Chapter 1: Further Theory of Modules

In this Chapter, we assume that R is a ring with identity 1 6= 0 and M

is a unita right R-module.

§4. Projective Modules.

4.1. Definitions and Examples.

In this Section, we will say about projective modules, that are direct
summands of free modules, and are therefore images of natural projections.
Free modules are projective, and projective modules are sometimes but not
always free. There are many equivalent ways to describe projective modules,
and we must choose one of them as the definition.

4.1.1. Definition. The right R-module P is called projective if given homomor-

phism f : P → N , and g : M → N epimorphism, there exists a homomorphism
h : P −→ M (not necessarily unique) such that f = gh. We sometimes say that
we have lifted f to h.
So, in the diagram below and the definition above to follow, all maps
are right R-module homomorphisms. The bottom row is exact, that is, g is an
epimorphism. Then P is projective if there exists a homormorphism h : P −→
M such that the following diagram is commutative

h P

. ↓ f

M → N → 0
g

The definition may look obscure, but the condition described is a familiar
property of free modules.
4.1.2. Proposition. Every free module is projective.
Proof. Let S be a basis for the free module FR . Then f is determined by its
behavior on basis elements s ∈ S (see Theorem 1.3.1, 1.3. §1, Chap. 1). Since
g is epimorphic, there exists a ∈ M such that g(a) = f (s). Take h(s) = a and
extend by linearity from S to F. Since f = gh on S, the same must be true on
all of F.

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4.1.3. Examples. 1. A vector space over a field k is a free k-module, hence is

projective by Proposition 4.1.2.
2. The ring R is projective right (and left) R-module since any ring R
is a free right (and left) R-module (with basis {1}).

4.2. Characterizations and Properties.

Here is the list of equivalences.
4.2.1. Theorem. The following conditions on the right R-module P are equiv-
alent.
(1) P is projective.
(2) If the sequence of right R-modules and right R-module homomor-
phisms
f g
0 −→ L −→ M −→ N −→ 0
is exact, then the following sequence of ZZ-modules is exact

Hom(1,f ) HomR(1,g)
0 −→ HomR (P, L) −→ HomR (P, M ) −→ HomR (P, N ) −→ 0.

(3) Every short exact sequence 0 −→ M −→ N −→ P −→ 0 splits.

(4) P is a direct summand of a free module.
Proof. (1) is equivalent to (2). In view of the exactness of the second sequence,
by Proposition 3.4.1, we only need to prove the exactness of it at HomR (P, N ),
i.e., it says that if g : M −→ N is epimorphic, then so is

HomR(1,g)
HomR (P, M ) −→ HomR (P, N ).

But HomR (1, g) maps h : P −→ M to gh : P −→ N, so what we must prove is

that for an arbitrary homomorphism f : P −→ N, there exists a homomorphism
h : P −→ M such that gh = f. This is precisely the definition of projectivity of
P.
(2) implies (3). Let 0 −→ M −→ N −→ P −→ 0 be a short exact
sequence, with g : N −→ P (necessarily an epimorphism). Since P is projective,
we have the following diagram.

h P

. ↓ f

M → N → 0
g
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Thus there exists h : P −→ N such that gh = 1P , which means that the

exact sequence splits (see Theorem 3.2.1, Chapter 1).
(3) implies (4). We have known that (T, Abstract Algebra 2, Theorem
5.2.1) P is a quotient of a free module, i.e., P ∼
= N/M with N free, so there
is an exact sequence 0 −→ M −→ N −→ P −→ 0 with N free. By (3), the
sequence splits, so by Theorem 3.2.1, P is a direct summand of N .
(4) implies (1). Let P be a direct summand of the free module F , and
let P be the natural projection of F on P ; see the diagram below.
π
F −→ P

h ↓ h0 . ↓ f

M −→ N → 0
g

Given f : P −→ N , we have fp : F −→ N, so by Proposition 4.1.2 there

exists h : F −→ M such that fπ = gh. If h0 is the restriction of h to P , then
f = gh0 .
4.2.2. Corollary. The direct sum
M
P = Pj
j∈J

is projective if and only if each Pj , j ∈ J is projective.

Proof. If P is a direct summand of a free module, so is each Pj , and therefore
the Pj are projective by (4) of Theorem 4.2.1.
Conversely, assume that each Pj is projective. Let f : P −→ N and
g : M −→ N , with g epimorphism. If ij is the inclusion map of Pj into P , then
fij : Pj −→ N can be lifted to hj : Pj −→ M such that fij = ghj . By the
universal mapping property of direct sum (Theorem 1.1.3, 1.1, Section 1), there
is a homomorphism h : P −→ M such that hij = hj for all j. Thus fij = ghij
for every j, and it follows from the uniqueness part of the universal mapping
property that f = gh.
4.2.3. Lemma. A submodule of a free module M over a principal ideal domain
(PID) R is free.
Proof. The proof is leaved for readers.
If we are searching for projective modules that are not free, the following
result tells us where not to look.
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4.2.4. Theorem. A module M over a PID R is projective if and only if it is

free.
Proof. By Proposition 4.1.2, free implies projective. If M is projective, then
by (4) of Theorem 4.2.1, M is a direct summand of a free module. In particular,
M is a submodule of a free module, hence is free by Lemma 4.2.3.
4.2.4. Examples. 1. A finite abelian group G is not a projective ZZ-module,
because it is not free (If g ∈ G and n = |G|, then ng = 0, so g can never be part
of a basis) and ZZ is a PID. For example, ZZ4 is not a projective ZZ-module.
3. If p and q are distinct primes, then R = ZZpq = ZZp ⊕ ZZq . We claim
that ZZp and ZZq are projective but not free R-modules. Note that as in Example
2, they are not projective ZZ-modules. They are projective follows from (4) of
Theorem 4.2.1 and the fact that any ring R is a free R-module (with basis {1}).
ZZp and ZZq are not free R-modules since they have no base.