Chapter 1: Further Theory of Modules

In this Chapter, we assume that R is a ring with identity 1 6= 0 and M

is a unita right R-module.

§3. Exact Sequences of Modules.

3.1. Definitions and Examples.

3.1.1. Definition. A sequence of right R-modules and right R-module homo-

morphisms
ϕn−1 ϕn
... −→ Mn−1 −→ Mn −→ Mn+1 −→ ...
is called exact, if for every subsequence of the form
ϕn−1 ϕn
Mn−1 −→ Mn −→ Mn+1,

the following condition holds:

Im(ϕn−1 ) = Ker(ϕn ); (∗)

i.e., at every Mn (except the endpoint, if it happens) the condition (*) is satis-
fied.
An exact sequence of the form:

0 −→ X −→ Y −→ Z −→ 0

is called a short exact sequence.

An exact sequence is called a split exact sequence if for every subsequence
of the form
ϕn−1 ϕn
Mn−1 −→ Mn −→ Mn+1,

Im(ϕn−1 ) = Ker(ϕn )
is a direct summand of Mn .
3.1.2. Examples. (1) Let ϕ be a group homomorphism from an abelian group
X to an abelian group Y then we obtain a exact sequence of ZZ-modules, that
is
j ϕ p
0 −→ Kerϕ −→ X −→ Y −→ Y /Imϕ −→ 0

Typeset by AMS-TEX

1
2

in which j is the canonical inclusion and p is the canonical projection.

(2) Note that, in our course, we will however only have short exact
sequences to consider. We confine ourselves now to what we need there.
We begin first of all by making clear what it means for the short sequence

f g
0 −→ A −→ M −→ W −→ 0

to be exact. Since the first mapping 0 −→ A has image 0, the exactness of

f
0 −→ A −→ M indicates that f is a monomorphism. Since the last mapping
g
W −→ 0 is the zero mapping with kernel W , the exactness of M −→ W −→ 0
indicates that g is an epimorphism. From Im(f ) = Ker(g) it then follows that
M/Im(f ) ∼ = W.
If A ≤ MR then we obtain in particular the short exact sequence
i ν
0 −→ A −→ M −→ M/A −→ 0,

where i is the inclusion mapping and ν is the natural epimorphism.

3.1.3. Induced homomorphisms.
Let X, M, N be right R-modules, ϕ be a homomorphism of right R-
modules, then ϕ : M −→ N induces the following group homomorphisms:

Hom(1, ϕ) (or ϕ∗ ) : HomR (X, M) −→ HomR (X, N )

f 7−→ ϕf

and
Hom(ϕ, 1) (or ϕ∗ ) : HomR (N, X) −→ HomR (M, X)
f 7−→ fϕ
Checking that they are group homomorphisms is leaved for readers.
3.2. Split short exact sequences.
Let
f g
0 −→ A −→ M −→ W −→ 0
be a short exact sequence. Obviously the splitting of the subsequences

f g
0 −→ A −→ M and M −→ W −→ 0

is already given, so that the splitting of the given short exact sequence depends
only on the splitting of
f g
A −→ M −→ W
 3

i.e., on whether Im(f ) = Ker(g) is a direct summand of M. The following are

characterizations of a split short sequence:
3.2.1. Theorem. Let
f g
0 −→ A −→ M −→ W −→ 0 (•)

be a short exact sequence.

(a) The following conditions are equivalent:
(1) The sequence (•) splits.
(2) There exists a homomorphism f0 : M −→ A such that f0 ◦ f = 1A .
(3) There exists a homomorphism g0 : W −→ M such that g ◦ g0 = 1W .
(b) If the above sequence (•) splits then

f0 g0
0 ←− A ←− M ←− W ←− 0

is exact and splits.

Proof. (a) (1) ⇒ (2). Let M = Im(f ) ⊕ M1 and let π : M −→ Im(f ) be the
projection of M onto Im(f ) defined by

π(f (a) + m1 ) = f (a), f(a) ∈ Im(f ), m1 ∈ M1 .

Further call f¯ : A −→ Im(f ) defined by f¯(a) = f (a), a ∈ A, i.e., let f¯

be the isomorphism defined by the restriction of the domain M of f to Im(f ).
For f0 = f¯−1 π we then have

f0 f (a) = f¯−1 πf (a) = f¯−1 (f (a)) = a, a ∈ A,

thus f0 ◦ f = 1A .
(2) ⇒ (1). We recall two formulas: If α : A −→ B and β : B −→ M, then
(∗) Im(α) + Ker(β) = β −1 (Im(βα)), (∗∗) Im(α) ∩ Ker(β) = α(Ker(βα)).
Now since f0 ◦ f = 1A , f is a monomorphism. Then applying (*)

Im(f ) + Ker(f0 ) = f0−1 (Im(f0 f )) = f0−1 (1A ) = M

and (**)
Im(f ) ∩ Ker(f0 ) = f (Ker(1A )) = f (0) = 0.
So
Im(f ) ⊕ Ker(f0 ) = M.
i.e., the sequence (•) splits.
4

(1) ⇒ (3). Let M = Ker(g) ⊕ M1 , and let ι : M1 −→ M be the inclusion

mapping of M1 into M. Further let ḡ denote the restriction of g onto M1 , then
ḡ is an isomorphism (since g is an epimorphism and Ker(g) ∩ M1 = 0). For
g0 = ιḡ −1 then we have
gg0 (w) = gιḡ 1(w) = g(ḡ −1 (w)) = w, w ∈ W,
thus g ◦ g0 = 1W .
(3) ⇒ (1). Since g ◦ g0 = 1W , g is an epimorphism. Then applying (*)
Im(g0 ) + Ker(g) = g −1 (Im(g ◦ g0 )) = g −1 (1W ) = M
and (**)
Im(g0 ) ∩ Ker(g) = g0 (Ker(1M )) = g0 (0) = 0.
So
Im(g0 ) ⊕ Ker(g) = M.
i.e., the sequence (•) splits.
(b) Let f0 : M −→ A with f0 f = 1A chosen arbitrarily. Applying again
(*) and (**), we have
M = Im(f ) ⊕ Ker(f0 ) = Ker(g) ⊕ Ker(f0 ).
From this g|Ker(f0 ) is an isomorphism.
Let now h : W −→ Ker(f0 ) be the inverse isomorphism and let ι :
Ker(f0 ) −→ M be the inclusion mapping, then let g0 = ιh. As M = Ker(g) ⊕
Ker(f0 ) and since g is an epimorphism every element from W can be represented
in the form g(x) with x ∈ Ker(f0 ). Then it follows that
gg0 (g(x)) = gι(hg(x)) = g(x),
thus gg0 = 1W and also g0 g(x) = x, thus Im(g0 ) = Ker(f0 ). Consequently
f0 g0
0 ←− A ←− M ←− W ←− 0
is exact and from gg0 = 1W , f0 f = 1A , splits by (a).
3.2.2. Definition. 1. If f : M −→ N and f 0 : N −→ M are right R-module
homomorphisms such that f ◦f 0 = 1N , then we say that f is a split epimorphism,
and f 0 is a split monomorphism.
By Theorem 3.2.2, a short exact sequence
f g
0 −→ A −→ M −→ W −→ 0
splits if and only if f is a split monomorphism if and only if g is a split epimor-
phism.