Chapter 5

Isometry

5.1 Isometry and isometric isomorphism.

5.1.1 Definitions and examples

Definition 1. Let E and E0 be two Euclidean spaces. An affine map

f : E −→ E0
→
−
is called an isometry or a distance-preserving map from E to E0 if f is a linear orthogonal map. If
→
−
f is bijective, i.e. f is an orthogonal bijection, we say that f is an isometric isomorphism. Then
E and E0 are said to be isometric isomorphic, denoted by E ∼ = E0 . An isometric isomorphism from
E to itself is called an isometric automorphism.

Remark 1. 1. Since orthogonal linear maps are injective, isometries are too. Therefore every
isometry from a Euclidean En to itself is an isometric automorphism.

2. The composition of two isometries is an isometry. The set of all isometric automorphisms of
E is a subgroup of the affine group Aff(E), denoted by Isom(E), and is called the isometry
group of En .

Theorem 5.1.1. A map f : E −→ E0 is an isometry if and only if f preserves the distance

between two arbitrary points, i.e. d(f (M ), f (N )) = d(M, N ) for all M, N ∈ E

→
−
Proof. Suppose that f : E −→ E0 is an isometry. Since f is orthogonal, it follows that, for every
M, N ∈ En ,
−−−−−−−→ →
− −−→ −−→
d(f (M ), f (N )) = kf (M )f (N )k = k f (M N )k = kM N k = d(M, N ).

Conversely, suppose that f : E −→ E0 is a map satisfying

d(f (M ), f (N )) = d(M, N ), ∀M, N ∈ E.

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

Let O ∈ E and consider the map

→
− →
−
ϕ : E −→ E0 ,
−−→ −−→ −−−−−−−→
OM 7−→ ϕ(OM ) := f (O)f (M ).

−−→ − −−→ →−
For every →
−
x = OM , →
y = ON ∈ E ,

−−→2 −−−−−−−→
M N = d(M, N )2 = d(f (M ), f (N ))2 = f (M )f (N )2
−−−−−−−→ −−−−−−−→
= [f (O)f (N ) − f (O)f (M )]2
−−−−−−−→ −−−−−−−→ −−−−−−−→ −−−−−−−→
= f (O)f (N )2 + f (O)f (M )2 − 2f (O)f (N ).f (O)f (M )
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
= ON 2 + OM 2 − 2ϕ(ON ).ϕ(OM ).
But
−−→2 −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
M N = (ON − OM )2 = ON 2 + OM 2 − 2ON .OM .

→
−
It follows that ϕ(→
−x ).ϕ(→
−
y) = → −
x .→
−
y , for every →
−
x ,→
−
y ∈ E . Therefore ϕ is orthogonal. By the
definition of ϕ, f is an affine map and ϕ is its associated linear map. In other word, f is an
isometry.

5.1.2 Canonical equation of an isometric automorphism

In Euclidean space En , let {O; →

−
e1 , . . . , →
−
en } be an orthonormal frame. An isometric automorphism
f : E−→E has an equation of form
[x0 ] = A[x] + [a], (5.1)
in the given frame, where A is an orthornormal matrix of order n.

Conversely, it is easy to check that an equation of form 5.1, where A is an orthornormal matrix
will be an equation of an isometric automorphism in some orthonormal frame of En .

Since A is orthogonal, detA = ±1. If det A = 1, we say f is positive, or of the first kind. If
det A = −1, we say f is negative, or of the second kind.

Because every orthonormal matrix is similar to a canonical matrix, we have:

Theorem 5.1.2 (Canonical equation of an isometric automorphism). In E, n ≥ 3 there always

exists a suitable orthonormal frame such that a given isometric automorphism f has an equation

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

of form 5.1, where the matrix A is

 
1
 ..
.

 
1 O
 
 
−1
 
 
A=
 .. 
;
 . 

 −1 


 O A1 


 ... 

Ak

and  
cos ϕi − sin ϕi
Ai = , 0 ≤ ϕi ≤ π, i = 1, 2, ...k.
sin ϕi cos ϕi

We call A the canonical matrix of f.

Example 1. 1. The identity map of E is a positive isometric automorphism.

2. A translation
a : E −→ E
T−
→

is a positive isometric automorphism.

3. In E3 with a given orthonormal frame, the isometric automorphism whose equation is


0
x 1 = x 1

x02 = x2

 0
x3 = −x3

is a negative isometric automorphism and the isometric automorphism whose equation is


0
x 1 = x 1

x02 = −x2

 0
x3 = −x3

is a positive isometric automorphism.

5.1.3 Some special isometric automorphisms

A reflection through an m-plane. Recall that, an oblique reflection f with the base α, direction
→
− →
−
β and ratio λ = −1 is called an oblique reflection through α. If → −
α and β are complement
orthogonal, then f is called an orthogonal reflection, or reflection through α for short.

It is well-known that: “ An affine automorphism f that is involutary, i.e. f 2 = id, is either the
identity map id or an oblique reflection” (see Ex. ??). We have a similar result for isometric

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

automorphisms: “An isometric automorphism f that is involutary, i.e. f 2 = id, is either the
identity map id or a reflection through an m-plane”. If f 6= id, then f is an oblique reflection
→
− →
−
through an m-plane α along some direction β . We need to prove that: → −α ⊥ β . For every
→
− →
− →
− − →
− −
u ∈→−α,→−
v ∈ β , it follows that f (→
u)=→ −u , f (→
v ) = −→
−
v . Therefore,
→
− →
− − → − −
u .→
−
v = f (→
u ). f (→
v ) = −→
−
u .→
−
v.

Thus, →
−
u .→
−
v = 0.

Example 2. 1. A reflection in a point in E3 is a reflection through 0-plane. This is negative.

2. A reflection in a line in E3 is a reflection through 1-plane. This is positive.

3. A reflection in a plane in E3 is a reflection through 2-plane. This is negative.

Rotation around an (n − 2)-plane.

Let α1 and α2 be two distinct hyperplanes, then α1 ∩ α2 = β is an (n − 2)-plane. We denote the

reflections through α1 and α2 are Sα1 and Sα2 , respectively. Then the composition Sα1 ◦ Sα2 is
called the rotation around (n − 2)-plane β generated by Sα1 and Sα2 .

Remark 2. 1. Since a reflection through a hyperplane is negative, a rotation around (n − 2)-

plane is positive.

2. A rotation around an (n − 2)-plane β keeps all points of β fixed. Conversely, a positve

isometric automorphism f keeping all points of an (n − 2)-plane β fixed is the rotation
around β. Then there are many ways to choose hyperplanes α1 and α2 in such a way that
f = Sα1 ◦ Sα2 .

3. For a points M ∈ E, let γ be the plane passing through M that is complement orthogonal
to β. It is followed that β ∩ γ = {I}. We can see that
−−→ −−→
∠(IM , IM 0 ) = 2∠(α1 , α2 ) = θ,

where M 0 is the image of M under the rotation about the (n − 2)-plane β generated by Sα1
and Sα2 . Therefore, we can talk about rotation angle θ of the rotation. We can consider the
identity map as a rotation around any (n − 2)-plane with rotation angle θ = 0. In the case
β and E are oriented, we can talk about a rotation with a negative angle and therefore a
rotation is completely determined by an (n − 2)-plane and a rotation angle θ. A rotation
around an (n − 2)-plane β with rotation angle θ is denoted by Rβ,θ .

4. Since Sα1 ◦ Sα2 6= Sα2 ◦ Sα1 , the rotation around (n − 2)-plane β generated by Sα1 and Sα2 and
the rotation around (n − 2)-plane β generated by Sα2 and Sα1 are different because rotation
angles are in opposite signs.

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

5.2 The classification of isometric automorphisms in E2

and in E3

5.2.1 The classification of isometric automorphisms in E2

→
− → −
The composition of a reflection through a line α, Sα , and a translation T− v where v ∈ α is called
→
a glide reflection. The line α is called the axis of reflection while →
−
v is called the translation vector.
→
− →
−
When v = 0 , the glide reflection is a reflection. We have the followings:

Theorem 5.2.1. 1. Any positive isometric automorphism of E2 is either a translation or a

rotation (around a point).

2. Any negative isometric automorphism of E2 is a glide reflection.

We have an application of Theorem 5.2.1 as follows. Let ABC be a triangle. Denote by SAB , SBC , SCA
the reflections through the lines AB, BC, CA, respectively. Since a reflection through a line in E2
is negative, it follows that the composition SAB ◦ SBC ◦ SCA := f is a negative isometric automor-
phism. Therefore, the midpoint of the segment joining M and f (M ) belongs to a line, that is the
axis of reflection. Replace the triangle by an n-polygon, where n is an odd number we have the
same result.

5.2.2 The classification of isometric automorphisms in E3

In E3 , there are special isometric automorphisms as below:

1. Glide reflection The composition of a reflection through a plane α and a translation T−

v,
→
→
− →
−
where v ∈ α . This is a negative isometric automorphism.

2. Rotation around a line This is a positive isometric automorphism.

3. Rotation-Reflection The composition of a reflection through a plane α and a rotation

around a line d perpendicular to α. This is a negative isometric automorphism.

4. Screw displacement The composition of a rotation around a line d and a translation T−

v,
→
→
− →
−
where v ∈ d . This is a positive isometric automorphism.

We have the following results:

Theorem 5.2.2. 1. Any positive isometric automorphism in E3 is a screw displacement.

2. Any negative isometric automorphism in E3 is either a glide reflection or a rotation-reflection.

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

5.3 Similarities

Let E and E0 be two Euclidean spaces. An affine map f : E −→ E0 is called a similarity map
→
−
with coefficient k, or simply similarity, if the associated map f is a similarity linear map with
→
− →
− →
− → − →
−
coefficient k (k > 0) from E to E0 . Recall that, a linear map f : E −→ E0 is similar if
→
− − → − − →
−
h f (→
u ), f (→
v )i = kh→
−
u ,→
−
v i, ∀→
−
u ,→
−
v ∈ E.

A similarity map from En to itself is called a similarity transformation of En .

By the definition, we have the following properties:

1. An isometric automorphism of E is a similarity transformation with coefficient k = 1.

2. A similarity map between Euclidean spaces is always injective. Therefore, any similarity
transformation of an n-dimensional Euclidean space En is bijective.

3. The set of all similarity transformations of En forms a subgroup of the affine group Aff(En ),
denoted by Sim(En ). It is obviously,

Isom(En ) ⊂ Sim(En ) ⊂ Aff(En )

Example 3. A dilation is a similarity transformation.

By a proof that is similar to the one of Theorem 5.1.1, we get

Theorem 5.3.1. A map f : E −→ E0 between Euclidean spaces E and E0 is a similarity map with
coefficient k (k > 0) if and only if

d(f (M ), f (N )) = kd(M, N ), ∀M, N ∈ E.

5.4 Solving affine problems in Euclidean spaces

Problem 1. Let ABC be a triangle in E2 . Let A1 , A2 in BC, B1 , B2 in AC and C1 , C2 in AB

such that BA1 = A1 A2 = A2 C, CB1 = B1 B2 = B2 A = AC1 = C1 C2 = C2 B. The segments
AA1 , AA2 , BB1 , BB2 , CC1 , CC2 form a hexagon. Prove that the diagonals of this hexagon are
concurrent.

Solution: This is an affine problem.

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

Let f : E2 −→E2 be an affine automorphism that maps the triangle ABC to an equilateral triangle
A0 B 0 C 0 . Then the hexagon M N P QRS is mapped to a regular hexagon M 0 N 0 P 0 Q0 R0 S 0 . Since the
triangles B 0 M 0 C 0 and B 0 Q0 C 0 are isosceles, two points M 0 and Q0 belong to the perpendicular
bisector of the edge B 0 C 0 . Similarly, two points S 0 and P 0 belong to the perpendicular bisector of
the edge A0 C 0 and two points R0 and N 0 belong to the perpendicular bisector of the edge A0 B 0 .
Therefore, three diagonals of the triangle A0 B 0 C 0 are concurrent.

Consider the affine automorphism

f −1 : E2 −→ E2
that map the equilateral triangle A0 B 0 C 0 back to the triangle ABC. Then the diagonals M 0 N 0 , P 0 Q0 , R0 S 0
of the hexagon M 0 N 0 P 0 Q0 R0 S 0 are mapped to the diagonals M N, P Q, RS of the hexagon M N P QRS.
Since M 0 N 0 , P 0 Q0 , R0 S 0 are concurrent at a point G0 , M N, P Q, RS will be concurrent at the point
G = f −1 (G0 ).

Remark 3. By the proof, we can see that the pairs of points (M 0 , Q0 ), (P 0 , S 0 ) and (R0 , N 0 ) are
belonging to perpendicular bisectors of the triangle A0 B 0 C 0 , therefore their images under the map
f −1 are belonging to the medians of the triangle ABC, because an affine automorphism preserves
medians. From this observation, we have the following problem.

Problem 2. Let ABC be a triangle and let M, N be two points on AB and AC, respectively,
MA NA
such that = . Prove that the intersection point of BN and CM is on the median passing
MB NC
through the vertex A.

Problem 3. In E2 , let ABC be a triangle. On the edges BC, CA, AB take the points M, N, P,
respectively, such that
1
(M BC) = (N CA) = (P AB) = .
3
Prove that each of three segment AM, BN, CP is divided by the remains into three sub-segments,
such that the ratio of their lengths is 3 : 3 : 1.

Solution: This is an affine problem.

Consider an affine automorphism f that maps the triangle ABC to an equilateral triangle A0 B 0 C 0 .
The intersection points M, N, P, E, F, G are mapped to M 0 , N 0 , P 0 , E 0 , F 0 , G0 ; respectively.

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

The triangle A0 E 0 N 0 is similar to the triangle A0 C 0 M 0 , therefore

A0 E 0 E 0N 0
= .
A0 C 0 C 0M 0
It follows that
A0 E 0 A0 C 0 C 0B0
= = = 3.
E 0N 0 C 0M 0 C 0M 0
The triangles A0 E 0 N 0 and C 0 G0 M 0 are congruent, therefore E 0 N 0 = G0 M 0 . Thus,

A0 E 0 = 3.E 0 N 0 = 3.G0 M 0 .

The triangles A0 P 0 G0 and A0 M 0 B 0 are similar, therefore

P 0 G0 A0 G0
= 0 0.
M 0B0 AB
It follows that,
P 0 G0 M 0B0 2
= = .
A0 G0 A0 B 0 3

Since the triangles A0 P 0 G0 and B 0 M 0 E 0 are congruent, P 0 G0 = E 0 M 0 .

E0M 0
Therefore, A0 G 0
= 32 . Hence, 2A0 E 0 = E 0 G0 + 3G0 M 0 = E 0 G0 + A0 E 0 , or A0 E 0 = E 0 G0 = 3G0 M 0 .

With a similar statement, we can prove the similar results for the remain cases. Consider the affine
automorphism f −1 , we can finish the proof of the problem.

Problem 4. In E2 , let ABC be a triangle. On the edges BC, CA, AB take points M, N, P,
respectively, such that
(BM C) = (CN A) = (AP B).
Prove that the triangle formed by three lines AM, BN, CP and the triangle ABC have the same
centroid.

Solution: This is an affine problem. Consider an affine automorphism f that maps the triangle
ABC to an equilateral triangle A0 B 0 C 0 . Let G0 be the centroid of the triangle A0 B 0 C 0 , then G0 is
the center of the triangle’s circumcircle. Therfore, G0 A0 = G0 B 0 = G0 C 0 .

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

This implies that the triangles A0 C1 G0 , B 0 A1 G0 , C 0 B1 G0 are congruent, therefore

G0 A01 = G0 B10 = G0 C10 .

Since the triangle A01 B10 C10 is equilateral, it follows that G0 is the centroid of the triangle A01 B10 C10 .

The affine automorphism f −1 maps the triangle A0 B 0 C 0 back to the triangle ABC and therefore
we have the same result for the triangle ABC.

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

Exercises

Exercise 5.1. In En , let f be the (orthogonal) reflection through m-plane α. Prove that:

1. f is an isometric automorphism;

2. a suitable orthonormal frame can be chosen such that an equation of f is




 x01 = x1
x02 = x2





. . . . . .



x0m = xm .
 0
xm+1 = −xm+1








 ......
x0 = −x

n n

With what conditions on m and n, f will be positive (of the first kind) , negative (of the second
kind)?
−−→
Exercise 5.2. In En , given an orthonormal frame {O; OEi } and I(b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ).

−→
1. Choose b1 , . . . , bn such that {I; IEi } is an orthonormal frame.
−−→
2. Find the equation of the isometric automorphism f in the frame {O; OEi }, where f (O) = I
−−→ −→
and f (OEi ) = IEi , i = 1, 2, . . . , n.

Exercise 5.3. In En with a given frame, let α be a hyperplane whose equation is

n
X
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + . . . + an xn + a0 = 0, a2i = 1.
i=1

Write an equation of the (orthogonal) reflection through α.

Exercise 5.4. In E2 , let ABC and A0 B 0 C 0 be two triangles that are concurrent. Prove that, there
exists an isometric automorphism that maps the triangle ABC to the triangle A0 B 0 C 0 . How many
such isometric automorphisms are there, if:

−→ −→ −−→
6 kACk =
1. ABC is neither isosceles nor equilateral (kABk = 6 kBCk);

2. ABC is isosceles but not equilateral;

3. ABC is equilateral.

Exercise 5.5. In E2 , ABCD and A0 B 0 C 0 D0 be two parallelograms that are concurrent. Prove that,
there exists an isometric automorphism that maps the parallelogram ABCD to the parallelogram
A0 B 0 C 0 D0 . How many such isometric automorphisms are there, if:

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

−→ −→ −→ −→
6 ACk v AB.AC 6= 0);
1. ABCD is a rhomboid (kABk =

2. ABCD is a rhombus;
−→ −→
6 kACk;
3. ABCD is a rectangle (kABk =

4. ABCD is a square.
Exercise 5.6. 1. Prove that a rotation around a point in E2 , has a canonical equation as
follows: (
x01 = x1 cos θ − x2 sin θ + a1
.
x02 = x1 sin θ + x2 cos θ + a2

2. Prove that a rotation around a line in E3 has a canonical equation as follows:


0
x1 = x1 cos θ − x2 sin θ +a1

x02 = x1 sin θ + x2 cos θ +a2 .

 0
x3 = x3 +a3

Exercise 5.7. In E2 , prove that:

1. The composition of reflections through two points A and B is the translation T− v where
→
→
− −→
v can be seen as the composition of the reflections
v = 2AB. Conversely, every translation T−
→
−→
through two some points A and B such that → −
v = 2AB.

2. The composition of a translation T−

v and a reflection through a point B is a reflection through
→
−→ 1 → −
a point A such that AB = 2 v .

3. The composition of a reflection through a point A and a translation T−

v is a reflection through
→
−→ 1 → −
a point B such that AB = 2 v .

4. The composition of n reflections through n distinct points is a translation provided n is even

and is a reflection through a point provided n is odd.
Exercise 5.8. In E2 , prove that:

1. The composition of two reflections through two parallel lines is a translation T−

v . Determine
→
→
−
the vector v . Conversely, a translation T v is a composition of two reflections through two
−
→
parallel lines.

2. The composition of two reflections through two intersecting lines is a rotation around a
point. Determine the rotation. Conversely, every rotation around a point can be seen as the
composition of two reflections through two intersecting lines.
Exercise 5.9. In E3 , prove that:

1. The composition of two reflections through two parallel lines is a translation T−v . Determine
→
→
−
the vector v . Conversely, a translation T−
→ can be seen as a composition of two reflections
v
through two parallel lines.

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

2. The composition of two reflections through two intersecting lines is a rotation around a line.
Determine the rotation. Conversely, every rotation around a line can be seen as a composition
of two reflections through two intersecting lines.

Exercise 5.10. In E3 , prove that:

1. The composition of reflections through two point A and B is a the translation T−

v where
→
→
− −→
v = 2AB.

2. The composition of a reflection through a point A and a reflection through a plane α con-
taining A is a reflection through a line. Determine the reflection.

3. The composition of two reflections through two parallel planes is a translation T−

v . Determine
→
→
−
the vector v . Conversely, a translation T v can be seen as a composition of two reflections
−
→
through two parallel planes.

4. The composition of two reflections through two intersecting planes is a rotation around a
line. Determine the rotation. Conversely, every rotation around a line can be seen as a
composition of two reflections through two intersecting planes.

Exercise 5.11. In E3 , prove that:

1. every isometric automorphism of the first kind is a composition of two reflections through
lines;

2. every isometric automorphism of the second kind is a composition of a reflection through a

line and a reflection through a plane.

Exercise 5.12. In E3 , let ABCD be a rectangle. Determine the composition of four reflections
through, one by one, the lines AB, BC, CD, DA.

Exercise 5.13. In E2 , let ABCD be a rectangle. Find an isometric automorphism (not the
identity map) that maps the rectangle ABCD to itself. Find all such isometric automorphisms
and prove that they form a group.

Exercise 5.14. In E2 , given a regular convex n-polygon. Find all rotations (around points) that
map the polygon to itself and prove that they form a group.

Exercise 5.15. In E3 , given a rectangular cuboid (other names are right cuboid, rectangular box,
rectangular hexahedron, right rectangular prism, or rectangular parallelepiped). Find all isometric
automorphisms of E3 that map the rectangular cuboid to itself and prove that they form a group.

Exercise 5.16. In E2 , with a given orthonormal frame, give the ellipse

x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1; vi a 6= b.
a2 b
Write equations of isometric automorphisms of E2 that map the ellipse to itself.

Exercise 5.17. How many isometric automorphisms of E3 that map a cube to itself are there?

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

Exercise 5.18. Prove that similarity transformations of En preserve the angle between two lines,
two hyperplanes, a line and a hyperplane and map two orthogonal (complement) affine sets to
orthogonal (complement) affine sets.

Exercise 5.19. Let f be a similarity transformation of En . Prove that: if k 6= 1, then f has a

unique fixed point;

Exercise 5.20. Prove that every affine automorphism of En that preserves the angle between two
arbitrary lines is a similarity transformation.

Exercise 5.21. Prove that a dilation is similarity transformation.

Exercise 5.22. Two set H and H 0 are called similar is there is a similarity transformation that
map a set to another one. Are the following sets similar?

1. Two non-trivial segments.

2. H = {hyperplane α and a point A}; H 0 = {hyperplane α0 and a point A’}.

3. H = { two hyperplanes α, β}; H 0 = {two hyperplanes α0 , β 0 }.

Exercise 5.23. In E2 , given a triangle ABC. On the edges BC, CA, AB take points M, N, P,
respectively, such that
1
(M BC) = (N CA) = (P AB) = .
3
Prove that, the line passing through A and parallel to CP, the line passing through C and parallel
to AM and the line BN are concurrent.

Exercise 5.24. Given a parallelogram whose vertices are on an ellipse. Prove that the center of
the parallelogram is just the center of the ellipse and the edges of the parallelogram are parallel to
two conjugate diametral lines of the ellipse.

Exercise 5.25. Given a parallelogram whose edges are tangent to an ellipse. Prove that the
diagonals of the parallelogram are conjugate diametral lines of the ellipse.

Exercise 5.26. Let AB, CD be a pair of conjugate diametral lines of a given ellipse. The tangent
lines of the ellipse at A and C intersect at M. Find the locus of M when AB and CD vary on
ellipse.

Exercise 5.27. Given an ellipse whose diameter is AB. On a half of the ellipse take two points
M, N. Let C = AM ∩BN, D = AN ∩BM. Prove that the direction of the line CD is the conjugate
direction of AB.

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