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NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Radiography:
 _____________ inspection method based on defects with different densities than the part
being inspected.
 Not as effective in the detection of planar type flaws that are ______________ to the x-ray
beam (such as delaminations).
 Uses radiation (________ or ________________) to penetrate a part and create an
image on radiographic film, or screen in the case of real-time radiography.
 _______________ other test methods such as eddy current or ultrasonic testing.

Radiography detects flaws (metallic or slag inclusions, porosity, cracks, etc.), which show a
density difference.

Ultrasonics:
Detects flaws, which present a reflective surface, which is _________________ to a high
frequency sound beam.
A wide variety of materials can be inspected; metals, plastics, composites.
Access is normally only required from ________ of part.
Applications include:
 Thickness Testing: Measure remaining wall thickness (precision or ___________)
 Flaw Detection: Detection of laminations, disbonding, weldment flaws, voids, cracks,
porosity, and inclusions.

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NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Acoustic Emission:
Based on the principle that ultrasonic pulses are produced by the test part itself when a flaw
propagates in the part.
This is primarily due to _________________ in the part usually caused by pressurizing the part.
These pulses are then picked up by ______________ ultrasonic transducers coupled to the part.
The location of the _______________ of these pulses can then be identified by triangulation of the
signals received from three or more transducers.
In general, this source of a ___________________ flaw is verified by other NDT methods such as
ultrasonic inspection.

Thermal/Infrared:
Monitoring ____________________ can often be used to locate problems in various components
such as _________________ components, electrical components, mechanic stress patterns in
metals, flaws in metals and composites, and monitoring machine tools and work pieces for
improper __________________ during the cutting process.
The test may be contact, using coatings that alter their color or appearance with temperature
changes.
Non-contact tests use __________________ cameras, scanners, microscopes, or film.

Resonance Inspection:
Also called Resonance Ultrasonic Spectroscopy, RI is a ―______________________‖ resonance
approach to nondestructive testing.
Strike an object, for example, a wine glass, and listen to its tone (__________________of
vibration). If the glass is cracked, it doesn’t have the same ―ring‖ to it.
Modern RI testing uses this basic idea but also uses sophisticated computer analysis of the
__________________________ frequencies and the subtle shifts in frequencies caused by flaws,
geometry, hardness, or chemistry.

Electromagnetic Testing:
Electromagnetic testing includes two different but related NDT technologies:
Fringe Flux Testing: (also called_____________ or _________________ testing)
Fringe flux testing involves inducing a direct current magnetic field into a part.
If there are flaws near the surface of the part that are somewhat __________________ to this
field, the magnetic field will "divert" around the flaw.

Some of this ________________ will divert

outside the surface of the part. A Coil
________________ passes over the surface
and cuts through the field, thus producing an
electrical signal, detecting the flaw. N S
A common application is
___________________inspection.
Either the pipe rotates or the magnet/coil Coil
assembly rotates Steel pipe

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NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Eddy Current Testing:

Eddy Current Testing is used for the detection of surface and near surface flaws, plating and
coating thickness, changes in electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability, and dimensional
changes.
Eddy currents are induced into an ___________________ conductive part by using an alternating
current coil which generates an alternating _______________________________ in the part.
This in turn induces eddy currents in the part.
The eddy current instrument displays changes in the eddy current flow.
There is a wide range of equipment available for eddy current testing:
 Simple portable digital readout meters for conductivity or plating and coating thickness
measurement or flaw detection.
 Portable ___________________________ eddy current flaw detectors using hand-held
probes.
 Complex fully automatic eddy current test systems using ___________________________
and analysis for high-speed on-line testing.

Portable Eddy Current flaw detector

Signals from calibration
notches at different depths as
shown on an eddy current
impedance plane display

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Advantages of Eddy Current Testing

 Wide range of applications

 Sensitive to many __________________
 Safe
 Portable
 Relatively low cost
 Quick response, no waiting for developers, etc.
 No chemicals, liquids, couplant, powder, film
 No need to remove ________________________from surface
 Can be easily _____________________ for high-speed inspection
 Can be _______________________, therefore, hot parts can be inspected

Limitations of Eddy Current Testing

 Part must be ________________________.

 Sensitive to many variables (can be difficult to sort out variables and to identify
specific problems; results are affected by ―probe wobble‖, lift-off, edge effects, inside
corners, threads, etc.).
 Only for surface or near surface discontinuity inspection.
 For nonmagnetic parts, cannot separate different alloys that have the same
____________________________.
 For ferromagnetic materials, _____________________ variations can adversely
affect results
 Requires skilled operator for setup and interpretation.

Eddy Current Testing Applications

Eddy current can be used on any _____________________ material, ferrous or nonmagnetic.
Applications include:
 Detection of ____________________
 Electrical conductivity measurement
 Thickness measurement (foil, sheet metal, metallic plating, nonconductive coatings,
corrosion in thin tubes)
 Material ____________ (grade separators, alloy identity)
 Hardness (ferromagnetic or nonmagnetic)
 Material __________________ (weld seams, hard spots, density)
 Geometry (inside and outside diameters, eccentricity)
 ____________ (industrial process control, traffic signals)
 Metal detectors

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Electromagnetic Theory

1.Magnetism and Electromagnetism

2.Generation of Alternating Current
3.Review of Basic Electrical Circuits
4.Relationship of Voltage and Current to Impedance
5.Generation of Eddy Currents
6.Variables Affecting Eddy Currents

History

Early experimenters in the field of magnetism and electromagnetism established the basis for the
principles of electromagnetic nondestructive examination used today.
In the period from 1775 to 1900, scientists such as Coulomb, Ampere, Faraday, Oersted, Arago,
Maxwell and Kelvin Investigated and cataloged most of what is known about magnetism and
electromagnetism.
These early discoveries serve as the foundation for our study of eddy current testing

In 1820, Oersted discovered the existence of a magnetic field surrounding a conductor when an
____________________________________________was passed through the conductor.

current flow

magnetic field

He proposed that electric current flowing through an electrical conductor ____________________

around the conductor.

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History
magnetic field

Oersted noticed that a compass

needle was affected when
________________________ flowed
through a current flow
nearby wire.

He also observed that a magnetic

field developed in a
_________________________ plane N
to the direction of current flow in a
wire. W E

Faraday subsequently showed that a __________________ magnetic field, coupling

through a soft iron ring, generates a current in another coil wound around the ring.

Later, Maxwell expressed this in his equations for the behavior of the ________________,
which forms the foundation for Eddy Current technology today.

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History

In the same year, Ampere discovered that equal currents flowing in opposite directions in adjacent
conductors cancelled the magnetic effect.

current flow Magnetic fields from

opposing current flow
cancels each other out.
current flow

This discovery has led to the development of modern eddy current probe coil arrangements and
shielding techniques.

In 1821, Arago discovered that the oscillation of a magnet was rapidly damped when a
nonmagnetic conducting disk was placed near the magnet.

motion

Magnet

Conducting disk

Arago also observed that by rotating the disk, the magnet was attracted to the disk.
In effect, Arago had introduced a varying magnetic field to the disk causing eddy currents to flow
in the disk.
The eddy currents then produced a magnetic field in the disk that attracted the magnet.
Arago's simple model is a basis for many of the automobile speedometers used today.

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History

In 1831 Michael Faraday discovered the principles of electromagnetic

_____________. Faraday noticed that when he connected a coil of wire to a battery he
got an electrical current through a second coil placed near the first coil, but just for an
instant.
Also, when he disconnected the battery he got an electrical current through a second
coil for just an instant, and the second current was in the opposite direction of the first
current.
He concluded that the first coil was ___________ a current in the second coil but only
when he turned the battery on and off.
Faraday reasoned that the magnetic field could be the _________ between the two
coils.
But since the currents occurred only at the moment when the battery was turned on
and off, it could only be the __________ in the magnetic field that caused the current to
flow in the secondary coil.
Here's what Faraday's experiment looked like:

Switch

Battery Primary Secondary

coil coil
Ammeter

The next logical step was to make different changes in the setup and see what
effect they had.
For example:

•change the ______________ in the primary coil

•change the _____________ of the primary coil
•change the amount of _______ in the primary coil
•change the number of turns in the __________ coil
•change the physical size of the secondary coil
•change the _________ between the coils

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History
All of the variables in the previous example affect the current in the secondary coil in
one way or another.
There is only current induced in the secondary coil if the magnetic field is
___________, not by the simple presence of a magnetic field.

Current was induced only when the

lines of force of the magnetic field
moved past the _________________.

Generation of alternating current

It is possible to induce a current by moving a coil through a magnetic field as shown

below:

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Generation of alternating current

In the previous example, a coil of wire was placed in the open end of a horseshoe magnet and
given a spin. Electricity was induced in the coil.
However, the current induced did not travel in the same direction through the coil at all times, nor
was it a constant value.
The current started out at zero, rose to a ________________________ value in one direction,
returned to zero, then rose to a maximum value in the opposite direction, and returned to zero in
one complete ____________________________ of the coil.

The induction of the electrical current into the coil is due to the
__________________________________ between the magnetic field and the coil.
It makes no difference whether the magnetic field is expanding or contracting past the coil or
whether the coil is moving through the magnetic field.
The __________________________ motion is the same.
Thus, a current is induced in the coil in either case.
The figure on the next slide illustrates this point.

A bar magnet moving through a coil of wire

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