University of Engineering and Technology Taxila

Electrical Engineering Department

7TH Semester
INSTRUMENTATION&MEASUREMENT
ASSIGNMENT
Submitted To:
Engr.Hammad Shaukat
Submitted By:
Nimra Shaheen
17-EE-08
Section:
“B”
Date :
23-1-2021
Contents
ASSIGNMENT TITLE:................................................................................................................. 3
Signal generator:......................................................................................................................... 3
Block Diagram.......................................................................................................................... 3
Types of Signal Generators......................................................................................................... 4
Arbitrary Waveform Generators...............................................................................................4
Arbitrary Waveform Generator techniques............................................................................4
Arbitrary waveform generator resolution and speed.............................................................5
Waveform capture................................................................................................................ 6
Additional arbitrary waveform generator capabilities.............................................................7
Arbitrary waveform generator applications............................................................................7
RF Signal Generators.............................................................................................................. 8
Types of RF signal generator...............................................................................................9
Audio Signal Generators........................................................................................................10
Video Signal Generator.......................................................................................................... 10
Function Generator................................................................................................................ 11
Types of function generator................................................................................................11
Function generator controls................................................................................................12
Pulse Generator..................................................................................................................... 13
Pulse generator basics.......................................................................................................13
Analog Signal Generators......................................................................................................14
Vector signal generators........................................................................................................ 14
Logical Signal Generators......................................................................................................14
Applications:.............................................................................................................................. 14
References:............................................................................................................................... 15
ASSIGNMENT TITLE:
Describe different types of signal generators, their
categories and applications.

Signal generator:
An electronic device or instrument that generates continuous and discrete signals like
analog and digital is known as a signal generator. These systems are mainly used
for testing, signal tracing, debugging, troubleshooting, amplifier response adjustment,
etc. The output of the signal generator can be changed through setting its amplitude as
well as frequency in the simulation process.

Block Diagram
In the block diagram of signal generator, voltage controlled oscillator is an essential part
because the input controlled voltage can be determined through the frequency of the
voltage-controlled oscillator. So both the control voltage and VCO’s frequency are
directly proportional.
Once the signal is given to the control input then it generates the oscillator frequency.
Once the audio input signal is given to the control voltage then the frequency modulated
signal will be produced using VCO. The signal generator generates the tone, waveforms
in digital patterns, and arbitrary. Once the signal generates an un-modulated signal,
then these are known for producing continuous wave signals. So it generates a square
wave modulated signal, complex and triangular waves, etc.
Types of Signal Generators
Signal generators are classified into different types based on the capacity as well as its
functionality. These are available in different dimensions, designs as well as
parameters. So these generators are used for different purposes.

Arbitrary Waveform Generators

These generators are used to generate arbitrary streams for digital data. So the shape
of these signals cannot be stable. This generator includes two separate output channels
used for stimulating two systems instantaneously. The main function of this generator is
to activate a system using a complex signal. This generator includes a display to display
a precise arbitrary waveform so that it helps to keep away from the possibility of mistake
when choosing waveform from system memory. The bandwidth of these generators
have limited and compared with function generators, these generators are expensive.
These generators are used in communication, semiconductor component, etc.

Arbitrary Waveform Generator techniques

There are a number of ways of designing arbitrary waveform generators. They are
based around digital techniques, and their design falls into one of the main categories
below:

 Direct Digital Synthesis, DDS:   This type of arbitrary waveform generator is

based around the DDS types of frequency synthesizer, and sometimes it may be
referred to as an Arbitrary Function Generator, AFG.
 Variable-clock arbitrary waveform generator   The variable clock arbitrary
function generator is the more flexible form of arbitrary waveform generator. These
arbitrary waveform generators are generally more flexible, although they do have
some limitations not possessed by the DDS versions. Sometimes these generators
are referred to as just arbitrary waveform generators, AWGs rather than arbitrary
function generators.
 Combined arbitrary waveform generator   This format of AWG combines both
of the other forms including the DDS and variable clock techniques. In this way the
advantages of both systems can be realized within a single item of test equipment.
Arbitrary waveform generators have been enabled by the advances in digital technology
- it can be seen that all the techniques used are digital in concept. With chips like direct
digital synthesis, DDS now becoming available at relatively low costs, these enable
ARBs to be designed and manufactured far more easily than even a few years ago.

It should also be mentioned that some software to create arbitrary waveforms is

available to run on personal computers. Whilst this is a very cheap option to provide one
of these test instruments, the output circuitry provided by the PC may limit the capability
and performance significantly.

Arbitrary waveform generator resolution and speed

Two of the main specifications for an arbitrary waveform generator are their resolution
and also the speed. These two parameters determine the precision with which the
waveform can be reproduced. They are governed by different elements within the
arbitrary waveform generator circuit.

The amplitude resolution is governed by the resolution of the digital to analogue

converter (D/A or D2A). This is described in terms of the number of bits. A 12 bit
resolution provides 4096 amplitude steps.

The speed of the arbitrary waveform generator is also very important. The maximum
repetition rate for the waveform is governed by two factors: the length of the waveform
in terms of the number of samples required to simulate the waveform and the maximum
clock frequency. For example if the arbitrary waveform generator had a maximum clock
frequency of 25 MHz and the waveform had 1000 points, then the maximum repetition
rate would be 25 kHz. If a higher repetition rate was required, then it would be
necessary to decrease the number of samples as it would not be possible to increase
the clock frequency in the arbitrary waveform generator!
Waveform capture

Before an arbitrary waveform generator can produce a signal it is necessary to enter the
points for the required output. There are a number of ways in which the waveform for an
arbitrary waveform generator can be captured or generated:

 Capture a real waveform. This can be done using either a digitiser of a digital
oscilloscope.

 Use in-built waveform editing on the arbitrary waveform generator. Many AWGs
have some degree of waveform generation and editing capability built on board,
although this may not be as flexible as a full PC based editing solution.

 Another way is to generate the waveform using software running on a PC. Very
sophisticated digital editing software is available for this and allows for many
variations to be incorporated.

Either of these methods can be used and then the digital information can be
downloaded onto the arbitrary waveform generator to enable it to provide the required
output. It should be remembered that not all of the capabilities for waveform capture and
entry may be available on all AWGs.
Even relatively low cost digital oscilloscopes sometimes have a built in arbitrary
waveform generator

Additional arbitrary waveform generator capabilities

Some arbitrary waveform generators can also operate as conventional function

generators. These can include standard waveforms such as sine, square, ramp,
triangle, noise and pulse. Some units include additional built-in waveforms such as
exponential rise and fall times, sinx/x, etc.. In this way a single instrument can be sued
in a variety of applications, even if the full AWG capability is not required, thereby
saving he cost of purchasing a variety of generators for what are very similar purposes.

Some arbitrary waveform generators have the ability to output a pattern of words on a
multiple-bit connector to simulate data transmission, combining the properties of both
AWGs and digital pattern generators.

Arbitrary waveform generator applications

AWGs are used in many applications where specialized waveforms are required. These
can be within a whole variety of sectors of the electronics industry.

To give a view of some of the AWG applications, it is possible for DDS-based arbitrary
waveform generators is to create signals with precisely controlled phase offsets or ratio-
related frequencies. This enables the generation of signals like polyphase sine waves, I-
Q constellations, or simulation of signals from geared mechanical systems such as jet
engines. Complex channel-channel modulations are also possible.
The arbitrary waveform generator may not be the most widely used of items of test
instrumentation, but they can be immensely useful in a variety of applications. Modern
arbitrary waveform generators are very flexible and can be used to create very specific
waveforms for use in testing a variety of applications. Often AWGs are contained within
modern digital oscilloscopes

RF Signal Generators
This generator is designed to generate signals like the phase-locked loop (PLL) & direct
digital synthesis. In most of the signal generators, PLL is used for providing accuracy as
well as the stability needed for the system. These generators produce analog signals in
their frequency range.

The microwave & RF generators are approximately similar apart from they have a
diverse range of frequency. But as compared with RF generators, the frequency range
of microwave generators has a high range of frequency. RF signal generators are
mainly used to test the systems, broadcasting of audio & video, electronic warfare,
radar, satellite communication, etc. These generators are available in three forms like
analog, vector, and logical.
Types of RF signal generator

It is possible to design radio frequency signal generators in a variety of ways. Also with
developments that have been made in electronics circuitry over the years, different
techniques have evolved.

The capabilities of the test instruments available have developed considerably in recent
years, but the basic concepts remain the same.

It can be said that there are two forms of signal generator that can be used:

 Free running RF signal generators:   These RF generators are rarely used

these days as their frequency tends to drift. Sometimes low end simple signal
generators utilized one or two transistors and had a very basic level of performance
and their cost was affordable for many experimenters. These very basic RF signal
generators are now rarely seen these days.
However high end free running RF generators have been made and they have the
advantage that the signal produced is very clean and does not have the level of
phase noise either side of the main signal that is present on some other radio
frequency signal generators.
Some signal generators used a form of frequency locked loop to provide a means of
adding some frequency stability while still retaining the very low levels of phase
noise. Again, these are not common these days because the performance of RF
signal generators using frequency synthesizer technology has considerably
improved.
 Synthesized radio frequency signal generators:   Virtually all radio frequency
signal generators used today employ frequency synthesizer technology. Using this
technique enables frequencies to be entered directly from a keypad, or via remote
control and it also enables the output signal to be determined very accurately. The
accuracy being dependent upon either an internal reference oscillator that can have
a very high degree of accuracy, or the signal can be locked to an external frequency
reference which can be exceedingly accurate.
 There are two main techniques that are used within synthesized RF signal
generators:

 Phase locked loop synthesizer:   Phase locked loop synthesizers are used
within most RF signal generators as they enable signals to be generated over a
wide range of frequencies with a relatively low level of spurious signals. Phase
locked loop synthesizer technology is well developed and enables high
performance RF signal generators to be produced using them.
 Direct Digital Synthesizer, DDS:   Direct digital synthesis techniques may
be used in RF signal generators. They enable very fine frequency increments to
be achieved relatively easily. However the maximum limit of a DDS is normally
much lower than the top frequencies required for the signal generator, so they are
used in conjunction with phase locked loops to give the required frequency range.
Whatever the type of oscillator used, stability, control, accuracy and also phase noise
are key issues. For many of today’s test instrumentation requirements, the use of
frequency synthesizers means that the stability, control and accuracy are very good.
However the phase noise can be an issue in some applications

Audio Signal Generators

These generators play a key role in generating audible signals which range from 20 Hz
– 20 KHz. These generators are used in audio systems for checking its frequency
response as well as measurements of distortion. Using this generator along with a
simple circuit, very little distortion can also be measured. The harmonic distortion levels
of this generator are less. The applications of these generators are electronic labs for
various purposes. These generators use complex techniques for generating audio
signals.

Video Signal Generator

This kind of generator mainly used to generate video signals. The main factor-like
synchronization will affect the quality of video on TV, so the output signal of the video
generator normally includes synchronization signals. These signals contain horizontal &
vertical synchronization.

Function Generator
The function generator mainly includes an oscillator and the main function of this type of
generator is to generate simple recurring waveforms like sine, square, triangular, and
saw-tooth. At present, these generators may utilize digital signal processing methods for
producing digital waveforms & converts these signals from digital to analog. There are a
variety of these generators are available like a black box including USB interfaces,
applicable in instrumentation bus, etc. The applications of these generators are in the
education field, electrical & electronic device repair, etc.

Types of function generator

There are several forms that the function generator can take. With modern digital
technology there are many formats for this type of test equipment.

 Bench top test instrument:   The most widely used form of function generator
in the test laboratory is the test instrument contained within a box that sits on the
laboratory bench. This test instrument contains the power supply, controls, display
and of course the output connector.
 Rack based test instrument:   Another format that this type of test equipment
can take is a module within a rack system like PXI. Based on PCI, the PXI rack
system has been developed specifically for test applications and includes a slot for
either a controller or link to a computer. Test instrument cards slot into the chassis,
 enabling a test system to be created to meet the needs of the particular test
application required. The test instrument cards can include any type of test
instrument including volt meters, oscilloscopes, and of course a function generator
 USB function generator:   A number of small function generators are available
as USB based test instruments. They contain the core of the function generator
within the module that connects to a computer via a USB connection. This approach
means that the power and control interfaces can use the PC rather than having the
expense and space required to provide these within a larger box for the test
instrument.
 Computer based function generator:   A different approach is to use software
based within a computer to provide the required waveforms and then use a digital
card of the computer's audio output for the signal. Whilst very cheap, this may not
have the output capability and accuracy of other types of test instrument. Also if the
output is damaged as a result of the testing and a possible misconnection, etc it can
result in costly repairs.

Function generators are normally very easy to operate. With modern processing
technology often included this gives the possibility of many additional features including
ease of operation, and remote control via one or more of the many standards available .

Function generator controls

In addition to a selection of the basic waveforms that are available, other controls on the
function generator may include:

 Frequency:   As would be expected, this control alters the basic frequency at

which the waveform repeats. It is independent of the waveform type.
 Waveform type :   This enables the different basic waveform types to be
selected:

 Sine wave
  Square wave

 Triangular wave

 DC offset:   This alters the average voltage of a signal relative to 0V or ground.

 Duty cycle:   This control on the function generator changes the ratio of high
voltage to low voltage time in a square wave signal, i.e. changing the waveform from
a square wave with a 1:1 duty cycle to a pulse waveform, or a triangular waveform
with equal rise and fall times to a saw-tooth.

Pulse Generator
The pulse generator is used to generate the waveforms in the pulse form. The pulse
generated by this generator includes variable delays, variable rise as well as fall times.
Pulse signals are frequently required while testing a variety of analog or digital circuits.

Pulse generator basics

Pulse generators are used to provide pulses for use in a variety of electronic
applications. Typically pulse generators will provide a number of functions and
capabilities:

 Rectangular wave generation   As the name implies a pulse generator is

designed to produce pulses that are rectangular in nature, often capable of driving
logic circuitry, although they are not necessarily confined to just this type of
application.
 Pulse width:   In order to produce a variety of waveforms, the pulse width can be
varied.
 Repetition rate :   The repetition rate is a key parameter. When used in a "free
run" mode, the repetition rate can be varied.
 Pulse trigger:   Using an external waveform, it is possible to trigger the pulse
generator. Pulse triggering can normally occur on either the negative or positive edge
via a selection switch.
 Pulse delay:   When a pulse is triggered it is normal to be able to select a delay
for the pulse from the pulse generator. This delay is adjustable.
 Pulse amplitude:   Although the pulse amplitude will normally be required to
drive logic circuits, the amplitude is normally adjustable. If nothing else this is
required because there are many standard logic levels in use today.
 Pulse rise and fall times:   For some applications it may be necessary to be
able to adjust the rise and fall times of the logic outputs. This facility is available on
many pulse generators.

Analog Signal Generators

It is based on sine wave oscillator with a sharp distinction in design of radio frequency
and audio frequency signal generators. But now it is outdated and digital electronics are
in use.

Vector signal generators

Vector signal generators also called digital signal generators are capable of generating
digitally modulated radio signals with complex modulation formats such as QPSK<
QAM, etc.

Logical Signal Generators

Logical signal generators produce logic pulses in the form of conventional voltage
levels. These generators are often called digital pattern generators. Pulse generators
are able to generate pulses with variable delays and some even offer variable rise and
fall times. It is used for functional validation and testing.
Applications:
 An arbitrary waveform generator is used in test & high-end design applications
 RF & microwave signal generators mainly used in components testing, test
systems, and receivers in an extensive range of applications like WiFi, cellular
communications, radar, GPS, WiMAX, broadcasting of audio & video, satellite,
electronic warfare, etc.
 Pulse generators may use either digital or analogue techniques, or a mixture of both.
Elements such as triggering and the pulse generation will almost certainly utilize
digital technology, but aspects such as the rise and fall time control on the pulse
generator are likely to use analogue techniques.
 Function generator is used to create clock signals to digital circuits, test
communication circuits, generate signals to send to integrator or differentiation
circuits to test their outputs ,send pulses to circuits to trigger events, vary pulse
widths (PWM) to control a motor’s speed.

References:
https://www.elprocus.com/what-is-a-signal-generator-working-its-applications/
https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/test-methods/signal-generators/pulse-generator.php

https://www.electrical4u.com/signal-generator/

https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-applications-of-a-function-generator