Table 2.1.

Typical Fossil Generation Unit Heat Rates

Fossil Unit 100% 80% 60% 40% 25%
Unit—Description Rating Output Output Output Output Output
(MW) (Btu/kWh)(Btu/kWh) (Btu/kWh) (Btu/kWh) (Btu/kWh)
Steam—coal 50 11000 11088 11429 12166 13409a
Steam—oil 50 11500 11592 11949 12719 14019a
Steam—gas 50 11700 11794 12156 12940 14262a
Steam—coal 200 9500 9576 9871 10507 11581a
Steam—oil 200 9900 9979 10286 10949 12068a
Steam—gas 200 10050 10130 10442 11115 12251a
Steam—coal 400 9000 9045 9252 9783 10674a
Steam—oil 400 9400 9447 9663 10218 11148a
Steam—gas 400 9500 9548 9766 10327 11267a
Steam—coil 600 8900 8989 9265 9843 10814a
Steam—oil 600 9300 9393 9681 10286 11300a
Steam—gas 600 9400 9494 9785 10396 11421a
Steam—coal 800–1200 8750 8803 9048 9625a
Steam—oil 800–1200 9100 9155 9409 10010a
Steam—gas 800–1200 9200 9255 9513 10120a
a
For study purposes, units should not be loaded below the points shown.

51
Table 2.3. Typical Maintenance and Forced Outage Data
Scheduled Equivalent
Maintenance Forced Availability
Size Range Requirement Rate Factor
Unit Type (MW) (days/yr) (%) (%)
Nuclear All 67 18.3 72
Gas turbines All 22 — 91
Fossil-fueled steam 1–99 31 7.2 88
100–199 42 8.0 85
200–299 43 7.2 85
300–399 52 9.5 82
400–599 47 8.8 82
600–799 45 7.6 84
800–999 40 5.8 88
 1000 44 9.0 82
From Generating Unit Statistics 1988–1992 issued by NERC, Princeton, NJ.

52
The price of fuel from 1990-2006

53
Fuel Prices Comparison 2000 – 2020

© Dr. Intisar Ali, UET Taxila 54

Generator data

55
 Power System Operation and
Control (PSO&C)

Lecture 2
Economic Dispatch of Thermal Units
(Part-I: Optimization Theory)

© Dr. Intisar Ali, UET Taxila 56

 Optimization Theory
• The objective of optimization is to select the
best possible decision for a given set of
circumstances without having to enumerate
all the possibilities.
• The subject that formulates and explains this
talent is a branch of applied mathematics
known as optimization theory.

© Dr. Intisar Ali, UET Taxila 57

 TOPICS IN OPTIMIZATION
1. Mathematical Programming
2. Variational Methods

© Dr. Intisar Ali, UET Taxila 58

 1. Mathematical Programming
• The objective is to locate is to locate best point x, that
optimizes (maximize or minimize) the objective
function.
• Mathematical programming methods are of two types:
– Direct Methods: multivariable search methods and linear
programming, move from a starting point through
consistently improved values of the objective function to
arrive at the optimum.
– Indirect Methods: such as analytical methods and
geometric programming solve a set of algebraic equations
and the solution to the set of equations may be the
optimum of objective function

© Dr. Intisar Ali, UET Taxila 59

 Mathematical Programming Methods
• Analytical Method
• Geometric Programming
• Linear Programming
• Quadratic Programming
• Convex Programming
• Dynamic Programming (Discrete)
• Nonlinear Programming or Multivariable
Search Methods

© Dr. Intisar Ali, UET Taxila 60

• Integer Programming
• Separable Programming
• Goal Programming or Multicriterion
Optimization
• Combinatorial Programming
• Maximum Principle (Discrete)
• Heuristic Programming

© Dr. Intisar Ali, UET Taxila 61

 2. VARIATIONAL METHODS
• The objective is to locate the optimal function
that maximizes or minimizes the objective
function.
• Variational methods are for dynamic
problems.

© Dr. Intisar Ali, UET Taxila 62

 Variational Methods
• Calculus of Variations
• Dynamic Programming (continuous)
• Maximum Principle (continuous)

© Dr. Intisar Ali, UET Taxila 63

Some important Terms

© Dr. Intisar Ali, UET Taxila 64

A simple unconstrained optimization
problem
Minimize the following function:

f ( x1 x2)  025x12  x22

Solution:

65
A simple unconstrained optimization
problem
Minimize the following function:
Solution:
f ( x1 x2)  025x12  x22 df  0 and df  0
dx1 dx2
or
 
 df 
Gradient of f is  dx   
 1   f  0
Defined as   0
 df   
 dx 

 2


Optimum:
X1=0
X2=0
66
Minimization with Equality and
Inequality Constraints

© Dr. Intisar Ali, UET Taxila 67

 Minimize within a
linear equality constraint
Minimize  f ( x1 x2 )  025x12  x22
Subject to the constraint  ( x1 x2 )  0
Where  ( x1 x2 )  5  x1  x2

68
Defining the optimum mathematically

At the optimum we observe that this equation holds:

f   0
69
Solution using a LaGrange Function
L ( x1 x2 )  f ( x1 x2)  ( x1 x2)

This problem now has three variables: x1, x2, and 

At the optimum  L  0
x1
L  0
x2
L  0


This presents us with the need to solve three

equations in three unknowns.
70