Chapter 2: Methodological Foundations

This chapter is aimed at presenting the methodological foundations of this

research. It provides not only an analysis of Reading Comprehension at the
advanced level, but also the results of the lesson observations, surveys and
interviews carried out in order to achieve the main objective of this paper.

2.1- Analysis of Reading Comprehension at the Advanced Level.

2.1.1- The Syllabuses of English Language III and English Language IV.

Brown (1994) defines syllabus as “designs for carrying out a particular language
program. Features include a primary concern with the specification of linguistic and
subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials to meet the needs of a
designated group of learners in a defined context.”

In Audiovisuals Materials in English Language Teaching: A View on

Discrimination, Beatriz Soto (2017) affirms that there are different kinds of
syllabuses, for example: grammatical-lexical, situational, topic-based, notional, and
procedural. According to this, and the fact that the structure of the course relays on
the basis of a collection of materials that allows the interaction between the
students and the language through content-based materials, it can be stated that
the syllabuses of English Language III and English Language IV are primarily
classified as topic-based.

These syllabuses are mainly characterized by the implementation of listening

comprehension and oral expression activities, taking into consideration a previous
preparation that has included Reading Comprehension, the search of information
and the elaboration of written tasks. This means that, English Language III and
English Language IV are conceived with the integration of the four linguistic skills:
Listening Comprehension, Oral Expression, Reading Comprehension and Writing
Expression; and the first two skills receive more attention. Each of these subjects
will be developed for a whole semester with systematic forms of evaluations, such
as daily participation in practical lessons, oral team and individual presentations
about the topics tackled in classes, written tasks, tours around relevant historical,
cultural or touristic spots, among others; plus, a final exam.

Reading Comprehension within these syllabuses possesses the following

objectives:

- “To understand texts of advanced complexity of wide-ranging styles and

registers”.
- “To analyze the logical and formal structure of the text and to identify
different text types”.
- “To determine intertextual relations”.
- “To identify generalizations, inferring opinions, viewpoints and judgments in
the texts”.
- “To assess the writer’s message critically”.
- “To apply analytic reading strategies reading in class and independently”.
- “To determine the essential aspects that express the sense of the text, and
to distinguish the implicit from the explicit”.
- “To develop inference of meanings by context, analogy and word formation”.

English Language III is implemented during the first semester of the second year of
the English Major at the School of Foreign Languages of the University of Havana.
It is divided into four units: Success, Society and Technology, Wealth and Poverty,
and Medicine. Within the 160 hours-class (1 hour-class matches 45 minutes)
planned for this subject, there are 16 hours-class completely or partially devoted to
Reading Comprehension skill (6 hours-class are meant to the development of this
skill as such, and in the other 10 hours-class, Reading Comprehension is used as
a tool for the development of the other skills, mainly Oral Expression). In the first
unit Success, there are 2 hours-class meant to trigger a debate about plagiarism in
university, based on an article related to this topic. In the third unit Wealth and
Poverty, there are 2 hours-class devoted to the development of Reading
Comprehension skill through a critical article, written in Spanish, about charity in
the capitalism, and there are 8 hours-class in which reading materials are intended
to develop team presentations about the current economic global order, the
distribution of wealth in the world, and the capitalist system. In the fourth unit
Medicine, there are 4 hours-class dedicated to the development of Reading
Comprehension skill through different articles, also written in Spanish, related to
the topic of this unit.

On the other hand, English Language IV is implemented during the second

semester of the second year of the English Major at the School of Foreign
Languages of the University of Havana. It is also divided into four units:
Environment, History, Massive Media and Literature. It is conceived with a total of
160 hours-class1, of which 30 hours-class are completely or partially devoted to
Reading Comprehension skill (14 hours-class are intended to the development of
this skill as such, and in the other 16 hours-class, Reading Comprehension is used
as a vehicle to reinforce other skills, mainly Oral Expression). In the second unit
History, there are 2 hours-class designed to the development of Reading
Comprehension skill as such. In the third unit Massive Media, there are 12 hours-
class devoted to the development of Reading Comprehension skill through
different articles related to the topic of the unit, and 16 hours-class in which the
reading materials, written in Spanish, are used as reference for group debate and
for the execution of team presentations.

In a nutshell, Reading Comprehension within English Language III and

English Language IV is closely integrated with Oral Expression, and the optimal
goals of the reading materials (mostly journalistic articles written in Spanish)
implemented in these subjects are: promoting a debate among the students and
being used as reference in the execution of team presentations. The main
objective of Reading Comprehension classes is to tackle, simultaneously with the
other skills, the different units and topics conceived in the syllabuses.

1
The syllabus is not complete as the last unit is still under changes; thus, we have carried out our
analysis with the existing information.
2.2- Analysis of the Lesson Observations.

In our analysis of Reading Comprehension at the advanced level, lesson

observations have played a significant role, because they have helped us to know
closely the student’s needs, the teachers’ work, and the results of the expected
general objectives of the syllabuses.

During this course, several classes of English Language III and English
Language IV were visited. Some of these classes were devoted to develop
Reading Comprehension skill, and others used reading as a tool for reinforcing
other skills, such as Oral Expression. In order to achieve the best results,
professors supported themselves with different teaching aids, such as the board,
the projector, the computer, as well as digital and printed text materials. The
content and the exercises worked in classes were in correspondence with the
student’s language proficiency level (advanced).

It can be affirmed that the main purposes of all these classes were to practice
student’s Reading Comprehension strategies and microskills, as well as to
reinforce the general topic dealt with, because text materials provided to the
students facts, opinions, and different points of views regarding the general topic.
Some of the text materials worked in classes were: Working for the Few (Wealth
and Poverty), Obesity is Found to Gain Its Hold in Earliest Years (Medicine),
Professor and Author Piero Gleijeses Sends a Letter to Obama (History), and 40
razones para desmentir que Cuba sea enemiga de Internet (Massive Media).

Some text materials did not catch student’s motivation, as some of them dealt
with topics that were not appealing to the students, other texts were outdated, and
others were written in Spanish, which caused a sense of boredom among
advanced-level students. Hence, students’ motivation was very poor and students’
participation in class was affected. The fact that students had to work regularly with
digital texts, using their cellphones or tablets as teaching aids, caused distraction
among them.
 Professors did occasionally used updated texts, which served as a hook for
motivating students, and improved students’ participation. Nevertheless, this
technique was not applied in all the lessons, as it demands a lot of time and effort
by the professors. Besides, this caused that sometimes, students had already
worked with the text in another topic, as there is an entire course devoted to
English Language III and English Language IV, and topics are interconnected.

Students’ response towards teacher’s correction was positive; however, some

of the student’s mistakes could have been avoided if they would have been
motivated. These mistakes, related specifically to the answer of different exercises
designed to develop and practice Reading Comprehension strategies and
microskills, prove that all the advanced level students cannot be classified as
efficient readers, and consequently, that the development of Reading
Comprehension at the advanced level is not successful.

A possible solution for this problem could be the implementation of a Reader

at the advanced level, which would facilitate professors’ work and would increase
students’ motivation. This Reader would follow certain criteria that would have as
main objective the satisfaction of the students’ needs, and at the same time, it
would help to achieve the general objectives of the syllabuses of English Language
III and English Language IV.

2.3- Analysis of the Surveys.

In a previous research conducted by the author of this paper, a survey intended to

advanced-level students was carried out. It was applied to a total of 34 students.
This survey aimed at establishing the students’ opinion towards Reading
Comprehension at the advanced level.

According to this survey the vast majority of the students (82% approximately)
is able to apply Reading Comprehension strategies properly; and 25 out of 34
students (73.5% approximately) consider themselves efficient readers.
 Regarding the development of Reading Comprehension at the advanced
level, 20 students (55%) agree that it is not successful, and some of the factors
identified by the students of this sample as interfering in this development are: lack
of practice (38%), text materials (50%), topics tackled in classes (41%) and lack of
motivation (61%). Moreover, 27 out of 36 students (66%) rated text materials as
the main factor, because they constitute the core of the Reading Comprehension
process; if they are not appealing to the students, they would affect students’
motivation, students’ practice and students’ interest on the topics tackled in
classes. Students pointed out that these text materials are sometimes outdated, do
not cover all the topics tackled in classes, some of them are written in Spanish and
others are too long.

Finally, 33 out of 36 students (86%) considered that text materials worked in

classes should be modified, and they agreed on the fact that the implementation of
a Reader at the advanced level could be a useful tool in the development of these
subjects. Some of their reasons were:

- It could increase students’ motivation.

- It could help to facilitate professors’ work, and to increase students’
knowledge about the topic.
- It could help to improve students’ training, which develops students’
Reading Comprehension strategies and microskills.
- It will enhance students’ culture and vocabulary.
- Students could have the texts both physically and digitally; therefore, it could
be used as a tool for individual study.
- All the topics tackled in classes would be covered.

This Reader would compile several text materials that will be in correspondence
with the topics tackled in classes, and at the same time, they will respond to certain
criteria that would have as main objective the satisfaction of the students’ needs.
The Reader should help to achieve the general objectives of the syllabuses of
English Language III and English Language IV.
2.4 Analysis of the Interviews to the Current Professors of English Language
III and English Language IV.

In a previous research carried out by the author of this paper, professors involved
with the teaching-learning process of English Language at the advanced level
affirmed the necessity of selecting new text materials for implementing in these
classes; in fact, they have already undergone certain modifications.

In the case of reading materials, modifications have been oriented to the use
of: updated text materials (by updated we mean not only texts written currently, but
also related to current events or new relevant findings or facts associated with the
topics tackled in the syllabuses), authentic texts, and shorter texts (no more than
two pages). Texts written in Spanish have been the most common modified texts.

Nevertheless, these are spontaneous rather than permanent modifications, as

there are no records of them. This means that, every academic course, professors
bring to the class what they can find from different sources, which, at the same
time, needs to be suitable for advanced-level students. This lack of records brings
about several consequences, such as the use of the same text material in more
than one unit, since some units are closely interrelated.

The current professors of English Language III and English Language IV

agree on the fact that the selection of new text materials is a complex process
rather than a random one, which involves a lot of time and effort. These professors
hold the opinion that implementing a Reader at the advanced level could be a
useful tool, because it would not only facilitate professors’ work, but also students’
individual study, and at the same time, it would improve students’ cultural
background.

2.5 Criteria for the Selection of Text Materials for the Implementation of a
Reader at the Advanced Level.

The selection and the development of reading materials, specifically of text

materials, require a reflective, resourceful and receptive process, in which several
criteria are involved (Molina, 2010). According to most researchers, these criteria
can be divided into two major groups: criteria related to the students and criteria
related to the texts (Ghahroudi & Sheikhzadeh, 2017).

Among the criteria related to the students, we can find the following:

- Students’ level: In this case, we will be focused on the advanced level.

- Students’ interests: It will help the teacher to choose interesting texts to the
students.
- Students’ purpose for reading: It will help the teacher to determine the types
of texts that would be suitable to the students.
- Students’ needs: In this case, the teacher needs to consider both, individual
and common needs to find appropriate texts.
- Students’ background knowledge: It will help the teacher to guarantee a
balance between the texts and several students, and to offer the appropriate
and necessary background information to the students before they are
asked to read the texts.

Among the criteria related to the texts, we can mention:

- Relevance: Texts must be relevant either for the personal or professional

students’ lives.
- Content of the texts: Texts should be “semantically and conceptually
complete”. Moreover, their contents should be “useful, meaningful and
interesting” to the students.
- Exploitability: Texts must be teachers’ tools for accomplishing the objectives
of the classes, and at the same time, they must develop students’
competence as readers.
- Suitability: It is directly related to the students’ needs and interests because
texts must be interesting to the students as well as relevant to their needs.
- Readability: Texts must be syntactically and lexically appropriate, have a
logical or rhetorical order of ideas, be a textual phenomenon at the
discourse level, and include the background knowledge of the students.
 - Organization: The organization of texts must be clear and coherent.
- Discourse phenomena: Texts must possess a proper arrangement of the
topics and be coherent and cohesive. This means that “the major points
should be clearly stated, and introductions and conclusions should be clear
and recognizable”. Moreover, texts should include cohesion markers and
transition devices, which will foster students’ linguistic competence.
- Length of the passage: Texts must have the appropriate length (in this case,
based on the lesson observations carried out and the interviewed
professors’ opinions, texts should not exceed two pages to avoid boredom
and guarantee the success of the Reading Comprehension process).
- Topic: The teacher must choose different text types with a variety of topics
based on the syllabus and the students’ needs and interests.
- Political appropriateness: The teacher must avoid texts that tackle politically
sensitive issues.
- Cultural familiarization: The teacher must suit the cultural norms that might
appear in the texts with the students’ prior cultural experiences.
- Appearance: The teacher must take into account the texts’ layout, print, and
type size (Ghahroudi & Sheikhzadeh, 2017).

The author of this paper considers that these are the criteria that should be
followed in the selection of text materials for the implementation of a Reader at the
advanced level. Moreover, the author also holds the opinion that all the texts that
may be selected must be authentic and updated.

2.6 Integrative Analysis.

Reading Comprehension within English Language III and English Language IV is

closely integrated with Oral Expression, and the optimal goals of the reading
materials (mostly journalistic articles written in Spanish) used in these subjects are:
promoting a debate among the students and being used as reference in the
execution of team presentations. However, after applying different methods and
techniques, we can affirm that the development of Reading Comprehension
process at the advanced level is not completely successful because there are
several factors interfering on it, being text materials worked in classes the core of
the problem.

Implementing a Reader at the advanced level could be a possible solution to this

problem, because this Reader would compile several text materials that will be in
correspondence with the topics tackled in classes, and at the same time, they will
respond to certain criteria that would have as main objective the satisfaction of the
students’ needs. These criteria can be divided into two major groups: criteria
related to the students and criteria related to the texts

The Reader would help to achieve the general objectives of the syllabuses of
English Language III and English Language IV.