVMULLKZHUKZ\NNLZ[Z
the importance of a negotiation process in order to satisfy and clarify each other’s assumptions. The
same is true of other stakeholders in the curriculum.
>OLYL[OLYLHYLZL]LYHSKPќLYLU[H\KPLUJLZMVY[OLULLKZHUHS`ZPZLN[LHJOLYZHKTPUPZ[YH[VYZH
M\UKPUNIVK`[OLPUMVYTH[PVUVI[HPULK^PSSOH]L[VILHUHS`aLK¶HUKHUHS`aLKPUHMVYT[OH[Z\P[Z
LHJO NYV\W»Z PU[LYLZ[Z 6UL NYV\W TH` YLX\PYL H IYPLM V]LY]PL^ VM [OL ÄUKPUNZ ^OPSL HUV[OLY TH`
ILPU[LYLZ[LKPUKL[HPSLKÄUKPUNZ;OLMVYTH[MVYYLWVY[PUN[OLÄUKPUNZTH`HSZV]HY`-VYL_HTWSL
it might include a full written document, a short summary document, a meeting, a group discussion,
or a newsletter.
92 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

5LLKZHUHS`ZPZ[O\ZWYVK\JLZPUMVYTH[PVU[OH[JHUIL\ZLKPUKPќLYLU[^H`Z-VYL_HTWSL!
• It may provide the basis for the evaluation of an existing program or a component of a program. taking the course
already: you know tht
• It may provide the basis for planning goals and objectives for a future program.
đi to do
• It may assist with developing tests and other assessment procedures. design approriate test items
• It can help with the selection of appropriate teaching methods in a program.
• It may provide the basis for developing a syllabus and teaching materials for a course.
• It may provide information that can be used as part of a course or program report to an external
body or organization.

In none of these cases, however, is there a direct route from needs analysis to application.

If you were to conduct a needs analysis of your students (or a group of learners you are familiar
^P[OOV^^V\SK`V\WSHU[VTHRL\ZLVM[OLÄUKPUNZ&

Conclusions
5LLKZHUHS`ZPZPZ\Z\HSS`JVUZPKLYLK[OLZ[HY[PUNWVPU[PUKLZPNUPUNHSHUN\HNLWYVNYHT¶WHY[PJ\SHYS`
VULMVYVSKLYSLHYULYZ¶HUKJHUZLY]LH]HYPL[`VMKPќLYLU[W\YWVZLZ6U[OLVULOHUKP[TH`ILH^H`
of exploring what the learners’ “subjective needs” are, that is, how the learners perceive their learning
KPѝJ\S[PLZ[OLPYWYLMLYLUJLMVYWHY[PJ\SHY[`WLZVMJSHZZYVVTHJ[P]P[PLZ[OLPYILSPLMZHIV\[[OLUH[\YLVM
language learning, and the ways they prefer to interact with the teacher and with other learners. Needs
analysis may also focus on the learners’ “objective needs,” that is, on the kinds of situations learners
will encounter outside of the classroom and the linguistic and other demands of those situations.
For classroom teachers, needs analysis will typically refer to relatively informal procedures that can
be used to assess the suitability of their course objectives and materials or to help them plan new
courses for future intakes of students. The possibilities of carrying out larger-scale needs analysis
using some of the procedures reviewed in this chapter will depend on the scope of a language
program and the amount of time and other necessary resources available. Although the design of
language programs is a major application of needs analysis, before a program can be designed it is
necessary to have additional information on factors that can have an impact on the program. The
PKLU[PÄJH[PVUVMZ\JOMHJ[VYZHUK[OLHZZLZZTLU[VM[OLPYSPRLS`PTWHJ[MVYT[OLMVJ\ZVM*OHW[LY

Discussion questions
1. 5LLKZHUHS`ZPZPZVMNYLH[LZ[\ZLPUZP[\H[PVUZ^OLYLZ[\KLU[ZOH]L]LY`ZWLJPÄJSHUN\HNLULLKZ
/V^L]LYP[JHUHSZVIL\ZLKPUZP[\H[PVUZ^OLYLSLHYULYZ»ULLKZHYLUV[ZVZWLJPÄJHZPU[OL
case of students learning English as a foreign language in a school setting. What might the focus
of a needs analysis be in this situation?
2. If you were planning a needs analysis as part of the review of a secondary school English
curriculum, what information would you seek to obtain?
3. Discuss the concept of stakeholders in planning a needs analysis in relation to a context you are
MHTPSPHY^P[O/V^JHU[OLJVUJLYUZVMKPќLYLU[Z[HRLOVSKLYZILHKKYLZZLK&
4. 0M`V\^LYLKLZPNUPUNHULLKZHUHS`ZPZMVYZLJYL[HYPLZ^VYRPUNPUI\ZPULZZVѝJLZ^OH[[HYNL[
population would you include in the needs analysis? What kind of information would you need
from each member of the target population?
 4 Needs analysis • 93

5. :\NNLZ[MV\YKPќLYLU[ULLKZHUHS`ZPZWYVJLK\YLZ[OH[JV\SKIL\ZLK[VJVSSLJ[PUMVYTH[PVUHIV\[
the language needs of hotel telephone operators. What are the advantages and limitations of
each procedure?
6. Suggest situations in which a case study would provide useful information during a needs
analysis.
7. Design a short questionnaire designed to investigate the language needs of tour guides. What
issues will the questionnaire address? What types of items will you include in the questionnaire?
8. Prepare a set of questions to be used in a structured interview for use in a needs analysis of the
SHUN\HNLULLKZVMPTTPNYH[PVUVѝJLYZH[HUHPYWVY[
9. Choose an occupation that you are familiar with or that you would be able to observe and
prepare an analysis of the tasks typically carried out by people in that occupation. Suggest the
language requirements of each task.
10. Read Case study 5 by Lindsay Miller and Case study 6 by Rob Haines at the end of this chapter.
In each case consider the following:
• What kind of information did the planners need to plan the course?
• How did they obtain it?
• How did they make use of the information they obtained?

APPENDIX 1 Questionnaire to determine learners’ subjective needs

0U KL]LSVWPUN JV\YZLZ MVY HK\S[ TPNYHU[Z PU (\Z[YHSPH >PSSPUN   ¶ KL]LSVWLK H
questionnaire to determine their learning style preferences. While some of the questions are now a
little dated, it provides a useful instrument for determining learners’ “subjective” needs. A rating scale
is used for each item. The items on the questionnaire are:
1. In English class, I like to learn by reading.
2. In class, I like to listen and use cassettes.
3. In class, I like to learn by games.
4. In class, I like to learn by conversations.
5. 0UJSHZZ0SPRL[VSLHYUI`WPJ[\YLZÄSTZ]PKLV
6. I want to write everything in my notebook.
7. I like to have my own textbook.
8. I like the teacher to explain everything to us.
9. I like the teacher to give us problems to work on.
10. I like the teacher to help me talk about my interests.
11. I like the teacher to tell me all my mistakes.
12. 0SPRL[OL[LHJOLY[VSL[TLÄUKT`TPZ[HRLZ
13. I like to study English by myself (alone).
14. I like to learn English by talking in pairs.
15. I like to learn English in a small group.
16. I like to learn English with the whole class.
17. I like to go out with the class and practice English.
94 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

18. I like to study grammar.

19. I like to learn many new words.
20. I like to practice the sounds and pronunciation.
21. I like to learn English words by seeing them.
22. I like to learn English words by hearing them.
23. I like to learn English words by doing something.
24. At home, I like to learn by reading newspapers etc.
25. At home, I like to learn by watching TV in English.
26. At home, I like to learn by using cassettes.
27. At home, I like to learn by studying English books.
28. I like to learn by talking to friends in English.
29. I like to learn by watching/listening to Australians.
30. I like to learn by using English in shops/trains.

APPENDIX 2 Needs analysis questionnaire for non-English-background

students (from Gravatt, Richards, and Lewis 1997)
:[\KLU[X\LZ[PVUUHPYL\ZLKH[[OL<UP]LYZP[`VM(\JRSHUK5L^ALHSHUK

Institute of Language Teaching and Learning

5,,+:(5(3@:0:6-,5.30:/(:(:,*65+3(5.<(.,:;<+,5;¶:;<+,5;=,9:065

This questionnaire is part of a project being carried out by the Institute of Language Teaching and
3LHYUPUN[VKL[LYTPUL^OH[[OLSHUN\HNLULLKZVMZ[\KLU[Z^OVZLÄYZ[VYKVTPUHU[SHUN\HNLPZUV[
,UNSPZO,:3Z[\KLU[ZH[[LUKPUN[OL<UP]LYZP[`HYL^OL[OLY[OLZLHYLILPUNHKLX\H[LS`TL[HUKPM
UV[^OH[JHUILKVULIL[[LY-VY[OPZW\YWVZL[OLVWPUPVUZVMIV[OZ[HќHUKZ[\KLU[ZPUH]HYPL[`VM
departments are being surveyed. It would be appreciated if you could complete this questionnaire,
which should take approximately 20 minutes.
The term ‘N/A’ is used in this questionnaire. It means ‘Not applicable’ and is the appropriate
response if a question does not apply to you.
With which of the following groups do you identify? (please tick the appropriate box):

7HJPÄJ0ZSHUK¶^OPJO&

(ZPHU¶^OPJOJV\U[Y`&

Other (please specify):

/V^THU``LHYZOH]L`V\ILLUZ[\K`PUNH[(\JRSHUK<UP]LYZP[`
(including 1997)?

What is your current course of study?

 4 Needs analysis • 95

7SLHZLJVTWSL[L[OPZX\LZ[PVUUHPYL^P[OYLNHYK[V[OLJV\YZL`V\OH]LZWLJPÄLKOLYL

(6]LY]PL^VM:RPSSZ5LLKLKHUK+PѝJ\S[PLZ,UJV\U[LYLK
In your course of study, how often are you expected to use the following skills? (please circle):

Very often Often Sometimes Rarely Never

Reading 1 2 3 4 5
Writing 1 2 3 4 5
Speaking 1 2 3 4 5
Listening 1 2 3 4 5

/V^VM[LUKV`V\OH]LKPѝJ\S[`^P[OLHJOVM[OLZLZRPSSZ&WSLHZLJPYJSL!

Very often Often Sometimes Rarely Never

Reading 1 2 3 4 5
Writing 1 2 3 4 5
Speaking 1 2 3 4 5
Listening 1 2 3 4 5

B. General Statements
Please circle the appropriate response:
How important to success in your course of study are the following abilities?

High Moderate Low

1. Listening to English 1 2 3 4 5
2. Speaking English 1 2 3 4 5
3. Writing English 1 2 3 4 5
4. Reading English 1 2 3 4 5

/V^PTWVY[HU[[VZ\JJLZZPU`V\YÄLSKHM[LYNYHK\H[PVUHYL[OLMVSSV^PUNHIPSP[PLZ&

High Moderate Low

1. Listening to English 1 2 3 4 5
2. Speaking English 1 2 3 4 5
3. Writing English 1 2 3 4 5
4. Reading English 1 2 3 4 5
96 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

C. Speaking and Listening Skills

How often do the following happen to you?

Always Often Sometimes Never N/A

1. Receive low grades in tasks involving 1 2 3 4 5
class participation.
 /H]LKPѝJ\S[`^VYRPUNPUZTHSSNYV\WZ 1 2 3 4 5
during class.
 /H]LKPѝJ\S[`^VYRPUN^P[OV[OLY 1 2 3 4 5
students on out-of-class projects.
4. Have trouble leading class 1 2 3 4 5
discussions.
 /H]LKPѝJ\S[`WHY[PJPWH[PUNPUSHYNL 1 2 3 4 5
groups.
 /H]LKPѝJ\S[`PU[LYHJ[PUN^P[OZ[\KLU[ 1 2 3 4 5
demonstrators in labs, tutorials, etc.
7. Struggle with out-of-class 1 2 3 4 5
assignments which require interaction
with native speakers of English.

D. Speaking Skills
How often do the following happen to you?
Always Often Sometimes Never N/A
/H]LKPѝJ\S[`NP]PUNVYHS 1 2 3 4 5
presentations.
2. Have trouble wording what you want 1 2 3 4 5
to say quickly enough.
3. Worry about saying something in case 1 2 3 4 5
you make a mistake in your English.
4. Not know how to say something in 1 2 3 4 5
English.
5. Not know the best way to say 1 2 3 4 5
something in English.
 /H]LKPѝJ\S[`^P[O`V\YWYVU\UJPH[PVU 1 2 3 4 5
of words.
 -PUKP[KPѝJ\S[[VLU[LYKPZJ\ZZPVU 1 2 3 4 5
8. Other (please specify): 1 2 3 4 5
 4 Needs analysis • 97

E. Listening Skills
How often do the following happen to you?

Always Often Sometimes Never N/A

1. Have trouble understanding 1 2 3 4 5
lectures.
 /H]L[YV\ISL[HRPUNLќLJ[P]LUV[LZ 1 2 3 4 5
 /H]L[VHZRZ[HќX\LZ[PVUZ[VJSHYPM` 1 2 3 4 5
material you have been taught.
4. Have trouble understanding lengthy 1 2 3 4 5
descriptions in English.
5. Have trouble understanding spoken 1 2 3 4 5
instructions.
6. Have trouble understanding informal 1 2 3 4 5
language.
7. Have trouble understanding the 1 2 3 4 5
subject matter of a talk, i.e., what is
being talked about.
 0HSZVOH]LKPѝJ\S[`^P[OWSLHZL 1 2 3 4 5
specify):

I have problems understanding lecturers or other students because:

Often Sometimes Never
9. They talk very fast. 1 2 3
10. They talk very quietly. 1 2 3
11. Their accents or pronunciation are 1 2 3
KPќLYLU[MYVT^OH[0HT\ZLK[V
12. More than one person is speaking, 1 2 3
e.g., in group discussions.
13. Other (please specify): 1 2 3
98 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

F. Writing Skills
With regard to written assignments, please indicate for each of the following:
1. How important the skill is, and
2. How often you have problems with the skill:

Importance Frequency of
problems
Very important

Not important

Sometimes
Important

Not sure

Never
Often

N/A
1 2 3 4 <ZPUNJVYYLJ[W\UJ[\H[PVUHUKZWLSSPUN 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Structuring sentences. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 <ZPUNHWWYVWYPH[L]VJHI\SHY` 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Organising paragraphs. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Organising the overall assignment. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Expressing ideas appropriately. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Developing ideas. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Expressing what you want to say clearly. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Addressing topic. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Adopting appropriate tone and style. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Following instructions and directions. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Evaluating and revising your writing. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Overall writing ability. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Completing written tasks (e.g., exams, tests) 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 within the time available. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Other (please specify): 1 2 3 4
 4 Needs analysis • 99

G. Reading Skills
The following questions concern the reading tasks required of you during the course. Please indicate:
a) which of the following types of material you are expected to read, and b) how often you have
KPѝJ\S[`KVPUNZVWSLHZLJPYJSL!

Expected -YLX\LUJ`VMKPѝJ\S[PLZ
to read? Often Sometimes Never
1. Journal articles Yes / No 1 2 3
2. Newspaper articles Yes / No 1 2 3
 >VYRZVMÄJ[PVU Yes / No 1 2 3
4. Entire reference or text books Yes / No 1 2 3
5. Selected chapters of books Yes / No 1 2 3
6. Photocopied notes Yes / No 1 2 3
7. Workbook or laboratory Yes / No 1 2 3
instructions
8. Computer-presented reading Yes / No 1 2 3
materials
9. Other (please specify): Yes / No 1 2 3

0UKPJH[LOV^VM[LU`V\OH]LKPѝJ\S[`^P[OLHJOVM[OLMVSSV^PUN!

Very often Sometimes Never

<UKLYZ[HUKPUN[OLTHPUWVPU[Z 1 2 3 4 5
of text.
11. Reading a text quickly in order 1 2 3 4 5
to establish a general idea of the
content (skimming).
12. Reading a text slowly and 1 2 3 4 5
carefully in order to understand
the details of the text.
13. Looking through a text quickly 1 2 3 4 5
PUVYKLY[VSVJH[LZWLJPÄJ
information (scanning).
14. Guessing unknown words in a 1 2 3 4 5
text.
100 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

Very often Sometimes Never

 <UKLYZ[HUKPUN[L_[VYNHUPZH[PVU 1 2 3 4 5
 <UKLYZ[HUKPUNZWLJPHSPZ[ 1 2 3 4 5
vocabulary in a text.
17. Reading speed. 1 2 3 4 5
18. Reading in order to respond 1 2 3 4 5
critically.
  <UKLYZ[HUKPUNH^YP[LY»ZH[[P[\KL 1 2 3 4 5
and purpose.
20. General comprehension. 1 2 3 4 5
21. Other (please specify): 1 2 3 4 5

APPENDIX 3 Needs assessment questionnaire for use in designing a course for

adults at beginner level (from TAS 2011, Appendix K, pp. 81–82)
Sample Student Needs Assessments
SAMPLE NEEDS ASSESSMENT FOR BEGINNING HIGH (LAUSD)

Student’s name ____________________________________ Date ____________________

Teacher’s name ____________________________________ Class time ________________

PLEASE CHECK (9) ALL ANSWERS YES OR NO.

1 Do you use English to fill out Do you need to use English to
forms? Yes__ No__ fill out forms? Yes__ No__
2 Do you use English … Do you need to use English…
to talk with friends? Yes__ No__ to talk with friends? Yes__ No__

to talk with neighbors? Yes__ No__ to talk with neighbors? Yes__ No__

3 Do you use English… Do you need to use English…

at your children’s school? Yes__ No__ at your children’s school? Yes__ No__

at your school? Yes__ No__ at your school? Yes__ No__

on the telephone? Yes__ No__ on the telephone? Yes__ No__

to ask for directions? Yes__ No__ to ask for directions? Yes__ No__

H[[OLWVZ[VѝJL& Yes__ No__ H[[OLWVZ[VѝJL& Yes__ No__

at the park or community center? Yes__ No__ at the park or community center? Yes__ No__
 4 Needs analysis • 101

4 Do you use English… Do you need to use English…

at the bank? Yes__ No__ at the bank? Yes__ No__

in stores? Yes__ No__ in stores? Yes__ No__

at restaurants? Yes__ No__ at restaurants? Yes__ No__
[VÄUKHUHWHY[TLU[VYOV\ZL& Yes__ No__ [VÄUKHUHWHY[TLU[VYOV\ZL& Yes__ No__
to talk about housing problems Yes__ No__ to talk about housing problems Yes__ No__
5 Do you need to use English…
[VILJVTLH<:JP[PaLU& Yes__ No__

to understand driving laws? Yes__ No__

[V\UKLYZ[HUKWVSPJLVѝJLYZ& Yes__ No__
6 Do you use English… Do you need to use English…
to talk to doctors, nurses, and Yes__ No__ to talk to doctors, nurses, and Yes__ No__
dentists? dentists?
[VÄSSV\[TLKPJHSMVYTZ& Yes__ No__ [VÄSSV\[TLKPJHSMVYTZ& Yes__ No__

at the drugstore? Yes__ No__ at the drugstore? Yes__ No__

to keep your home safe? Yes__ No__ to keep your home safe? Yes__ No__
7 Do you use English… Do you need to use English…
at your job? Yes__ No__ at your job? Yes__ No__

to look for a job? Yes__ No__

to get a better job? Yes__ No__

APPENDIX 48\LZ[PVUUHPYL[VWYLWHYLHWYVMLZZPVUHSWYVÄSLMVYHUVJJ\WH[PVUHS
course for adults (from Huhta et al. 2013)

;LTWSH[LVMH*,-7YVMLZZPVUHS7YVÄSL
CEF PROFESSIONAL PROFILE
A. BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Field
Education/Programme
Specialisation(s)
+LNYLL8\HSPÄJH[PVU
Language
Drawn up by
Date / City and country / Organisation
Methods used for collecting the
information (methods, persons, dates)
102 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

B. OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Typical examples of professions/
occupations/jobs
Typical organisations, companies,
communities to be employed in
Typical job descriptions
To what extent foreign languages are needed

C. CONTEXT INFORMATION
LOCATION PERSONS, COMMUNITIES, COMMUNICATION TEXT- AND
COMPANIES, INSTITUTIONS SITUATIONS DISCOURSE-TYPES
Work
context
Study Texts:
context

D. THE MOST FREQUENT ROUTINE SITUATIONS

Situation 1.
Situation:
Place:
Persons present/involved:
What is essential to make the communication successful:
Details:

Situation 2.
Situation:
Place:
Persons present/involved:
What is essential to make the communication successful:
Details:

Situation 3.
Situation:
Place:
Persons present/involved:
What is essential to make the communication successful:
Details:
 4 Needs analysis • 103

E. THE MOST DEMANDING SITUATIONS

Demanding situations mentioned by the interviewees:

Situation 1.
Situation:
Place:
Persons present/involved:
Why the situation was demanding:
Details:

Situation 2.
Situation:
Place:
Persons present/involved:
Why the situation was demanding:
Details:

F. SNAPSHOT
Narrative of a day in the working life of a professional, based on the data available.
104 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

CASE STUDY 6 Planning a course in technical communication

Lindsay Miller
What is the context of the course?
Technical Communication is an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) course for students from the
Building and Construction Department at a university in Hong Kong. Students have to take two
JYLKP[ILHYPUN,(7JV\YZLZHZWHY[VM[OLPYKLNYLLWYVNYHTTLH[[OL\UP]LYZP[`;OLÄYZ[JV\YZLPZ
HNLULYHS,(7JV\YZLVќLYLKI`[OL\UP]LYZP[`»ZSHUN\HNLPUZ[P[\[L0U[OPZJV\YZLZ[\KLU[ZSLHYU[OL
basic conventions of academic reading and writing. The second course (Technical Communication)
PZ H TVYL ZWLJPHSPaLK JV\YZL VќLYLK I` [OL ,UNSPZO +LWHY[TLU[ ;LJOUPJHS *VTT\UPJH[PVU [HRLZ
the students a stage further to develop their language skills for academic and quasi-professional
contexts.

What are the goals of the course?

One of the main aims of this course is to enhance students’ research skills and allow them to become
independent learners. Students are given a simulation that helps train them to think in a more
analytical way and gives them some hands-on practice in dealing with technical information relevant
[V[OLPYÄLSKVMZ[\K`
The goals of the course are to:
a. develop research skills;
b. write on technical topics in a clearly structured way;
c. produce a wide range of professional documents including reports, memos and letters;
d. SLHYUOV^[VNP]LHULќLJ[P]LWYVMLZZPVUHSWYLZLU[H[PVU

0U VYKLY [V HJOPL]L [OLZL NVHSZ Z[\KLU[Z SLHYU HIV\[ [OL KPќLYLU[ [`WLZ VM [LJOUPJHS YLWVY[Z HUK
how to write short email memos, reports and business letters, and a long formal technical report.
They also develop their listening skills by watching a variety of videos containing information about
shopping malls, which are useful for a group project they have to complete. This project has to be
presented by each group in class and so the course sensitizes students to the principles of giving a
good presentation.

What planning was involved in developing the course?

Technical Communication has run for a number of years now and the course has developed from its
VYPNPUHSMVYTH[;VILNPU^P[OZ[HќMYVT[OL)\PSKPUNHUK*VUZ[Y\J[PVU+LWHY[TLU[H[[OL\UP]LYZP[`
were consulted as to the relevant academic and technical linguistic skills they required their students
to have. Then, the general EAP course was examined to see what language skills students were
practising with this course and to ensure that there was not too much overlap between the courses.
(M[LY [OPZ H Z[Hќ TLTILY MYVT [OL ,UNSPZO +LWHY[TLU[ ^P[O H IHJRNYV\UK PU [LHJOPUN ZJPLUJL
and technology courses designed the course. The course design was reviewed several times
I` JVSSLHN\LZ MYVT [OL )\PSKPUN HUK *VUZ[Y\J[PVU +LWHY[TLU[ PU Z[HќZ[\KLU[ TLL[PUNZ ,UNSPZO
Department tutors who taught the course and from student feedback at the end of each semester. As
a result of these measures, small changes have been made over the years to ensure that the students
receive enough support, both linguistic and contextual, and that the course now runs smoothly and
its learning objectives are achieved.
 4 Needs analysis • 105

How is the course organized?

;OL JV\YZL PZ VќLYLK V]LY VUL ^LLR ZLTLZ[LY 0[ PZ KP]PKLK PU[V [^V THPU WHY[Z ^P[O H TPK
ZLTLZ[LYX\PaPU>LLR0U[OLÄYZ[ZP_^LLRZVM[OLJV\YZL[OLMVJ\ZPZVUOLSWPUNZ[\KLU[ZKL]LSVW
their reading and writing skills for technical communication. The topic of each lesson is as follows:

Week 1 What is technical writing?

The writing process
Types of technical writing

Week 2 Summary writing

Emails & memos

Week 3 Business communication

Letter writing

Week 4 Writing definitions

Week 5 Writing descriptions

Week 6 Writing process and procedures

Week 7 In-class quiz

The second part of the course focuses on preparing students to complete a ‘site visit’ for their project.
Each group is given a shopping mall in the city to visit and review (there are many shopping malls in
/VUN2VUNZVLHJONYV\WJHUYL]PL^HKPќLYLU[THSS0U[OLPYYL]PL^[OL`ULLK[VJSLHYS`KLZJYPIL
the main features of the mall and anything that is unique about it. Then they make a list of ‘sensible’
JOHUNLZ[OH[TPNO[ILULÄ[[OLTHSS-VYPUZ[HUJL[OL`TH`SVVRH[WLKLZ[YPHUÅV^HUKZ\NNLZ[[OH[
PM [OL KPYLJ[PVU VM [OL LZJHSH[VYZ ^LYL JOHUNLK [OLU [OL ÅV^ VM WLVWSL [OYV\NO [OL THSS JV\SK IL
increased. The topic for each lesson in the second part of the course is as follows:

Week 8 Group meetings (simulation)

Planning a site visit

Week 9 Field trip (shopping mall visit)

Week 10 Discussions about information collected from field trip

Week 11 Preparing for oral presentation

Week 12 Group oral presentations in-class

Week 13 Group oral presentations in-class

What teaching and learning methods do you use?

The course does not use one main teaching method. Instead, an eclectic approach is used. For
PUZ[HUJLPU[OLÄYZ[ML^SLZZVUZVM[OLJV\YZL[OL[LHJOPUNTL[OVKPZ]LY`T\JO[LHJOLYJLU[YLK
The tutor takes students through the prepared student manual and discusses with them the
KPќLYLU[[`WLZVM[LJOUPJHSYLWVY[Z[OL`TH`ILYLX\PYLK[VYLHKVY^YP[L;OLYLHYLSV[ZVMX\LZ[PVUZ
106 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

and answers in this part of the course. In addition, students are asked to complete group-work
tasks, based on the information presented in the manual, to get them used to working together
to solve problems. Then, in the second part of the course the emphasis changes to a lot more
group work and collaborative learning. The teacher in this part of the course becomes more of a
facilitator and guide.

What is the role of materials and other resources?

Students are given an 80-page manual to accompany the course which can be downloaded from
the teaching management site of the university. All the material has been produced in-house with
some references to other sources as illustrative examples of reports. Throughout the manual, there
is a series of tasks. These tasks can be used as a way to create a lesson plan for each lesson. The
following are some examples of the types of tasks for writing emails in the student manual:

Task 4
In groups, brainstorm what you think a good email memo should look like.

Task 9
1. Have you made any mistakes sending emails? Have you ever received an email by mistake or one
you think you should not be reading?

2.  V^VSK^LYL`V\^OLU`V\^YV[L`V\YÄYZ[LTHPS&+PKHU`VUL[LHJO`V\OV^[V^YP[LHULTHPS&
/
What advice did they give you?

3. >OH[HK]PJL^V\SK`V\NP]LZVTLVULHIV\[[V^YP[LHULTHPSMVY[OLÄYZ[[PTL&

In addition to the student manual, the tutor uses a variety of DVD materials on the topic of building a
shopping mall and the problems of shopping mall design. When students are working on their group
project, they are advised to use the Internet for researching their project. They also naturally use
social media to chat with each other about their project. This mediated source of communication
between the students for their group work has increased dramatically over the life of the course.

'LG\RXH[SHULHQFHDQ\GLτFXOWLHVLQGHYHORSLQJWKHFRXUVH"
Two main issues with the course have emerged. Some tutors and students feel that they have to
TV]L[OYV\NO[OLTH[LYPHSX\P[LX\PJRS`/V^L]LYHZV\YZ[\KLU[ZOH]LHU0,3;:SL]LSVM¶HUK
they have already taken the general EAP course, we feel that they should be able to handle authentic
^YP[[LU[L_[ZPU[OLPYÄLSKVMZ[\K`>L[Y`[VW\ZO[OLTHSP[[SLV\[VM[OLPYJVTMVY[aVULPU[OLPYYLHKPUN
as that is what is expected of them in studying their main disciplines, or if they were working in an
HYJOP[LJ[»ZVѝJLMVYPUZ[HUJL;OLZLJVUKPZZ\L[OH[OHZJVTL\WPZ[OLMVYTPUNVMNYV\WZ<Z\HSS`
Z[\KLU[ZRUV^LHJOV[OLY^OLU[OLJSHZZTLL[ZMVY[OLÄYZ[[PTLI\[[OPZPZUV[HS^H`Z[OLJHZL0U
ZVTLPUZ[HUJLZ[OL[\[VYZOH]L[VMVYT[OLNYV\WZHUKVJJHZPVUHSS`[OLYLPZZVTLJVUÅPJ[IL[^LLU
the students. Given that the main task on the course is a collaborative project, this can lead to some
unhappy students. Fortunately, this problem does not happen often, but it is something the tutors are
made aware of and asked to monitor as the course progresses.

What role does assessment play in the course?

The students are assessed both individually and for their group work. The individual assessment
PZ MYVT [OL PUJSHZZ X\Pa PU >LLR  HUK MVYTZ  VM [OLPY ÄUHS THYR  IHZLK VU [OLPY HIPSP[`
[V KPZ[PUN\PZO IL[^LLU KPќLYLU[ [`WLZ VM YLWVY[Z ^YP[L H ZOVY[ LTHPS HUK ^YP[L H ZOVY[ [LJOUPJHS
 4 Needs analysis • 107

description; 10% on class participation and attendance). The group assessment is based on the
written site report (30%) and the group’s oral presentation (30%).
Lindsay Miller is an associate professor in the Department of English at City University of Hong
Kong. He has been responsible for designing, developing and teaching a wide variety of ESP
courses. Lindsay’s main areas of research have focused on self-access language learning, and
academic listening, and he has co-authored two books in these areas for Cambridge University
Press, Establishing Self-Access: From Theory To Practice (1999) and Second Language Listening:
Theory and Practice (2005). His most recent publication is Managing Self-Access Language
Learning (CityU Press, 2015).

CASE STUDY 7 Developing a foundation course for college students

Rob Haines
What is the context of the course?
The English Language Learning (ELL) course for the Scholarships for Education and Economic
Development (SEED) program at Mt. Hood Community College is part of a grant-funded program that
WYV]PKLZ[^V`LHYZJOVSHYZOPWZ[VHJVOVY[VM`V\UNHK\S[ZHNLK¶MYVTSV^PUJVTLMHTPSPLZ
in Mexico, Central America, Haiti, and the Dominic Republic.

What are the goals of the course?

The ELL course for the SEED program is designed to establish a foundation of English language skills
and content for students to build on as they begin their studies at the college. At the same time, the
ELL course aims to complement the students’ studies by focusing on relevant functions/skills, such
as giving presentations and taking notes, as well as on important vocabulary (e.g., technical terms)
YLSL]HU[[V[OLPYÄLSKVMZ[\K`PLLU]PYVUTLU[HS[LJOUVSVN`)LJH\ZL[OLZ[\KLU[ZZ[H`^P[OOVZ[
families during the ELL course, another goal is to facilitate the relationships between students and
host families, encouraging communication with host families by exposing students to vocabulary
WLY[PULU[[VSP]PUNPUHOV\ZLOVSK[HRPUN[OLI\ZL[JHUKHKKYLZZPUNZ[\KLU[Z»HќLJ[P]LULLKZHZ
[OL`HKHW[[V<:J\S[\YL(M[LY[OLÄYZ[`LHYVM[OLWYVNYHTZ[\KLU[ZTV]LPU[VHWHY[TLU[Z^OPJO
TLHUZ [OH[ THUHNPUN TVUL` HUK SP]PUN ^P[O YVVTTH[LZ ILJVTL PTWVY[HU[ [VWPJZ <S[PTH[LS` [OL
V]LYHSSNVHSVM[OL,33JV\YZLYLÅLJ[Z[OH[VM[OL:,,+WYVNYHT^OPJOPZ[VZ\WWVY[[OLWLYZVUHS
and professional development of the SEED scholars.

What planning was involved in developing the course?

Before I was responsible for the course design, SEED students attended regular ESL courses at
[OL JVSSLNL ;OL WYVNYHT JVVYKPUH[VYZ OPYLK TL [V [HPSVY [OL JV\YZL [V [OL ZWLJPÄJ ULLKZ VM [OL
student population that the SEED program serves. So on a practical level, initial planning was
necessary to determine the total number of contact hours and the schedule for the ELL course.
;OLWYVNYHTJVVYKPUH[VYZ^HU[LKHUPU[LUZP]LZP_^LLRZVM¶JVU[HJ[OV\YZWLYKH`ZPUJL[OPZ
was a period when the students would not be enrolled in any other classes, followed by a gradual
KLJYLHZL PU [OL U\TILY VM JVU[HJ[ OV\YZ HZ [OL HJHKLTPJ `LHY \UMVSKLK (M[LY [OL ÄYZ[ `LHY VM
teaching the course, I presented a plan to split the group of 20 into two smaller groups according
[V,UNSPZOSHUN\HNLJVTWL[LUJ`HM[LY[OLÄYZ[ZP_^LLRZVM[OLJV\YZL;OLYL^HZZVTLYLZPZ[HUJL
to this change, as it was felt that dividing the group would be culturally inappropriate and lead
to unhealthy competition and rivalry between the groups. Although there were individual cases of
YP]HSY` [OL V]LY^OLSTPUN THQVYP[` VM Z[\KLU[Z MLS[ [OL` ^LYL HќVYKLK TVYL SLHYUPUN VWWVY[\UP[PLZ
in the smaller groups.
108 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

How is the course organized?

:,,+ Z[\KLU[Z ILNPU [OL ,33 JV\YZL PU SH[L Z\TTLY (\N\Z[ ^P[O ¶ JVU[HJ[ OV\YZ L]LY` KH`
MVYZP_^LLRZ5L_[MVY[OLÄYZ[[LYTVM[OLHJHKLTPJ`LHY(\[\TU[OLZ[\KLU[ZHYLLUYVSSLKPU
H/\THU+L]LSVWTLU[JSHZZ^OPSL[OL`JVU[PU\L¶OV\YZWLYKH`PU,33(Z[OLHJHKLTPJ`LHY
progresses, the number of hours the students spend in ELL gradually decreases as they matriculate
PU[VJYLKP[ILHYPUNJSHZZLZ^P[OPU[OLPYÄLSKVMZ[\K`,U]PYVUTLU[HS;LJOUVSVN`HUKV[OLYJV\YZLZ
KLZPNULK [V LUOHUJL [OLPY WLYZVUHS HUK WYVMLZZPVUHS KL]LSVWTLU[ ;OL Z[\KLU[Z [HRL [OLPY ÄUHS
,33 JSHZZLZ PU LHYS` Z\TTLY 1\UL¶1\S` HUK [OLU JVTWSL[L [OLPY ZLJVUK HJHKLTPJ `LHY ^OPSL H
new cohort of SEED students begin the ELL course anew in August, following the same schedule
as the previous cohort.

What teaching and learning methods do you use?

In general, my approach is to follow my interpretation of Teaching Unplugged (aka Dogme) along with
TBL (Task-Based Learning), PBL (Project-Based Learning), and a mix of more traditional methods
Z\JOHZ;79;V[HS7O`ZPJHS9LZWVUZL;OLSHZ[VM[OLZLTL[OVKZ^HZLZWLJPHSS`LќLJ[P]LK\YPUN[OL
ÄYZ[JV\WSLVM^LLRZVM[OLJV\YZL^P[OMHSZLILNPUULYZ

What is the role of materials and other resources?

Because teaching “unplugged,” a materials-light approach to English language teaching, has so
NYLH[S` PUÅ\LUJLK[OLKL]LSVWTLU[VM[OL,33JV\YZL [OL YVSL VM [YHKP[PVUHS TH[LYPHSZ PZ TPUPTHS
Students do, however, have access to a library of textbooks, graded readers, and reference
materials such as dictionaries throughout the course. Resources for the course include texts
(spoken and written) that students bring to class or produce themselves as homework or for
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requisite uses of technology beyond word processing for written assignments. Students have made
use of more sophisticated software to create short videos and presentations, however, and often
students take a snapshot of the whiteboard after a lesson, in order to capture the vocabulary and
notes there.

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of 20 with very disparate English language competencies. Some students come with enough English
to carry on basic conversations and write comprehensible short paragraphs, while others have only
basic vocabulary and thus struggle to produce sentences in writing or speech. All other students fall
somewhere in between these two groups. Once the groups are divided according to their ability to
use English, this challenge is diminished but not gone.

What role does assessment play in the course?

The primary means of assessment for the course is a series of one-to-one meetings with students.
I ask students to prepare for the meetings by bringing any questions or feedback they have for me
as their teacher as well as a self-assessment of their work in the class. The self-assessment typically
includes a combination of quantitative scores such as the grade average of a student’s quizzes and
exams as well as qualitative evaluations such as feedback on assignments and the student’s general
impression of his or her performance on the course. Together we negotiate a grade according to a
traditional point scheme as well as a qualitative assessment with an action plan to keep doing what
works well and improve as necessary. The same goes for me as a teacher, although I do not receive
a grade as such.
 4 Needs analysis • 109

Rob Haines is a freelance English teacher and teacher trainer responsible for the design and
development of the English Language Learning (ELL) course for the Scholarships for Education and
Economic Development (SEED) program at Mt. Hood Community College in Gresham, Oregon, USA,
for over a decade. He has contributed to ;LHJOPUN<UWS\NNLK!+VNTLPU,UNSPZO3HUN\HNL;LHJOPUN
(Delta Teacher Development Series, 2009) and Beyond the Sentence: Introducing Discourse Analysis
(Macmillan Books for Teachers, 2005). Rob is currently providing teacher training and designing
curricula for public and alternative schools in Mexico.