Chapter 2

Affine maps

2.1 Affine maps

2.1.1 Definitions and basic properties

Definition 1. Let A and A0 be two affine spaces over a field K and consider a map f : A −→ A0 .
→
− →
−
If there exists a linear map ϕ : A −→ A 0 such that for every M, N ∈ A,
−−−−−−−→ −−→
f (M )f (N ) = ϕ(M N ),
then f is called an affine map that associates with ϕ. The map ϕ is then called the associated
→
−
(linear) map of f. For the convenient, the associated map of f will be denoted by f .

By the definition, there exists one and only one associated map of an affine map. The following
example shows that a linear map can associate with many affine maps.
Example 1. The identity map idA : A −→ A, f (M ) = M, ∀M ∈ A of an affine space A is
→
−
an affine map. Its associated map is the identity map of the associated space, id−
→ of A .
A

Example 2. Constant maps f : A −→ A0 , that maps A into a fixed point in A0 , is an affine

→
− →
−
map. Its associated map f is the zero map θ, that assigns each vector to vector zero 0 . This
example shows that a linear map can associate with many affine maps.
Example 3. Parallel projections. In an n-dimensional affine space An , let α be an m-plane
→
− →
−
and β be an (n − m)-plane such that →
−
α ∩ β = { 0 }. By Theorem ??, we can prove that α ∩ β 6= ∅.
→
− →
−
Since →
−
α ∩ β = { 0 }, α ∩ β is of dimension 0, i.e. the intersection between α and β is a point.

Suppose M is an arbitrary point in An and let α0 be the m-plane passing through M and parallel
to α and let β 0 be the (n − m)-plane passing through M and parallel to β. By the same arguments
as above, the intersection α0 ∩ β is a point, denoted by Mβ and the intersection β 0 ∩ α is a point,
denoted by Mα . The maps
ρα : An −→ α
M 7−→ Mα

28
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

and
ρβ : An −→ β
M 7−→ Mβ
are called the parallel projection onto α with direction β and the parallel projection onto β with
direction α, respectively. We call α the base and β the projection direction of ρα . Similarly, β is
the base and α is the projection direction of ρβ . We will prove that ρα is an affine map. The proof
for the case of ρβ can be done similarly.
→
− →
−
By the assumptions, →
−
α ⊕ β = A . Let ρ−
α be the projection
→

→
− →
−
α : A −→ α .
ρ−
→

For every M, N ∈ A, we have

−−−−−−−−−→ −−−−→
ρα (M )ρα (N ) = Mα Nα ,
and
−−→ −−−→ −−−−→ −−−→ −−−−→
ρ−α (M N ) = ρ−
→ α (M Mα ) + ρ−
→ α (Mα Nα ) + ρ−
→ α (Nα N ) = Mα Nα .
→

Therefore, ρα is an affine map and −→ = ρ−

ρα α.
→

It is easy to see that ρα and ρβ satisfy the following properties:

ρ2α = ρα , ρ2β = ρβ , ρα ρβ = ρβ ρα = h;

where h is a constant map that assigns each point to the intersecting point α ∩ β.

Definition 2. If an affine map f is injective then f is called an affine injection, if f is surjective

then f is called an affine surjection and if f is bijective then f is called an affine bijection or affine
isomorphism.

For simplicity, sometime we just say injection, surjection or isomorphism instead of affine injection,
affine surjection or affine isomorphism if there is no risk of confusion.

When A = A0 , i.e. f : A −→ A, we call f an affine endomorphism of A.

If there is an affine isomorphism from A to A0 , we say that A and A0 are (affinely) isomorphic and
write A ∼= A0 . If f : A −→ A is an affine isomorphism, we call f an affine automorphism of A. The
affinely isomorphic relation between affine spaces is an equivalent relation. Two affine spaces that
are affinely isomorphic have the same dimension.

Theorem 2.1.1. Let f : A −→ A0 be an affine map. we have

→
−
1. f is (affinely) injective, surjective or isomorphism if and only if the associated map f is
(linearly) injective, surjective or isomorphism, respectively;

2. if f is an affine isomophism then the inverse map f −1 : A0 → A is also an affine isomorphism

−→ →
−
and f −1 = ( f )−1 .

29
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

Proof. 1. Let P ∈ A and take P 0 = f (P ) ∈ A0 .

→
− →
− −
The case of injection. Suppose that f is injective and take → −u ,→
−
v ∈ A such that f (→u)=
→
− →− →
− −−→ →
− −−→
f ( v ). Then there exists uniquely points M, N ∈ A such that u = P M , v = P N . We
have −−−−−−−→
→
− → →
− −−→
f (−
u ) = f (P M ) = f (P )f (M ),
→
− → →
− −−→ −−−−−−−→
f (−v ) = f (P N ) = f (P )f (N ).
→
− − →
− −
Since f (→u ) = f (→ v ), f (M ) = f (N ). Because f is injective, M = N or → −
u =→ −v . Thus,
→
− →
−
f is linearly injective. Conversely, if f is linearly injective then by the same arguments as
above we can prove that f is injective.
→
− −−−→ →−
The case of surjection. Suppose that f is surjective. Then for u0 = P 0 M 0 ∈ A0 , let M be
a point in A such that f (M ) = M 0 . Such a point M always exists because f is surjective.
−−→
Let →
−u = P M ∈ A. We have:
→
− → →
− −−→ −−−−−−−→ −−−→ → −
f (−
u ) = f (P M ) = f (P )f (M ) = P 0 M 0 = u0 .
→
− →
−
This shows that f is surjective. Conversely, if f is linearly surjective then by the same
arguments as above we can prove that f is surjective.
The case of isomorphism. Followed from these above cases.

2. Suppose that f is bijective. Then for M 0 = f (M ) ∈ A0 and N 0 = f (N ) ∈ A0 , we have

−− −−−−−−−−−→ −−→ →
− −−−→
f −1 (M 0 )f −1 (N 0 ) = M N = ( f )−1 (M 0 N 0 ).
−→ →
−
Therefore, f −1 is an affine map and f −1 = ( f )−1 .

The following theorem shows that the composition of two affine maps is an affine map.

Theorem 2.1.2. If f : A −→ A0 and g : A0 −→ A00 are affine maps whose associated maps are
→
− → →
−
f, −
g , respectively, then g ◦ f is an affine map that associates with →
−
g ◦ f , i.e.
−−→ → →
−
g◦f =−
g ◦ f.

Proof. For every M, N ∈ A, we have

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ −−−−−−−−−−−−→ → −−−−−−−→
(g ◦ f )(M )(g ◦ f )(N ) = g(f (M ))g(f (N )) = −g (f (M )f (N ))
→
− −−→ →
− −−→
=→−
g ( f (M N )) = (→−g ◦ f )(M N ).
−−→ − → −
Thus, g ◦ f is an affine map and g ◦ f = →
g ◦ f.

The following theorems show that an affine map and a linear map have some similar properties.

Theorem 2.1.3. Let f : A −→ A0 be an affine map. We have

30
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

1. if α is an affine set in A with the directional space →

−
α then f (α) is an affine set in A0 with
→
− →
the directional space f (−α ) and dim f (α) ≤ dim α. If f is injective then dim f (α) = dim α;
2. suppose that α0 is an affine set in A0 with the directional space → −
α 0 . If f −1 (α0 ) is non-empty
→
−
then f −1 (α0 ) is an affine set in A with the directional space f −1 (→
−
α 0 ).

−−−→ →
− −
Proof. 1. Take P ∈ α and set P 0 = f (P ). Let α0 = {M 0 ∈ A0 : P 0 M 0 ∈ f (→ α )} be the
→
− →
−
affine set in A0 passing through P 0 with the directional space f ( α ). We will prove that
−−→ −
f (α) = α0 . Indeed, we have M 0 ∈ f (α) ⇔ ∃M ∈ α, f (M ) = M 0 . Since P M ∈ → α , therefore
→
− −−→ −−0−→0 → − →− 0 0
f (P M ) = P M ∈ f ( α ), i.e. M ∈ α .
−−−→ → − − →
− −
Conversly, suppose that M 0 ∈ α0 , i.e. P 0 M 0 ∈ f (→
α ). Then there exists →
−
v ∈→ −
α , f (→
v)=
−−0−→0 −−→ →
P M . Since P ∈ α and v ∈ α there exists a unique point M ∈ α, such that P M = −
→
− →
− v.
→
− −−→ −−0−−−→ −−0−→0 0 0
Because f (P M ) = P f (M ) = P M , we conclude that f (M ) = M , i.e. M ∈ f (α).
→
− −
Since dim f (→ α ) ≤ dim →
−α , dim f (α) ≤ dim α.
→
− →
− −
By Theorem 2.1.1, f is injective if and only if f is injective. In this case dim f (→ α ) = dim →−α,
therefore dim f (α) = dim α.
−−→
2. Since f −1 (α0 ) 6= ∅ there exists P ∈ f −1 (α0 ). Let P 0 = f (P ) ∈ α0 and α = {M ∈ A : P M ∈
→
− −1 → →
−
f (− α 0 )} be an affine set in A passing through P with directional space f −1 (→ −α 0 ). We have
−−− − −→ →
− − −→ →
− −−→ →
− →
−
M ∈ f −1 (α0 ) ⇔ f (M ) ∈ α0 . Then P 0 f (M ) = f (P M ) ∈ α0 , therefore P M ∈ f −1 ( α0 ), i.e.
M ∈ α.
−−→ →
− →
− −−→ −−−−−→ →
−
Conversly, suppose that M ∈ α, i.e. P M ∈ f −1 (→ −α 0 ). Since f (P M ) = P 0 f (M ) ∈ α0 ,
f (M ) ∈ α0 , i.e. M ∈ f −1 (α0 ).

2.1.2 Defining an affine map.

A linear map is defined completely if we know the images of all elements in a basis. Similarly, an
affine map is defined completely if we know the images of all elements in a frame.
→
− →
−
Theorem 2.1.4. Let A and A0 be K-affine spaces, ϕ : A −→ A0 be a linear map, P ∈ A and
→
−
P 0 ∈ A0 . Then there exists uniquely an affine map f : A −→ A0 such that f (P ) = P 0 and f = ϕ.

In other words, an affine map is defined completely if we known its associated map and a pair of
points, P ∈ A and P 0 = f (P ) ∈ A0 .

−−−→ −−→
Proof. Consider the map f : A −→ A0 defined by f (M ) = M 0 such that P 0 M 0 = ϕ(P M ), ∀M ∈
A. It is clear that, f (P ) = P 0 and for every M, N ∈ A we have
−−−−−−−→ −−−−−−−→ −−−−−−−→ −−→ −−→
f (M )f (N ) = f (P )f (N ) − f (P )f (M ) = ϕ(P N ) − ϕ(P M )
−−→ −−→ −−→
= ϕ(P N − P M ) = ϕ(M N ).

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

Therefore, f is an affine map whose associated map is ϕ.

We have proved the existence. Next will be the proof for the uniqueness.

Suppose that there exists an affine map g : A −→ A0 associated with ϕ and g(P ) = P 0 . Then for
every M ∈ A, we have
−−−−−−−→ −−→ −−−−−−−→
g(P )g(M ) = ϕ(P M ) = f (P )f (M ).
Since g(P ) = f (P ) = P 0 , g(M ) = f (M ). Thus, f = g.

The theorem is proved.

If dim A = dim A0 and ϕ is a linear isomorphism, then f is an affine isomorphism.

Corollary 2.1.5. Let A and A0 be two K-affine spaces, {O; → −
e1 , →
−
e2 . . . , →
−
en } be an affine frame in A,
→
− →
− →
− →
−
O0 ∈ A0 and { e1 0 , e2 0 , . . . , en 0 } be a family of vectors in A0 . Then there exists uniquely an affine
map f : A −→ A0 satisfying
→
− →
f (O) = O0 and f (−
ei ) = →
−
ei 0 , i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
In other words, an affine map is completely defined by the images of all elements in a frame. More-
→
−
over, if dim A = dim A0 and {→−
e1 0 , →
−
e2 0 , . . . , →
−
en 0 } is a basis in A 0 , then f is an affine isomorphism.

→
− →
−
Proof. By a result in Linear algebra, there exists a unique linear map ϕ : A −→ A0 such that
ϕ(→−
e ) = → −
e 0 , i = 1, ..., n.
i i

Applying Theorem 2.1.4 for the linear map ϕ and the pair O, O0 we obtain the affine map. The
remaining is obvious because ϕ is a linear isomorphism.

In the above corollary, if the frame {O; → −

e1 , →
−
e2 , . . . , →
−
en } is replaced by a family of n + 1 independent
points {A0 , A1 , . . . , An } as well as O and the family of vectors {→
0 −
e1 0 , →
−
e2 0 , . . . , →
−
en 0 } are replaced by
0 0 0
a family of n + 1 points {A0 , A1 , . . . , An } then we have the similar result: There exists uniquely
an affine map assigning Ai to A0i , i = 0, 1, . . . n, i.e. an affine map is completely defined by the
images of n + 1 affinely independent points. Moreover, if dim A = dim A0 and {A00 , A01 , . . . , A0n } is
independent then f is an affine isomorphism.

2.1.3 The fundamental theorem of affine maps

A natural question is: what are properties sufficient to characterize an affine map? Theorem 2.1.8
in this subsection gives such a characterization for affine isomorphisms.
Theorem 2.1.6. An affine map preserves the barycenters of every finite family of points.

Proof. Suppose that f : A −→ A0 is an affine map and G is the barycenter of the family
{P1 , P2 , . . . , Pm } w.r.t. the family of scalars {λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λm }. That means
m
X −−→ → −
λi GPi = 0 .
i=1

32
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

This implies
m m
X →
− −−→ X −−−−−−−→ → −
λi f (GPi ) = λi f (G)f (Pi ) = 0 .
i=1 i=1

This proves that f (G) is the barycenter of the family {f (P1 ), f (P2 ), . . . , f (Pm )} w.r.t. the family
of scalars {λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λm }.

We have the following corollary.

Corollary 2.1.7. An affine map preserves the single ratio of every three collinear points (if the
single ratio is well defined).
Theorem 2.1.8. Let A, A0 be two K-affine spaces that have the same dimension and f be an
bijection from A onto A0 . If f preserves the collinearity of all three collinear points (i.e. if three
point M, N, P are collinear then f (M ), f (N ), f (P ) are, too) and preserves the single ratio (i.e.
(M N P ) = (f (M )f (N )f (P )) then f is an affine isomorphism.

Proof. Let I be an arbitrary point in A and g : A0 −→ A be an affine isomorphism that maps f (I)
to I, then h = g ◦ f : A −→ A is a bijection keeping the point I fixed. It is easy to see that h
preserves the collinearity and single ratio of every three collinear points .
→
− →
−
Consider the map ϕ : A −→ A defined by
−−→ −−−−−−→ −−−−→
ϕ(IM ) = h(I)h(M ) = Ih(M ).
→
−
We will prove that ϕ is a linear map. Indeed, if →
−
x = 0 then
→
− −
→ −−−−−→ → −
ϕ(→
−
x ) = ϕ( 0 ) = ϕ(II) = h(I)h(I) = 0 .
→
− →
− →
− →
−
Therefore, if λ = 0 or →
−
x = 0 , then λ→
−
x = 0 and λ(ϕ(→
−
x )) = 0 . Thus, ϕ(λ→
−
x ) = λ(ϕ(→
−
x )) = 0 .
−−→
Suppose that λ 6= 0 and → −
x 6= 0 (we just need to consider the case λ 6= 1) and let IM =
→
− −→
x , IN = λ→−
x . Obviously, N, M, I are distinct points, collinear and (N M I) = λ. By the as-
sumption, three points h(N ), h(M ), h(I) are distinct, collinear and (h(N ), h(M ), h(I)) = λ, i.e.
−−−−−−→ −−−−−−→
h(I)h(N ) = λh(I)h(M ), or
ϕ(λ→−
x ) = λ(ϕ(→−x )).

If the family {→
−
x ,→
−y } is linearly dependent, we can prove easily that ϕ(→
−
x +→
−
y ) = ϕ(→
−
x ) + ϕ(→
−
y ). If
−
−→ −→
the family { x , y } is linearly independent, then we take M, N ∈ A such that IM = x , IN = →
→
− →
− →
− −y
−→ 1 →
− →
−
and let P be the midpoint of the segment M N, i.e. IP = 2 ( x + y ). We have (M N P ) = −1,
therefore, (h(M )h(N )h(P )) = −1.

Thus, h(P ) is the midpoint of the segment h(M )h(N ), i.e.

−−−→ 1 −−−−→ −−−−→ 1 − → 1
Ih(P ) = (Ih(M ) + Ih(N )) or ϕ( (→
x +−
y )) = (ϕ(→
−
x ) + ϕ(→
−
y )).
2 2 2
But
1 − → 1 − →
ϕ( (→
x +−
y )) = ϕ(→
x +−
y ),
2 2

33
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

therefore
ϕ(→
−
x +→
−
y ) = ϕ(→
−
x ) + ϕ(→
−
y ).

Thus, ϕ is a linear map and therefore h is an affine map. Since h is bijective, h is an affine
isomorphism. This implies that f = g −1 ◦ h is an affine isomorphism.

2.2 Representation of an affine map.

2.2.1 Representation.

Let An and Am be two K-affine spaces, f : An −→ Am be an affine map, {O; → −e1 , →

−
e2 , ..., →
−
en } be
an affine frame in An and {O0 ; →
−
u1 , →
−
u2 , ..., −
u→
m } be an affine frame in Am
. Note that f is completely
→
−
defined by the point f (O) and the associated linear map f . Suppose that
m
→
− →
f (− api →
−
X
ei ) = up ; i = 1, 2, . . . , n
p=1

and m
−− −−→ X
O0 f (O) = bp →
−
up .
p=1

If M ∈ An has coordinates (xi ) in the frame {O; →

−
ei } and f (M ) has coordinates (x0p ) in the frame
0 →
−
{O ; up }, then

m
−−−−−→ −−−−→ −−−−−−−→
x0p →
−
X
up = O0 f (M ) = O0 f (O) + f (O)f (M )
p=1
−−−−→ → − −−→
= O0 f (O) + f (OM )
m n m n m
!
→
− −
bp →
− xi f (→ bp →
− api →
−
X X X X X
= up + ei ) = up + xi up
p=1 i=1 p=1 i=1 p=1
m X
n m m n
!
api xi →
− bp →
− api xi + bp →
−
X X X X
= up + up = up .
p=1 i=1 p=1 p=1 i=1

Therefore,
n
X
x0p = api xi + bp ; p = 1, 2, . . . , m. (2.1)
i=1

Formula (2.1) can be written in a more explicit form as follows

 0

 x1 = a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn + b1
x 0 = a x + a x + . . . + a x + b

2 21 1 22 2 2n n 2
. (2.2)


 ...
 0
xm = am1 x1 + am2 x2 + . . . + amn xn + bm

34
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

Formulas (2.1) and (2.2) are called presentations or equations of f in the given frames.

Conversely, when a frame {O; →−

e1 , →−
e2 , . . . , →−
en } in An and a frame {O0 ; → −
u1 , → −
u2 , . . . , −
u→ m
m } in A are given,
Formula (2.1) will be the representation of an affine map defined uniquely. That is f : An −→ Am
assigning M that has coordinates (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) in the frame {O; → −
e1 , →−
e2 , . . . , →
−
en } to the point
f (M ) that has coordinates (x01 , x01 , . . . , x0m ) in the frame {O0 ; →
−
u1 , →
−
u2 , . . . , −
u→
m } .

1. Formula (2.1) and (2.2) can be written in the matrix form

[x0 ] = A[x] + [b],

where      
x01 a11 a12 . . . a1n b1
 x0   a21 a22 . . . a2n   b2 
0  2
[x ] =  ..  ; A =  .. ..  ; [b] =  ..  .
   
..
 .   . . ... .   . 
x0m am1 am2 . . . amn bm
→
− −
2. Because A is a matrix whose columns are coordinates of f (→ ei ), i = 1, 2, . . . , n in the basis
→
− n m
{up }, the affine map f : A −→ A is affinely injective, surjective or bijective if and only if
the rank of the matrix (api )m×n is n, m or n = m, respectively.

2.3 Affine Groups

2.3.1 Affine groups.

The set of all affine automorphisms is a group under composition of maps, called the affine group
of A, denoted by Aff(A).

Suppose that f : A −→ A is an affine automorphism. A point M in A is called a fixed point of the

map f if f (M ) = M. A subset H ⊂ A is said to be fixed under f if f (H) = H.
→
− → − →
−
Consider the associated linear automorphism f : A −→ A of f. Every m-dimensional subspace
→
− →
− −
→ →
− →
− −→ −
→
of A that is fixed under f (i.e. an m-dimensional subspace W of A such that f (W ) = W ) is
called a fixed direction (of m-dimension) of the map f.

In An , the equation (in a given frame) of an affine automorphism f is

[x0 ] = A[x] + [b]

where A is a non-singular squared matrix of order n, i.e. detA 6= 0. Then a point M (xi ) is fixed
under f if and only if (xi ) is a solution of the following equation:

[x] = A[x] + [b]

or
(A − In )[x] + [b] = 0. (2.3)

35
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

The set of all solutions of (2.3) (if there exists) determines an affine set in An (see Exercise ??).
This is the affine set consisting all fixed points of f.

It is easy to see that an affine automorphism maps an m-plane to an m-plane and preserves the
intersecting, skew or parallel properties of affine sets.

Theorem 2.3.1. An affine automorphism maps an m-dimensional simplex to an m-dimensional

simplex and an m-dimensional parallelepiped to an m-dimensional parallelepiped.

Proof. Consider m-dimensional simplex

m
−−→ X −−→
C = {M ∈ A : OM = ti OAi , ti ≥ 0, t0 + t1 + ... + tm = 1 }
i=0

and suppose that f : A −→ A is an affine automorphism of A. We will prove f (C) is also an

m-dimensional simplex.

Indeed, let
I = f (O), Bi = f (Ai ), i = 0, 1, 2, ..., m.
We have m m
−−−−→ → − −−→ X →− −−→ X −→
If (M ) = f (OM ) = ti f (OAi ) = ti IBi ,
i=0 i=0

therefore m
0
−−→0 X −→
f (C) = {M ∈ A : IM = ti IBi , ti ≥ 0, t0 + t1 + ... + tm = 1}.
i=0

In other words, f (C) is an m-dimensional simplex whose vertices are B0 , B1 , ..., Bm .

The proof for the case of m-dimensional parallelepiped is quite similar.

Below are two familiar examples of affine automorphism.

2.3.2 Translations.
→
−
Let A be an affine space. For a given vector →
−
v ∈ A , the map

v : A −→ A
T−
→

defined by, ∀M ∈ A
−−−→ −
T−
v (M ) = M
→ 0
such that M M 0 = →
v,
is called a translation by vector →
−v.
→
−
Theorem 2.3.2. T− →v is an affine automorphism associated with the identity map id− → of A . Con-
A
→
−
versely, if f is an affine automorphism of A and f = id− → , then f is a translation.
A

36
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

0 0
Proof. For every M, N ∈ A, set T−
v (M ) = M and T−
→ v (N ) = N . We have
→

−−−−−−−−−−→ −−− → −−−

0 0 0
→ −−→ −−→0
T−
→v (M )T−
v (N ) = M N = M M + M N + N N
→
−−→ − −−→ −−→
= −→
−
v + MN + →v = M N = id−
→ (M N ).
A

This proves that T−

v is an affine automorphism associated with id−
→ →.
A
→
−
Suppose that f is an affine automorphism of A and f = id−
→ . We will prove that f is a translation.
A
0 →
− −−→ 0
Let P ∈ A be a fixed point, f (P ) = P and v = P P . Then for every M ∈ A, we have
−−−−−→ −−→ −−−−→ −−−−−−−→
M f (M ) = M P + P f (P ) + f (P )f (M )
−−→ −−→ −−→
= MP + P P 0 + P M
−−→
= PP0
=→−v.
−−→
This proves that f is the translation by vector →
−
v = P P 0.

We can prove the followings easily:

1. If →
−
v = 0, then T−v is the identity map of A.
→

→
−
2. If →
−
v 6= 0 , then T−
v is an affine automorphism of A that has no fixed point.
→

→
−
3. For every →
−v ,→
−
u ∈ A , we have T− →v ◦ T−
u = T−
→ →u ◦ T−
v = T−
→ → v.
u +−
→

→
−
4. For every →
−
v ∈ A , we have (T−
v)
→ −1
= T−−
v.
→

By Remaks 3 and 4, the set of all translations of A forms an Abel subgroup of Aff(A), called
translation group of A, denoted by T(A).

Theorem 2.3.3. Any affine automorphism of A can be expressed as a composition of an affine

automorphism that has fixed points and a translation or a composition of a translation and an
affine automorphism that has fixed points.

Proof. Suppose that f : A −→ A is an affine automorphism. Let O ∈ A and O0 = f (O).

→
− −−→0
Let T−
v be the translation by vector v = OO and h be an affine automorphism whose associated
→
→
− →
−
map is h = f and h(O0 ) = O0 .
→
− →
−
Then h ◦ T−
v is an affine automorphism whose associated map is f ◦ id−
→ → = f . Moreover,
A

0 0
(h ◦ T−
v )(O) = h(T−
→ v (O)) = h(O ) = O .
→

Thus, by Theorem 2.1.4, we have

h ◦ T−
v = f.
→

37
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

N N’

M M’

Figure 2.1: Translation.

N’ M’
N

N
O

N’
O M M’ M

Figure 2.2: Dilation and point symmetry.

→
− →
−
Let h be the affine automorphism whose associated map is h = f and h(O) = O, we have

v ◦ h = f.
T−
→

Note that the above decomposition is not unique.

2.3.3 Dilation (or Dilatation)

Let A be an affine space. For O ∈ A and λ ∈ K − {0}, the map

f : A −→ A

defined by, ∀M ∈ A
−−→ −−→
f (M ) = M 0 such that OM 0 = λOM ,
is called a dilation with center O and (scaling) ratio λ.

Theorem 2.3.4. 1. A dilation f with center O and ratio λ is an affine automorphism whose
→
−
associated map is f = λid−→.
A
→
−
→ , where λ 6= 0, 1;
2. If f is an affine automorphism of A whose associated map is f = λid−
A
then f is a dilation with ratio λ.

38
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

Proof. 1. For every M, N ∈ A, let f (M ) = M 0 and f (N ) = N 0 , we have

−−−−−−−→ −−− → −−→ −−→
f (M )f (N ) = M 0 N 0 = M 0 O + ON 0
−−→ −−→ −−→
= λM O + λON = λM N
−−→
= λid−→ (M N ).
A
→
−
Thus, f is an affine automorphism of A whose associated map is f = λid−
→.
A

1
−−−−→
2. Take P ∈ A and consider the vector 1−λ
(this vector is well-defined because λ 6= 1).
P f (P )
−→ 1
−−−−→ −→ −→ −−−−→
Then there exists uniquely a point O such that P O = 1−λ P f (P ), i.e. λOP = OP + P f (P ) =
−−−−→ −→ → − −→ −−−−−−→
Of (P ). This means λOP = f (OP ) = f (O)f (P ). These imply that O = f (O), i.e. O is a
fixed point of f.
Then for every point M ∈ A
−−−−→ −−−−−−−→ → − −−→ −−→
Of (M ) = f (O)f (M ) = f (OM ) = λOM .

Thus, f is the dilation of center O and ratio λ.

1. When λ = 1, the dilation f is the identity map idA . If λ 6= 1, a dilation has a unique fixed
point, that is its center.
2. If f is a dilation with center O and ratio λ and g is a dilation with center O and ratio µ,
then f ◦ g = g ◦ f is a dilation with center O and ratio λµ.
3. If f is a dilation with center O and ratio λ, then f −1 is a dilation with center O and ratio λ1 .

By Remarks 2 and 3, the set of all dilations with the same center O forms an Abel subgroup of
the group Aff(A).

2.3.4 Generalized oblique reflection

→
− →
− →
−
Let α be an affine set in K-affine space A, and β 6= { 0 } be a vector subspace of A such that
→
− →
−
A =→ −
α ⊕ β and λ ∈ K − {0}. Conesider the map

f : A −→ A
−−−−−→ −−−→
M 7−→ f (M ) such that M1 f (M ) = λM1 M ,

where M1 is the intersection point of α and the affine set passing through M with directional space
→
− →
−
β . We call f a generalized oblique reflection with the base α, directional space β and ratio λ.
→
−
If λ = −1, f is called an oblique reflection by directional space β about α. Moreover, if α = {O}
(dim α = 0), then f is a point symmetry with center O.

39
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

M’



M
M

M1
M1 


M’

Figure 2.3: Generalized oblique reflection. Figure 2.4: Oblique reflection.

Theorem 2.3.5. A generalized oblique reflection is an affine automorphism.

→
− →
− →
−
Proof. Since A = →
−
α ⊕ β , for every →
−
x ∈ A , we have the expression
→
−
x =−
→+−
x →,
x
α β

here −
→∈→
x − →∈→
α and −
x
−
β.
α β

→
− →
−
Let ϕ : A −→ A defined as follows ϕ(→ −x) = − → + λ−
x α
→. Then, ϕ is a linear automorphism.
x β
We will prove that f is an affine map whose associated map is ϕ. Indeed, for every M, N ∈ A,
−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−→ →
−
we have M N = M1 N1 + M M1 + N1 N , where M1 N1 ∈ → −α and M M1 + N1 N ∈ β . Therefore,
−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−→ −−−−−−−→ −−−→ −−−−−→ −−−−−→
ϕ(M N ) = M1 N1 + λM M1 + λN1 N . Moreover, f (M )f (N ) = M1 N1 − M1 f (M ) + N1 f (N ) =
−−−→ −−−→ −−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−→ −−→ −−−−−−−→
M1 N1 − λM1 M + λN1 N = M1 N1 + λM M1 + λN1 N . Thus, ϕ(M N ) = f (M )f (N ).

−−−→ → −
1. The point M is a fixed point of f if and only if f (M ) = M, i.e. (1 − λ)M1 M = 0 . Therefore,
λ = 1 or M = M1 .
If λ = 1, then every point of A is fixed.
If λ 6= 1, then α is the set of all fixed points of f.
→
−
2. If α is a hyperplane, then β is a subspace of dimension 1. Then for every point M, we have
−−−−−→ → −
M f (M ) ∈ β . Thus, lines joining points and their images are parallel.
→
− →
−
3. If dim α = 0, i.e. α = {O}, β = A , then f is a dilation with center O and ratio λ.

EXERCISES

Exercise 2.1. Let V and W be vector spaces endowed canonical affine structure. Prove that every
linear map f : V −→ W is an affine map. Is the inverse true?

40
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

Exercise 2.2. In affine space A3 with a given affine frame, give points as follows

A0 (1, 1, 1) , A1 (2, 0, 0) , A2 (1, 0, 0) , A3 (1, 1, 0);

A00 (0, 0, 0) , A01 (0, 1, 0) , A02 (2, 0, 1) , A03 (1, 0, 1).

1. Prove that the families {A0 , A1 , A2 , A3 } and {A00 , A01 , A02 , A03 } are affinely independent.

2. Find the representation of the affine map f : A3 −→ A3 satisfying f (Ai ) = A0i , i = 0, 1, 2, 3,

in the given frame.

3. Find the representation of the affine map in the frame {A0 ; A1 , A2 , A3 }.

Exercise 2.3. Prove that an affine map preserves the intersecting and parallel properties of two
affine sets. Do affine maps preserve the skew property of affine sets?

Exercise 2.4. Let f : A −→ A0 be an affine map, α0 and β 0 be affine sets in A0 such that
f −1 (α0 ) 6= ∅ and f −1 (β 0 ) 6= ∅.

1. Prove that if α0 , β 0 are skew or parallel, then f −1 (α0 ) and f −1 (β 0 ) are skew or parallel, too.

2. Suppose that α0 ∩ β 0 6= ∅. Give an example such that

f −1 (α0 ) ∩ f −1 (β 0 ) = ∅.

Exercise 2.5. Let A, and A0 be two K-affine spaces of the same dimension and f : A −→ A0 be
an affine isomorphism. Prove that:

1. if α is an m-plane in A, then f (α) is an m-plane in A0 ,

2. f preserves intersecting, skew and parallel properties of affine sets.

Exercise 2.6. An affine automorphism of a K-affine space A is called an affine involution if f ◦ f

→
−
is the identify map of A. It is easy to see that an oblique reflection by directional space β about
an affine set α is an affine involution. Prove that every affine involution, except the identity map,
is an oblique reflection.

Exercise 2.7. Prove that every affine automorphism of an affine space A, whose dimension
dim A ≥ 2, that maps a line to a parallel line is a translation or a dilation.

Exercise 2.8. Let f be an affine automorphism of A3 whose representation in the affine frame
{O; →
−
e1 , →
−
e2 , →
−
e3 } is
x01 = 4x1 + 2x2 + x3 + 1,
x02 = 6x1 + 5x2 + 2x3 + 2,
x03 = 9x1 + 6x2 + 4x3 + 5.
Find fixed points and fixed 1-dimensional directions of f.

Exercise 2.9. Prove that every affine automorphism of An (R) has at least a fixed point or a
1-dimensional direction.

41
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

Exercise 2.10. In An , let {O; → −

e1 , →
−
e2 , . . . , →
−
en } be an affine frame. Consider the map f assigning
0
the point M (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) to M (0, 0, . . . , 0, xk , . . . , xn ). Show that f is a parallel projection. Find
the base and the projection direction of f.
Exercise 2.11. Prove that the restriction of an affine map on an m-plane is an affine map.
Exercise 2.12. Let f : A −→ A0 be an affine map. Prove that:

1. f is injective if and only if dim A = dim f (A);

2. f is surjective if and only if dim f (A) = dim A0 ;

3. f is bijective if and only if dim A = dim f (A) = dim A0 .

Exercise 2.13. Given affine maps f, g, h from A3 to itself that have representations:

f: x01 = 0, x02 = x2 , x03 = x3 ;

g: x01 = x1 , x02 = 0, x03 = x3 ;

h: x01 = x1 , x02 = x2 , x03 = 0;
respectively. Prove that, f, g, h are parallel projections. Find their bases and projection directions.
Exercise 2.14. In a real affine space A3 let α and α0 be two distinct plane (affine sets of dimension
2) and ABC ⊂ α, M N P ⊂ α0 be two triangles.

1. How many are there affine isomorphisms from α to α0 that map the triangle ABC to the
triangle M N P.

2. How many are there affine isomorphisms of A3 that map the triangle ABC to the triangle
M N P.

3. In this problem, what is the results if the triangle ABC is replaced by a parallelogram ABCD
and the triangle M N P is replaced by a parallelogram M N P Q.
Exercise 2.15. Let f : A2 −→ A2 be a bijection satisfying the following conditions: for every
−−→ −−−−−−−→ −−−−→ −−−−−→
M, N ∈ A2 , M N is parallel to f (M )f (N ) and N f (N ) is parallel M f (M ). Prove that, f is a
translation.
Exercise 2.16. In A3 given an affine map f whose representation (in a given frame) is
 0
x 1 = 3x1 +3x2 +2x3 +1,
x0 = x1 −x2 +x3 −1,
 02
x3 = 2x1 +2x2 +2x3 −3.

1. Prove that f is an affine automorphism.

2. Fine the image and pre-image of the point M (1, −2, 1).

3. Fine the image and pre-image of the line passing through N (1, 1, 1) with directional vector
→
−
v (1, 2, 1).

42
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

4. Fine the image and pre-image of the plane:


x1 = 2t1 −t2 +1,
x2 = t1 +t2 −2,
x3 = −t1 −t2 +3.


Exercise 2.17. In A3 with a given frame, let f be an affine map whose presentation is

x02 = 5x1 − x2 +5x3 − 3, (2.4)

x03 = −2x1 − x2 −x3 + 1. (2.5)

Find fixed points and 1-dimesional directions of f.

Exercise 2.18. Prove that, if an affine automorphism of An has n + 1 fixed point which are
independent, then f is the identity map.

Exercise 2.19. In A3 given a tetrahedron ABCD. Write the presentation of the affine automor-
phism f in the frame {A; B, C, D} f or each of the following cases:

1. f (A) = B, f (B) = C, f (C) = D, f (D) = A;

2. f (A) = B, f (B) = A, f (C) = D, f (D) = C;

3. f (A) = C, f (B) = D, f (C) = A, f (D) = B.

Exercise 2.20. In An , let {O; Ei } and {O0 ; Ei0 } be two frames. Suppose that, the change of frames
formula from {O; Ei } to {O0 ; Ei0 } is

x1 = x01 +1,
0 0
x2 = x1 + x2 +2,
.. ..
. .
xn = x1 + x02 + · · · + x0n +n.
0

Find the representation of the affine automorphism in the frame {O, Ei } that maps O to O0 and
Ei to Ei0 , i = 1, 2, . . . , n.

Exercise 2.21. Prove that:

1. the composition of two translations is a translation;

2. the composition of a translation and a dilation is a dilation;

3. the composition of two dilations is a dilation or a translation;

Give some examples that illustrate the above results.

Exercise 2.22. In an affine space An , are the following statements true or false? Explain.

1. Two triangles, two m-dimensional simplecies are affinely equivalent together.

43
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

2. Two parallelograms, two m-dimensional parallelepipeds are affinely equivalent together.

3. Two trapezoids (trapeziums)are affinely equivalent together. (Give a reasonable definition

for trapezoid).

Exercise 2.23. Prove that:

1. The set of all translations of an affine space An with the composition forms a group that is
−→
isometric with the additive group An .

2. The set of all translations and dilations of an affine space An with the composition forms a
group. Is this group Abel?

Exercise 2.24. Prove that, the set V of all dilations whose centers are the same of an affine space
An with the composition forms a group that is isometric with the multiplicative group K \ {0}.
Fine a subgoup of V consisting only two elements.

Exercise 2.25. Prove that the following terminologies as well as properties are affinely invariant,
i.e. do not change under affine automorphisms: affine set, independent family of points, barycenter,
single ratio, double ratio, triangle, meridian of a triangle; intersecting, parallel or skew properties
of affine sets.

Exercise 2.26. Let f be an affine automorphism of An . Prove that:

1. f has a 1-dimensional or a 2-dimensional fixed direction at least;

2. if f has a fixed point then f has a fixed line or a fixed plane.

Give an example to show that f may not have any fixed line or any fixed plane.

44