UNIT 2

PLASTICS & COMPOSITES IN AIRCRAFT

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLASTIC MATERIALS

Characteristics of Plastics

Plastics can be classified by many methods. One generally accepted method of

classification is by their response to heat. Thermosetting plastics are plastic compounds or
solutions that require the application of heat to set up properly, or "harden." Once these
materials have set, further application of heat does not allow them to be formed in a controllable
manner. Any further addition of heat normally results in deformation or structural weakening.
Thermosetting materials include many bonding materials that fall under the broad plastic
classifications and many materials that can also be called resinous. Thermoplastic materials are
those that soften with the application of heat. When softened, these materials can be shaped as
required and retain their structural strength when cooled. This characteristic allows this type of
material to be used to form items such as windshields and landing-light covers. This type of
material includes transparent plastics such as Plexiglas®. (Plexiglas is a registered trademark
of the Rohm and Haas Company.) Thermoplastic materials are those that the technician is most
likely to be called upon to handle and repair; therefore, the remainder of this section deals with
these types of materials. The basic characteristics of clear plastic materials such as Plexiglas
must be understood by the mechanic so that the material is handled properly. Plastics are used
in place of glass for windows because they are lower in weight and there is no reduction in
clarity. Plastic is much more resistant to breaking than glass, and when it does break the edges
are dull, reducing The chance of injury to personnel. Plastic is a poor conductor of heat and
thus provides some level of thermal insulation. Plastic has the disadvantage of readily accepting
a static charge and thus attracting dust and dirt particles. Also, being softer than glass, plastic
is more easily damaged by surface abrasion than glass. This sensitivity is substantially reduced
in some types of hardened plastics.

Types of Clear Plastics

There are two general classifications of clear plastics used in aircraft: acrylics and cellulose
acetates. The technician needs to be able to distinguish between these two materials in order to
install and repair them properly. Acrylic materials, such as Plexiglas, are the more modern
materials and have replaced acetate materials in most usages. Acrylic plastics used in aviation
applications must comply with the appropriate military specification: MIL-P-6886 for standard
acrylics; MIL-P-8184 for craze-resistant acrylics; and MILP-5425 for heat-resistant acrylics.
Although these materials have been described here as clear, they are available in tints to reduce
light penetration. This is most evident when a green- or gray-tinted plastic is used for aircraft
windshields. This tinting performs the same purpose as the pilot wearing sunglasses; that is, ir
reduces the level of light intensity entering the cockpit. The two materials can be identified by
their visual and burning characteristics and by their reaction to certain chemicals and solvents.
When viewed edge-on, acrylic material appears clear or the color of the tinting if the material
is tinted. Some clear pieces of acrylic material appear slightly green or bluegreen. Acetate
material appears yellow when viewed edge on. When burned, acrylic burns with a clear flame
and gives off an aroma described as fairly pleasant or fruitlike. Acetate burns with a heavy
black smoke and a strong, pungent odor. If a sample of acrylic material is rubbed with a cloth
moistened in acetone, the plastic turns white. Acetone softens acetate but does not affect its
clarity. If zinc chloride is placed on acetate, it turns the material milky, but it has no. effect on
acrylic.
INSTALLATION, MAINTENANCE & REPAIR OF PLASTICS
Cleaning Plastics
The best way to clean plastic surfaces is by flowing fresh water across the surface and
then using the hand to gently remove any particles adhering to the surface. A mild soap and
water solution can be used if requited. The use of a cloth when cleaning plastics should be done
with care to prevent trapping particles in the cloth that can damage the surface as the cloth is
moved over the surface. When using a cloth, a clean soft cloth, not a shop rag (even if it is
clean), should be used. Shop rags often contain small metal particles even after having been
cleaned. These metal particles will damage the surface. There are several commercial cleaners
available that can be used to clean plastics. These commercial materials often include a wax
and an antistatic component that reduces the static build up on the plastic. Commercial waxes
that do not contain cleaning grit can be used to polish clean plastic surfaces. These waxes will
fill in some of the fine scratches that appear on plastic and improve the visual clarity to some
degree. Machines should not be used when polishing as their high speed of operation may heat
the plastic and cause distortion. Plastic should not be rubbed with a dry cloth, since this is likely
to scratch the surface and can cause a build-up of static electricity. Solvents such as lacquer
thinner, benzine, carbon tetrachloride, acetone, and other similar materials should never be
used on plastic sheet because they will penetrate the surface and cause crazing. Crazing is the
formation of a network of fine cracks in the surface of the material. The effect of crazing is to
destroy the clarity of vision through the material and to weaken the structural strength.
Manufacturer's manuals usually specify the types of cleaning agents suitable for the plastic
windshields and windows for specific aircraft. Certain neutral petroleum solvents such as
kerosene or aliphatic naphtha cleaning fluid are sometimes specified for the removal of oil or
grease. If these are used, the surface should be dried as quickly as possible and then washed
with water and a mild detergent. A detergent conforming to MIL-C-18687 is recommended.
Aromatic naphtha should never be used. Occasionally, paint may need to be removed from the
clear plastic parts, either from paint splatters or overspray. The technique used to remove the
paint depends upon the type of paint to be removed. There are three techniques that may be
used to remove paint: solvents, sandblasting, and trialene soap. When using solvents, the
technician should take great care in selecting the solvent to be used. Some solvents may cause
crazing. A commonly used generic solvent for paint removal is cyclohexanone. A number of
brand-name paint removers are also available. When the paint removal is complete, care must
be taken to remove all the paint remover from the plastic. Residual amounts of paint remover
could cause crazing when other surface treatments are used. The use of sandblasting to remove
paint is typically not applicable to aviation uses of clear plastics because it weakens the plastic
and clouds the vision through the plastic. Trialene soap may be used to remove acrylic-based
paints from Plexiglas as well as paint that has been in place for an extended period. When
dealing with chemicals to remove paint from plastics, the technician should follow the
instructions of the plastic's manufacturer and the paint-remover manufacturer as well as all the
safety precautions listed in the product usage instructions and material safety data sheets.

Installation of Plastic Windows and Windshields

The first step when the replacement of a windshield or window is necessary is the
removal of the mechanism holding in the old component. This structure may be a panel or
retainer strip that is riveted or held in by bolts or screws. The old component should be removed
as carefully as possible so that it is not damaged and can be used for a reference as to the
location of holes and contour when installing the replacement piece. The replacement piece
should have the masking peeled back from the edges about 1 in [2.5 cm]; then the piece is
placed in the installation to determine if trimming is necessary. If the component fits into the
structure, then the mounting can be completed. If the component does not fit properly into the
structure, the edges that need to be trimmed can be marked. The edge should then be trimmed
with a band saw, hand file, or belt sander to within about Y. in [6.35 mm] of the trim line and
then the fit should be rechecked. After the fit check, continue the trimming until the new piece
fits properly into the structure channels. It may be necessary to fit and trim the new windshield
or window several times in order to achieve a proper fit. It is better to do this in small steps
rather than rush the job and remove too much material. After the material is fitted, a heat gun
may have to be used to heat local areas and adjust the contour slightly to reduce any installation
stresses caused by the flexing required to fit properly. The fitted piece should fit a minimum of
I~ in [2.86 cm] into the channel, but it must be at least~ in [3.18 mm] from the bottom of the
channel to allow for expansion and contraction of the plastic material. The exact dimensions
vary from one aircraft to another. When fitting the piece, do not force the panel into position,
as this may cause the plastic to crack or craze. Once the new windshield or window is fitted, it
should be removed and a padding of rubber or felt should be attached to the edges that will be
in the channel. Holes for the installation of bolts, screws, and fittings should be drilled through
the plastic. These holes should be ~in [3.18 mm] larger in diameter than the bolt or screw to be
installed to allow for expansion and contraction of the plastic panel. The panel is then
positioned in the structure, and the bolts and screws are installed. The bolts and nuts are
tightened until just snug and then backed off one full tum to allow for expansion and
contraction. Once the panel is in position, the required retainer strips are installed using rivets,
screws, and/or bolts. The remainder of the masking is removed and the panel is cleaned. Each
aircraft service manual should address the removal and installation of plastic windshields and
windows. The specific instructions for a particular aircraft should be followed.

Inspection of Plastic Components

The inspection of windshields and windows is visual. The surfaces should be checked
for cracks and surface damage. Surface abrasion should be checked, and, if it is not deep, this
abrasion can be removed by an abrasion-removal process such as the Micro-Mesh process. Any
crazing (small fissures in the plastic) should be evaluated as to structural weakening of the
plastic and interference with pilot vision. If excessive crazing is found, the windshield or
window should be replaced. Any damage that is in the pilot's normal area of vision and that
cannot be restored to a clear vision area is cause for replacement of the plastic component.

Repair of Cracks
Cracks commonly appear on the edges of a piece of plastic radiating out from a pressure
point or a mounting hole. If the crack is in the pilot's normal vision area, the panel should be
replaced. If the crack is not in the normal vision area, the crack should be stop-drilled The
surface patch of the same thickness as the original material should be cut to extend beyond the
edges of the crack at least% in [1.91 cm] and formed to lay fully on the surface contour. The
edges of the patch should be tapered as shown and the patch spread with adhesive and
positioned on the surface of the panel being repaired. Pressure is then applied to the patch for
several hours. After 24 hours, the patch can be polished to achieve clear edges.
Repair of Holes
When a hole is found in a plastic windshield or window, any cracks radiating from the
holes should be stop-drilled. The hole is then dressed with a file and abrasive paper to remove
rough edges. If a surface patch is to be installed, this completes the hole preparation. If a plug
patch is to be installed, the hole should be trimmed out to a circle or oval that tapers outward,
as shown in Fig. For a surface patch, a patch is prepared in the same manner as for a patch over
a crack. The patch is shaped and extends beyond the edge of the damage at least% in [1.91 cm].
The patch is then attached with adhesive in the same manner as used for the patch over a crack.
For a plug patch, a plug is cut from material thicker than the original material. The plug is cut
to the proper size, as shown in Fig., and the taper is more severe than that of the prepared hole.
The plug is heated and pressed into the hole to allow the plug to match the edges of the hole.
After the plug has cooled, it is removed, adhesive is applied, and the plug is installed in the
hole. Pressure is applied until the adhesive has dried. The plug can then be trimmed down by
filing and sanding so that it is flush with the original panel on both sides. The patched area is
then buffed and polished to a clear surface.
COMPOSITES

Composite materials are not as new as most people think. Composite materials and
bonded structures have been in use for many years. Adobe bricks are appropriately considered
composite materials because they are made from a mixture of straw and mud bonded together.
Reinforced concrete used in driveways and roads is a composite material because it is made
from a combination of cement and reinforcing rods. The use of composite materials in
aerospace applications evolved from research done in England by the Royal Aeronautical
Establishment. The U.S. military and NASA have · continued their development.
The first fibrous-glass-reinforced- plastic (FRP) winged aircraft flew at Wright-
Patterson Air Force Base in the mid-1940s. This type of sttuctural fabrication was not placed
in common use because tests revealed that even though it exhibited high specific strength, the
glass reinforcement material had marginal rigidity compared to metallic structures. Expanding
on the abbreviated definition of a composite given earlier, a composite is an inhomogeneous
material that has been created by the synthetic assembly of two or more materials to obtain
specific characteristics or properties.
Unlike metal alloys, which are homogeneous, the component materials in composites
retain their identities. That is, the component parts of a composite do not dissolve or otherwise
merge completely into each other, even though they do act as one. Normally, the components
can be physically identified after assembly and continue to exhibit an interface between
themselves. An example of a material in common use that is not a composite by definition is a
two-part-mixture epoxy adhesive. When the two parts are mixed together, they form a third
material that becomes a very tough, useful adhesive. Each individual part can no longer be
identified. The previous examples of the adobe bricks and the reinforced concrete are
composites because the individual components can still be identified after compilation into a
new material
General Characteristics of Composites
Composite structures are those aircraft components that are manufactured using fibrous
materials combined with a specially formulated medium called a matrix. The matrix supports
the fibers, as shown in Fig. The original composite materials used in aircraft components were
limited to fiberglass fibers combined with thermoset polyester resins as the matrix and were
not used in critical applications.
A thermoset resin is a type of resin that, once cured, cannot return to the uncured, or
soft, state. Improved thermoset adhesives, such as epoxies and vinyl-ester resins,
bismaleimides, and thermoplastic adhesive, such as poly-ether-ether-ketones (PEEK), as well
as new fiber-reinforcement materials have been developed for applications that include critical
flight parts. Thermoplastic resins may be repeatedly softened with heat, even after they are
originally cured. Both thermosetting resins and thermoplastics increase the workability of a
material. In addition, thermosetting resins may be added to the material before the component
fabrication process begins.
When a matrix is added to the fibrous material as part of a material's manufacturing
process-but prior to its use--it is pre-impregnated The most critical properties of a composite,
which are controlled by the direction of the reinforcement fibers and the ability of the matrix
to transfer loads from one fiber to another, are called transverse properties. The load-carrying
properties of a fibrous composite are greatest when the load applied runs in the same direction
as the fibers.
Loads that do not run parallel to the reinforcement fibers must, at least in part, be
transferred through the matrix, which typically has the lowest load-carrying capability.
Therefore, to a point, the greater the ratio of reinforcement fibers to matrix, the greater the
strength of the composite. Kevlar®, a DuPont trade name, carbon fiber, commonly referred to
as graphite (even though it is not a mined material), boron, tungsten, quartz, silicon carbide,
ceramics, and SPECTRA®, a trade name of Allied Signal Corporation, are commonly used
composite materials. Collectively they are referred to as advanced composite materials. In
1969, Grumman aircraft, in conjunction with the U.S. Navy, fabricated the world's first primary
flight-critical structure made of advanced composites for a production aircraft. This was a
boron-epoxy combination horizontal stabilizer for the F-14 TOMCAT fighter. As the demand
for the use of composites increased, additional developments in the areas of specialized fiber-
reinforcement materials, adhesives, and processes have taken place. These developments have
made the use of composite material in aircraft more economical and sttucturally compatible.
As a result, bonded and composite structures can be found in a great many parts of
today's aircraft. Landing-gear doors, flaps, vertical and horizontal tail structures, propellers,
internal turbine engine parts, helicopter rotor blades, and flight-control surfaces are just a few
places where these structures are found. The advantages of the high material strength-to-
weight ratio coupled with corrosion and fatigue resistance frequently makes fibrous reinforced
composite materials the first choice of aircraft designers and manufacturers. When compared
to conventional sheet-metal structures, composites have a low sensitivity to sonic vibrations
(good vibration resistance). There are also lower assembly costs due to a reduction in the
number of mechanical fasteners and parts in a particular assembly. In addition, there are other
advantages such as reduced weight, high corrosion resistance, high deterioration resistance,
and the capability of achieving a smooth surface, thereby reducing aerodynamic and parasitic
drag.
Types of Composite Structures
Composite structures can either be a solid laminate or a honeycomb/rigid foam
sandwich construction. A solid laminate is made by bonding together several layers of
reinforcing fiber materials that have been impregnated with the resin matrix A sandwich
assembly is made by taking a high-density laminate or solid face and back plate and
sandwiching a low-density filler (core) between them. This filler can be honeycomb which may
be fabricated from reinforced paper, Nomex, fiberglass, aluminum, or carbon; a rigid foam (for
example, high-temperature polyurethane).
The sandwich arrangement creates an improved structural performance and high
strength-toweight ratio. Laminates depend more on the combination of the assembly materials
than sandwich assembles for their strength and durability. In sandwich applications the core
material is often constructed using mechanical principles in order to produce additional
strength, such as the inherent strength of a honeycomb design compared to a simple square
pattern. The selection of materials used for the face, core, and back materials as well as the
design configuration of the core material are varied by the design engineer, depending upon
application anticipated for the component part.
REINFORCEMENT MATERIALS FOR COMPOSITES
Reinforcement fibers are produced in several forms using various materials. Fiberglass
material is the most widely used in aircraft. It is manufactured in either S-glass fiber (structural)
or E-glass fiber (electrical) forms for aircraft applications. Glass can be found as chopped
strands, woven roving, woven fabrics, continuous-strand mats, chopped strand mats, and milled
fibers As stated, carbon, Kevlar, boron, tungsten, quartz, and ceramics are collectively known
as high-strength advanced composites. They are produced in the form of particles, flakes,
fillers, and fibers of various lengths. A detailed analysis of all composite forms is beyond the
scope of this text. However, due to the common use of fiber-form composites in the aviation
industry, further discussion of fiber forms is appropriate. Even in the fiber form, there are a
number of variations. There are hollow fibers, fibers of noncircular cross section, and solid,
circular cross-sectional fibers, as shown in Fig.
 The most common of these are solid, circular cross-sectional fibers, which are
commonly found in general and commercial aviation applications These solid-circular cross-
sectional fibers are combined with strong, stiff, heat-resistant, synthetic resin matrices to form
a composite material. The engineering performance of a fiber-matrix combination depends
upon the fibers' orientation, length, shape, and composition. The mechanical properties of a
composite are directly proportional to the amount
of fiber that is oriented by volume in a particular direction. Since fiber length has a bearing on
the processability of the composite, this consideration is of major concern during part
fabrication. Continuous fibers are much easier to handle than short ones, but the former are
sometimes more limited in their ability to make compound curved shapes, particularly boron.
Continuous fibers can either be woven into fabrics that are bidirectional, woven at right angles
to each other), or unidirectional, woven in a continuous straight line. Filament winding consists
of resin-impregnated continuous fibers wrapped on a mandrel simulating the shape of the part,
using one continuous strand, as applied in the manufacture of helicopter rotor blades. Short
fibers are utilized in flat and irregular-shaped parts using either open- or closed-mold processes.
The fibers are manufactured by first creating individual filaments. These filaments are then
assembled into tows, as shown in Fig. Tows can have as many as 160 000 filaments. Tapes are
processed directly from the tow. In the case of fabric, the tows are then twisted together in
bundles to form yarns, and the yams are then processed into fabrics. A weave consists of warp
yarn, till yarn, and selvage. The warp yarn is the yam that runs parallel to the sewn or
manufactured edge of the roll and is usually made up of the longest threads. The till yarn is the
yam woven perpendicular to the manufactured edge. Fill yam is woven so that it passes over
and under warp yarns in a weave pattern. Selvage is a closely woven pattern used to prevent
the edges of the cloth from unravelling during handling. Selvage is typically removed from the
fabric during the composite-manufacturing process. To help the technician identify the warp
yam direction during the usage of the cloth, warp tracers, which are warp fibers of the same
composition but dyed a different color, are woven into the fabric. Bidirectional fabrics are
available with various weave patterns, yams per inch, and ounce per yard weight. A plain-
weave fabric pattern has an individual warp yam woven over one individual fill yam and under
the next. A plain weave is considered the most stable weave pattern, providing both openness
in the weave (for even resin flow) and weave stability (reducing slippage and draping during
the part lay-up).

Uniform strength is achieved in both directions. Satin weaves are manufactured when
the warp yarns are woven over several successive fill yams and then under one fill yam. When
the warp yarns are woven over three fill yams and under one fill yam, the pattern is known as
a crowfoot satin-weave pattern. If the warp yams are woven over four fill yams and under one
fill yam, the pattern is called a live-harness satin-weave pattern. An eight-harness satin-weave
pattern is identified by the warp yarns having been woven over seven fill yarns first and then
under one fill yarn. The satin weaves are more pliable than the plain-weave pattern and
therefore conform more easily to complex shapes. These bidirectional weave patterns allow the
material to retain high strength in both directions. Unidirectional fabrics are fabricated with all
structural fibers laying in the same lengthwise direction on the roll. Unidirectional fabrics use
a few fibers loosely woven at right angles to the warp yarn to keep the warp yarns together in
a flat shape.

COMPOSITE MATRICES
A composite matrix is the plastic-based medium that encapsulates, or surrounds, the
reinforcement fibers to protect them and help transmit the stress forces between the fibers.
These matrices can either be thermosetting or thermoplastic in makeup. They can be a two-part
liquid mixture that has a room temperature cure of 70°F (2l"C), or a factory mixed and frozen
system that requires an accurately controlled elevated temperature cure cycle up to 700°F (371
°C). Epoxy matrix is normally cured at either 250°F (121 °C or 350°F (177°C). Polyamide
adhesives cure in the 260°F (127°C) to 450°F (232°C) range but may require temperatures as
high as 600°F (316°C). Bismaleimide adhesives cure in the 350°F (177°C) range but require
higher postcure temperatures of up to 700°F (371 °C). A postcure requires additional time at
elevated temperatures to ensure the completeness of the bonding process. Postcures may also
be used to increase strength and relieve stress. The matrices can have metal flakes added to
them during the manufacturing process. In this combination the matrix provides an
impermeable barrier between the atmosphere and the metal flakes, both limiting the potential
for corrosion of the metal flakes and giving the part thermal and electrical conductivity.
Stainless steel wire whiskers are added to some matrices to give them additional impact
strength, heat distortion points, and lightning strike protection. Resin matrices are available to
the technician in many forms, including a one-part polymer, two-part liquid mixture, sheet-
film adhesive, and pre-impregnated reinforcement fibers. The term wet lay-up is frequently
used to describe the process of applying the two-part liquid mixture. In the two-part liquid
mixture, the technician must accurately proportion, by weight or volume (depending upon the
manufacturer's instructions), the two liquid components and mix them thoroughly before
applying the mixture to the fiber-reinforcement materials. This stage of the resin-curing
process, in the liquid form, is said to be in the A stage (it is in a runny liquid stage-the beginning
stage), This method is common for simple manufacturing or repair situations where accuracy
of the fiber-to-matrix ratio is not critical. The individual matrix components have a maximum
storage life prior to use, called a shelf life, that must be controlled. After the components have
been thoroughly mixed, the combination then has a pot life, which is the maximum time it can
be applied prior to gelling.
Another form of matrix application is a sheet-film adhesive, which must be stored at
low temperatures. It has maximum shelf life of 6 months. This stage of the resin-curing process,
in stiff sheet form, is known as the B stage (it's not a liquid or a cured solid-an intermediate
stage). A sheet-film foaming adhesive is used when bonding together sections of honeycomb.
The foaming adhesive expands during the cure cycle to fill voids (a pocket that lacks adhesive)
that may occur due to improper fit of the core pieces. A more accurate method of matrix
application involves using fiber reinforcement materials that have been pre-impregnated {pre-
preg) with matrix at the material manufacturer. It is during this stage in the resin-curing process
that the resin is blended with the reinforcement material and kept frozen in the Stage B
condition. The technician must assure that pre-preg materials are stored and used properly. Pre-
preg materials must be kept at O F ( -l8°C) or below until ready for use. There is a maximum
out time (accumulative time that the pre-preg roll is out of the freezer) that must be controlled
to assure "freshness" of the adhesive. The material must be checked by a chemical engineer for
usability. The pre-preg materials must be handled in a clean room environment (temperature
and humidity-controlled without dust and dirt). This does present a handling problem but helps
assure a good bond.
When the pre-preg material has been cured using the controlled, elevated-temperature
curing system, the resin is said to be in the C stage (fully cured). When using the wet lay-up
method, the technician can get a ratio of approximately 40 percent resin to 60 percent fiber
reinforcement, which is sufficient for most aerospace application. When using the pre-preg
method, accuracies of 30 percent resin to 70 percent fiber can be achieved. Remember that to
a point, the more the reinforcement fiber volume, the more strength the final assembly will
have. Solid microspheres, or solid beads of plastic, are often added to matrices to increase
strength while controlling costs. When solid beads of plastic are introduced to the resin mixture,
the mixture is often called syntactic foam. Syntactic foams are non-gas blown. Not only does
this mixture increase the matrix resin strength, but it also helps to solve problems in shrinkage
and warpage during the cure cycles. This mixture may be used on the edges of honeycomb core
as a potting compound prior to shaping in order to prevent core crush.
When hollow microspheres (micro balloons) of glass are introduced to the resin
mixture, the glass spheres have a tendency to disperse throughout the part being manufactured,
resulting in stronger edges and corners. Micro balloons are used as a filler to assure uniform
shrinkage without causing possible internal stresses during curing. Matrices with solid
microspheres or hollow microspheres added are isotropic, which means that they have no
specific orientation. The improved strength characteristics of both processes typically occur
with an overall improved strength-to-weight ratio, because the microspheres have less density
than the matrix.

FABRICATION TECHNIQUES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fabrication may be accomplished by the use of or dies. Since this text deals primarily
with activities the discussion is limited to fabricated techniques using molds. The
configurations is accomplished by fibers and matrix over a form, called a mold. A is a tool that
conforms to the desired shape of the fin product. Molds may be either open or closed molds.
open molds, often referred to as a bond form or lay-up allow easy access to the composite
materials during fabrication process and depend upon gravity and atmosphere or externally
applied pressure to mold the composite material against the mold until the curing process
complete. Closed molds are designed in a matched male-female configuration. Forcing the two
mold halves together ensures that the composite material takes the shape of the mold. Gravity
from the weight on the top mold half or externally applied pressure may be used to ensure the
proper mating of the mold. One important consideration in the design of molds for close-
tolerance composite parts is the coefficient of thermal expansion of all the related materials.
The process typically involves the generation of or the use of externally applied heat The use
of materials with the same or similar coefficients of expansion for molds is preferred. If a mold
is fabricated using materials with coefficients of expansion different than those of the
composite materials. adaptations for the different expansion rates must be included in the mold
design. The first step in mold design, when using materials with different coefficients of
thermal expansion, is to determine how the finished-part dimensions change at the curing
temperature. For example, a composite part that has a dimension of lO in [25.4 cm] at room
temperature might measure lOX, in [25.479 cm] at the elevated curing temperature. Therefore,
for the part to be at the 10-in [25.4-cm] finished dimension at room temperature, it must be
1OX, in [25.479 cm] at curing temperature.
The mold must also be at the expanded dimension at the elevated curing temperature.
However, if the coefficient of thermal expansion of the mold material is different than that of
the finished part, the dimensions of the mold will be different at room temperature. Continuing
the preceding example, the mold must have a dimension of lOX, in [25.479 cm] at elevated
temperature. When cooled to room temperature the mold will have different dimensions. For
example, assume that the coefficient of thermal expansion for the mold material was half that
of the part material. The mold cooled to room temperature would measure 10 in [25.440 cm].
When the mold is fabricated, it is fabricated to the cooled dimension, which when heated to the
elevated curing temperature, would result in a mold dimension equal to the dimension of the
part at the curing temperature. The proper relationship between the coefficients of expansion
of the mold material and the part material. The proper relationship between the coefficients of
expansion of the part and mold materials depends upon the configuration of the finished part.
For example, if the part is a U channel and the mold form is the inside the channel, the
coefficient of thermal expansion for the mold material must be greater than that of the part
material. If this were not true, the mold would not reduce dimensionally enough to allow the
part to contract to the proper finished dimension, causing interference between the mold and
the part. However, if the mold is the outside the U channel, the coefficient of thermal expansion
for the mold material must be less than that of the part material or interference will again
develop as the part and mold are cooled to room temperature. The removal of the composite
materials from the molds can result in damage to the part if the molds are not properly prepared
with a release agent, or release film, which is used to prevent the bonding of the matrix to the
mold itself.

The type of releasing media used is determined by the type of matrix form used, the
heat of the curing process, and the material from which the mold is fabricated. In low-volume
production processes and repairs, a vacuum bag, which is a plastic bag surrounding the part
material from which air has been evacuated, and a separate heat source may be used. Common
heat sources include controlled ovens, portable "hot bonders," and heat blankets. The resin-
matrix cures and the fiber-reinforcement materials are bonded in close proximity to each other.
The strength of the lay-up depends on the volume of the fibers and their orientation. High
volume and critical composite structures are often heated using an autoclave, which is an oven
that heats the material while it is under pressure.
Warp-Orientation Techniques

As previously mentioned, the strength, or load-carrying properties, of a fibrous

composite are greatest when the load applied runs in the same direction as the fibers. Loads
that do not run parallel to the reinforcement fibers must, at least in part, be transferred through
the matrix, which typically has the lowest load-carrying capability. When designing a
composite part, the engineer considersthe relation of the design load to an arbitrarily selected
orientation line on the part. The reinforcing fibers in a composite material will usually be
designed to run parallel to the load. It is, therefore, important that the fabricator of the part
understand the directional relationship of the fibers to the design of the part. To do this the
engineer will specify a 0° plane as an alignment indicator. The orientation of the warp fibers
as a fabric is rolled off the bolt is defined as the 0° position for the fabric. Because the alignment
indicator is not always in the same plane as the design loads, the engineer may specify a warp
orientation in terms of degrees relative to the reference, or 0° plane. This is frequently done in
the form of a warp clock, which is a circle divided into four quadrants. Each quadrant has a
plus or minus orientation, which reflects the direction of rotation required of the warp fibers if
they were to be positioned parallel to the alignment line. Clockwise is usually plus. Counter-
clockwise is usually negative. A warp clock is typically included as part of the manufacturing
drawing or in the text of the manufacturers' specification sheets for the particular aircraft.
Generally, most manufacturers use the same orientation for warp clocks as just discussed, but
the technician should always consult the particular manufacturer's information sheets before
building a part or making repairs. If the warp fibers are positioned in such a manner that they
lay in only one direction, they are said to be unidirectional, or anisotropic, in stress design.
Quasi-isotropic stress design refers to design capabilities that are capable of carrying loads in
more than one direction but not in all directions. For example, if the warp fibers are laid
perpendicular to each other -that is, at a 0° and a 90° point-they are said to be bidirectional
because the stress design is in two intersecting directions; they are also considered
quasiisotropic.
If the warp fibers are placed in such a way that they fall at a point of 00 and 45° to the
alignment point (0° on the lay-up tool), the lay-up is again said to be quasi-isotropic. When the
warp fibers are assembled in a laminate with the fibers heading in the 0°, 45°, 90°, and -45°
positions, the lay-up is said to be a cross-ply stress design. This multidirectional pattern is
sometimes referred to as isotropic, because the stress design is in all directions typically
specified on the warp-orientation indicator. Isotropic refers to the capability of a material to
bear loads in all directions, so technically cross-ply applications are not truly isotropic.

Trimming and Drilling of Composites

Since composites are usually an assembly consisting of laminated layered materials,
they are subject to delamination. In delamination the layers of material are forced apart and are
no longer bonded together. Therefore, care must be taken during trimming and drilling to avoid
delamination. Drilling and trimming of composite materials is difficult because standard tool
steels will rapidly dull in the process. Problems can occur because of the way drills are shaped
and sharpened. As a drill dulls, it tends to push against the material rather than cut, causing
layer separation. The drill bit should be shaped in a spade form or a long-tapered form
sometimes referred to as a dagger drill bottom). Figure depicts a series of commercially
available composite toolings. Diamond-tipped equipment will allow more cuts to be taken per
tool. When drilling carbon products, it is best to use a high-speed, low feed combination with
the drill motor. Kevlar and fiberglass are highly fibrous materials, and using a drill that is
diamond-dust coated will only aggravate the situation. The fibers will grab at the drill bit and
pull the diamond from the base metal or fill the voids in the dust pattern with material. These
composite materials should he drilled with a specially ground drill bit that causes the material
to be sheared during the drilling process. This point will also reduce the fuzziness of the drill
hole typically found after drilling.

REPAIRING COMPOSITE MATERIALS

The classification of damage and the repair methods for composite materials have not
been standardized in the aviation industry. Each manufacturer has developed a method of
classifying damage and establishing an appropriate repair procedure. The specific repair data
should be consulted prior to repair attempts. The repair procedures presentedhere are intended
to give the technician a general understanding of some of the procedures. Damage to one
laminated skin surface with no damage to the core can be repaired by the installation of a
surface patch. Prior to the installation of the patch, the surface is cleaned. Topcoat and
undercoat paint materials are removed to expose the skin itself around the damaged area. Note
that cleaning and paint removal should be accomplished using abrasives. The use of chemicals
for cleaning and paint removal may lead to weakening of the composite structure. The damaged
area is either tapered (sanded) or stepped (routed) using a small disk sander or a micro stop air
powered grinder to remove each layer. The damaged area is removed with ascending concentric
circles of material in Xin increments (the area should look like a shooting target with the bulls-
eye in the center of the damaged area). Circular patches of repair material are cut corresponding
to the diameters of the removed material. The repair material must be of the same type as the
original or an approved substitute. If three layers of the fabric have to be cut back, then four
patches are cut, as shown in Fig The first patch is the size of the material removed from the
innermost portion of the tapered area (the bull's-eye). The next two patches are the size of the
next two correspondingly enlarging layers that were cut back. The fourth patch is large enough
to overlap the sanded area by I in on all sides. If a liquid wet lay-up adhesive is to be used, it
is mixed and the time is noted so that the mixture pot life will nqt be exceeded. A_thjn coat of
adhesive is then applied over the cleaned and prepared area. Each patch is saturated
(impregnated) with adhesive. The patches are stacked sequentially, from smallest to largest,
and placed (usually symmetrically) over the damaged area.
 The warp fibers of the repair patches must align with the warp direction of the original
parent material. If pre-preg materials are used, patches are simply cut from specified materials
and laid with the same warp direction as the original parent; the repair is then cured. Pre-preg
materials must be carefully handled to avoid contamination. After the lay-up has been
accomplished, the repair is sealed in a vacuum bag with thermocouples (temperature sensors)
attached to a temperature controller