Physics TG12 Abi-1

GEMECHU BEYISSA FROM ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENGINEERING
email:- gamebaye.gb@gmail.com , facebook:-gamebaye@yahoo.com or Gemachu Abi Beyisa
Physics
Teacher Guide
Grade 12
Authors: Graham Bone
Tim Greenway
Advisers: Tilahun Tesfaye Deressu (PhD)

Endeshaw Bekele Buli
Evaluators: Yoseph Mihiret Mengistu

Gebremeskel Gebreegziabher
Yusuf Mohamed
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

Ministry of Education
Acknowledgements
The development, printing and distribution of this teacher guide has been funded through the General Education
Quality Improvement Project (GEQIP), which aims to improve the quality of education for Grades 1–12 students in
government schools throughout Ethiopia.
The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia received funding for GEQIP through credit/financing from the
International Development Associations (IDA), the Fast Track Initiative Catalytic Fund (FTI CF) and other
development partners – Finland, Italian Development Cooperation, the Netherlands and UK aid from the
Department for International Development (DFID).
The Ministry of Education wishes to thank the many individuals, groups and other bodies involved – directly and
indirectly – in publishing the teacher guide and accompanying textbook.
© Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education
First edition, 2002 (E.C.)
ISBN: 978-99944-2-023-0
Developed, printed and distributed for the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education by:
Pearson Education Limited

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Essex CM20 2JE
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In collaboration with
Shama Books
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Addis Ababa
Ethiopia
All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior written
permission of the copyright owner or a licence permitting restricted copying in Ethiopia by the Federal Democratic
Republic of Ethiopia, Federal Negarit Gazeta, Proclamation No. 410/2004 Copyright and Neighboring Rights
Protection Proclamation, 10th year, No. 55, Addis Ababa, 19 July 2004.
Disclaimer
Every effort has been made to trace the copyright owners of material used in this document. We apologise in
advance for any unintentional omissions. We would be pleased to insert the appropriate acknowledgement in any
future edition.
Printed in Malaysia
Contents
Introduction to the Teacher’s Guide 5

Unit 1 Thermodynamics 13
1.1 Thermal equilibrium and definition of temperature 14
1.2 Work, heat and the first law of thermodynamics 18
1.3 Kinetic theory of gases 23
1.4 Second law of thermodynamics, efficiency and
entropy 26
1.5 Heat engines and refrigerators 30
Unit 2 Oscillations and waves 38

2.1 Periodic motion (basic concepts) 39
2.2 Wave motion 49
2.3 Sound, loudness and human ear 54
Unit 3 Wave optics 60

3.1 Wave fronts and Huygen’s principle 60
3.2 Reflection and refraction of wave fronts 62
3.3 Proof of the laws of reflection and refraction using
Hugen’s principle 64
3.4 Interference 67
3.5 Young’s double slit experiment and expression for
fringe width 70
3.6 Coherent sources and sustained interference of light 73
3.7 Diffraction due to a single slit and a diffraction
grating 74
Unit 4 Electrostatics 80
4.1 Electric charge and Coulomb’s law 81
4.2 Electric potential 85
4.3 Capacitors and dielectrics 88
Grade 12 3
Unit 5 Steady electric current and circuit properties 96
5.1 Basic principles 97
5.2 Kirchoff’s rules 102
5.3 Measuring instruments 105
5.4 The Wheatstone bridge and potentiometer 108
Unit 6 Magnetism 116

6.1 Concepts of magnetic field 117
6.2 The Earth and magnetic fields 119
6.3 Motion of charged particles in a magnetic field 121
6.4 Magnetic force on current-carrying conductors
(long, straight, circular loop) 124
6.5 Ampere’s law and its application 128
6.6 Earth’s magnetism 130
Unit 7 Electromagnetic induction and a.c. circuits 140

7.1 Phenomena of electromagnetic induction 142
7.2 Alternating current (a.c.) generators and transformers 147
7.3 Alternating current (a.c.) 150
7.4 Power in a.c. circuits 157
Unit 8 Atomic physics 166

8.1 The dual nature of matter and radiation 168
8.2 Atoms and nuclei 172
Minimum Learning Competencies 187
Grade 12 Syllabus 191
Introduction to the Teacher's Guide
Unit 1
Some general aims of physics education

Physics is an important subject that contributes to the development of our
country in many ways. A knowledge and understanding of physics helps students
to understand the world and appreciate how it works. It contributes to a society
that benefits from this understanding, and produces people who realise how the
environment can be exploited in a sustainable way for the benefit of society.
It prepares students for employment, both in a general way and as a preparation
for careers that require knowledge of the subject, such as engineering or
communications. However, a study of physics does not just mean learning facts.
Physics, as with the other sciences, requires the student to develop problem-
solving skills.
The Secondary physics curriculum takes a competency-based, active learning
approach, underpinned by three broad outcomes: knowledge, values and attitudes,
and skills. The Students’ Book and Teacher’s Guide places emphasis on learner-
centred classroom and field activities, not only to help students to acquire
knowledge, but also to develop problem-solving and decision-making skills, as
well as a good attitude to society and the world around us.
The teacher must make the students aware that science is a dynamic activity, a
body of knowledge that constantly grows and is modified by experimentation.
He or she can utilise new approaches to teaching and learning, involving a range
of teaching styles, along with practical activities and field work, summarised in the
‘Teaching Methods’ section below.
General objectives of the Grade 12 physics course

When students have completed Grade 12 Physics they should have developed:
• an understanding of the basic concepts of physics and the laws of dynamics,
and different kinds of forces
• an understanding and working knowledge of the quantification and forms of
energy, the way energy is transformed and transmitted, and the concepts and
units related to energy, work and power
• an understanding and working knowledge of the laws of conservation of
energy and of momentum for objects moving in one dimension
• an understanding of the properties of mechanical waves, sound and light, and
the principles underlying their production and transmission
• the ability to analyse the relationships between physics and technology, and to
consider the impact of technological applications of physics on society and the
environment
• manipulative and problem-solving skills.
Each unit of study has specific learning competencies, and these are listed at
the beginning of each unit in both the Students’ Book and the Teacher’s Guide,
providing a useful checklist for both students and teachers.
Grade 12 5
Introduction
Teaching methods
The subject content can be delivered in different ways in order to achieve the
specific objectives. The type of teaching method used will affect the skills and
attitudes that the students develop. The teacher will want to use the most effective
methods for teaching a particular topic. In physics, it is recommended that the
teacher use more than one teaching method in a single lesson – the discussion
method might be suitable for the beginning of the lesson, followed by the
discovery method, or a practical activity. The strengths and weaknesses of a range
of different methods are summarised in the table below:
Method Strengths and weaknesses

Lecture – content is delivered Students receive correct factual information from the teacher.
to students by teacher Useful to stimulate thinking.
Students develop skills such as identification, observation, recording,
making predictions, synthesis, analysis and drawing conclusions.
Students develop qualities such as self-confidence, curiosity and
inquiry.
Useful for large numbers of students.
Makes students passive because it is one-way communication.
Makes learning difficult to assess.
Discovery – teacher guides Students develop skills such as identification, observation, recording,
students to discover scientific making predictions, synthesis, analysis and drawing conclusions.
facts for themselves Students develop qualities such as self-confidence, curiosity, interest
and co-operation.
Discussion – sharing of ideas Allows sharing of each other’s ideas.
between students and teacher Can be useful at start of a lesson to motivate students.
Allows everyone to participate actively.
A few people may end up dominating the discussion.
Not easy to conduct for large classes.
Can be time-consuming.
Teacher can easily lose track of the argument.
Question and answer – teacher Useful for gauging students’ understanding or knowledge of fact or
asks questions, students answer. concept.
Students also ask questions Useful for beginning and ending a lesson.
Need to ensure sufficient questions are framed to stimulate thinking –
closed questions do not achieve this.
Can be counterproductive if the teacher asks too many questions.
Problem solving – students Students develop skills such as identification, observation, recording,
are presented with an exercise making predictions, synthesis, analysis and drawing conclusions.
where they must find an answer Students develop desirable qualities such as seeking knowledge,
to a problem curiosity, enquiry and responsibility.
Worked examples in the Students’ Book can usefully be presented as
problems for students to solve – see notes for each topic for further
details.
Can waste time if not properly planned and guided.
6 Grade 12
Introduction
Assignments – specific task Students have the opportunity to research a topic and look for
given to students to find out information on their own.
about a particular problem or
issue
Worksheets – handouts to Allows students to think for themselves without outside influence.
guide students in practical work Allows individual ideas to be shared in a group.
Demonstration – teacher Students develop skills such as identification, observation, recording,
carries out practical work making predictions, synthesis, analysis and drawing conclusions.
if materials/equipment are Students develop desirable qualities such as self-confidence, curiosity,
inadequate or the procedure interest and co-operation.
is too complex or unsafe for
students
Practical activities – students Gives teacher an opportunity to develop students’ interest in the
carry out practical work subject.
individually or in groups; Teacher has opportunity to interact with students.
students gain hands-on Teacher provides the standard/expected results for each activity.
experience
Can be used with discussion method (during discussion of results).
This method is highly Students develop skills such as identification, observation, collecting,
recommended and should be measurement, manipulation, data recording, investigation, making
used as much as possible. predictions, interpretation, evaluation, synthesis and drawing
conclusions.
Students develop desirable qualities such as self-confidence, curiosity,
interest and co-operation.
Field work – outdoor learning Helps students develop skills such as identification, observation,
activity collecting, measurement, data manipulation, recording, analysis, report
writing and verbal reporting.
Students appreciate the environment.
Can waste time if not properly planned and guided.
Project – short- or long-term Helps students develop (among others) report-writing, presentation
investigation and data-analysis skills.
Students develop skills in using scientific methods.
Can be time-wasting if not properly planned and guided.
Case study – study carried Allows students to apply new knowledge and skills.
out on a particular natural Allows development of analytical and problem-solving skills.
environment, then applied to Allows exploration of solutions for seemingly complex problems.
another similar setting
Students may not see application to their own situation.
Students may get wrong results due to insufficient information.
Grade 12 7
Introduction
Schemes of work, lesson plans and records of work

A scheme of work is a plan for how the topics in the syllabus will be covered over
the course of the year. The scheme should be based on the Secondary Physics
syllabus. The construction of a scheme of work is an important role of a teacher.
In this Teacher’s Guide, a sequence of activities is suggested for each topic. However,
it may be necessary to vary this sequence from one school to another depending
on factors such as funding, laboratory facilities, seasonal availability of teaching
materials and time available for teaching, in addition to teacher preferences.
An effective scheme can be developed and modified over a period of time,
improving it from year to year as a result of teachers’ experience. Schemes of work
should always be prepared at the beginning of the school year. It is easier to keep
soft copies that can be updated when necessary.
A lesson plan acts as a guide for the teacher, outlining the activities that will be
carried out in order to achieve the specific objectives of the lesson. Lesson plans
are vital to ensure that teaching and learning is focussed on objectives to be
achieved but teachers should not be afraid to deviate from plans occasionally if
necessary for the students. A record of work is compiled after every lesson. It is
a brief report summarising what has been covered in the lessons. The record of
work should note areas of deviations from the lesson plan and reasons for this.
Time spent reflecting on a lesson is time well spent since it enables more effective
teaching and learning.
It is hoped that the schemes of work and ideas for lesson plans in this Teacher’s
Guide will motivate teachers to develop their own schemes and lesson plans to
suit their preferred teaching methods and resources available in their school.
Each topic in this book contains the following sections:
• learning competencies
• suggested scheme of work for each topic
• guidelines for practical activities
• skills and attitudes to be developed
• answers to questions in the Students’ Book
Assessment: tests and examinations

Assessment helps you identify whether learning has occurred, and is part of the
teaching and learning process. The syllabus and minimum learning competency
documents (included at the back of this teacher guide) give a large number of
objectives that students are expected to achieve during the year. The review
questions and end-of-unit questions are set to help test these. However, it is
unlikely that teachers will be able to test every single objective in a term or year: if
we did that, there would be probably little or no time left for teaching! There is in
fact a danger that we spend too much time testing and too little time teaching.
We want to avoid this danger; yet at the same time it is important to meet the
requirements of the syllabus, which indicate that we should do our best to find
out, in one way or another, how far we have achieved the objectives set at the start
of a given unit. The answer is that we should carry out continuous assessment.
This means that in the course of ordinary classroom teaching, and setting and
marking assignments, we need to keep a record of how well the class does.
8 Grade 12
Introduction
Continuous assessment helps teachers to ensure that all students have the
opportunity to succeed in school – in any class there may be a wide range of
abilities or needs, and by using continuous assessment, teachers can adapt their
approach to all of them. The teacher should continually observe the students to
see what they know and can do. There are many different kinds of assessment
activities included in this course: some, like the review questions, ask students to
recall information, while others, such as the boxed activities, focus on processes
such as analysis, constructing or showing a skill. There is a wide range of
approaches that can be used for this, including classroom experiments, field trips,
debating, role play, and research projects.
In both continuous assessment and regular testing/exam-setting, teachers should
assess all aspects of knowledge and understanding – knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
Knowledge means recalling previously learned information, such as terminology,
classifications, sequences and methods. In tests, some of the key words used for
this sort of question are: list, define, describe, label, name.
Comprehension means understanding the meaning of information. A
comprehension question uses key words such as: summarise, interpret, contrast,
predict, distinguish, estimate, discuss.
Application is the use of previously learned information to solve problems in new
situations. It is identified by key words such as: demonstrate, calculate, complete,
illustrate, relate, classify.
Analysis means the breaking down of information into its component parts,
examining and trying to understand such information to develop conclusions
by identifying causes, making inferences, and/or finding evidence to support
generalisations. Questions contain key words such as: explain, separate, order,
arrange, compare, select, compile.
Synthesis means applying prior knowledge and skills creatively to produce a new
or original thing. Questions contain key words such as: plan, rearrange, combine,
modify, substitute, rewrite.
Evaluation means judging the value of something based on personal opinion,
resulting in a final opinion, with a given purpose, without really right or wrong
answers. Students might have to compare and discriminate between ideas, assess
the value of some evidence of a theory, or make choices based on a reasoned
argument. Examples of key words are: assess, recommend, convince, select,
summarise, criticise, conclude, defend.
Model lesson plan

Topic: Atomic physics
Sub-topic: Atoms and nuclei
Duration: 40 minutes
Class: Grade 12
Date: 20 May 2011
Rationale
This is the 11th lesson in Unit 8: Atomic physics. In this lesson students will learn
about the strong nuclear force.
Grade 12 9
Introduction
Lesson objectives
By the end of the lesson students should be able to:
• identify nuclear force as a very strong force that holds particles in a nucleus
together
• state some important properties of the strong force.
Pre-requisite skills and knowledge
• students will need to be aware of the structure of the atom.
Teaching/learning resources
Stage (time) Teaching and learning Learning points

activities
Introduction Students discuss the Students need to think about the
(10 minutes) following question with structure of the materials at an
a partner. ‘Why do you atomic and molecular level. This
think steel has a lower question requires them to apply
elastic limit than rubber?’. their knowledge to a different
Allow them about 5 situation. Steel has a lower elastic
minutes for this discussion limit than rubber because it is
and then take feedback of easier for its layers of atoms to
ideas. Record suggestions slide over each other than it is
on the board. for rubber molecules to slide
over each other. (See http://www.
worsleyschool.net/science/files/
rubber/molecule.html)
Development Divide the class into Students will take readings from
(20 minutes) small groups to carry out which they can plot a graph.
Activity 8.2.
While students are
carrying out the activity,
walk around the class
to check on progress.
Question students to test
understanding.
Summary and Students work with a Students will learn the

conclusion partner to begin a report importance of clear
(10 minutes) on the activity using the communication of scientific
writing frame on pages investigations.
19−20 of the Student’s
Book. This will need to be
completed at home.
Evaluation Students have opportunity
to ask questions and
comment on the activity.
10 Grade 12
Introduction
Note taking
During physics lessons, students should be actively involved in their learning.
It is important that they develop strategies for recording what they are doing
in the lessons which will enable them to revisit the concepts away from the
classroom, either to complete assignments or to revise for tests. Practical activities
should be recorded in such a way that another person could repeat the activity at a
later date (this is the principle on which scientific papers are written and, although
we do not need students to go into quite the detail given in such papers, we do
want them to begin to learn to record practical work accurately). The following
headings are recommended for a practical report:
• Aim of activity
• Apparatus used (with diagram)
• Method
• Results (which may include numerical data, which may be presented as a table
and/or graph)
Conclusion
Students should be taught that sometimes results from practical work are not
quite as the theory may predict – they should be encouraged to see this as a
positive learning experience and be taught that they should never attempt to fit
results to the theory but rather explain why their results may not fit the theory
(even if the explanation turns out to be that they did not take measurements
accurately enough).
When summarising the main learning points of the lesson as indicated in the
lesson plan above, students can use the methods listed here.
Use bullet points to summarise the main points.
Construct a spider diagram.
Grade 12 11
Thermodynamics Unit 1
Learning competencies for Unit 1 This unit should

By the end of this unit students should be able to: fill approximately
15 periods of
• Define the terms atomic mass, mole, molar mass and Avogadro’s number.
teaching time.
Use their relationship to solve related problems.
• Define the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
• Determine the relationship between temperature and energy transfer and
thermal equilibrium.
• State what is meant by an absolute scale of temperature.
• Draw phase diagrams to determine the triple point of a substance.
• Differentiate between the critical point and the boiling point of a substance.
• Give the definitions of isothermal, isobaric, isochoric and adiabatic
processes and draw their associated p–V diagrams.
• Calculate work and heat for ideal gas processes.
• State the first law of thermodynamics.
• Identify the appropriate form of the first law of thermodynamics for
isobaric, isochoric and isothermal processes.
• Describe ways of changing the internal energy of a gas.
• Apply thermodynamics laws to solve simple numerical problems.
• Solve problems involving calculations of pressure, temperature or volume
for a gas undergoing adiabatic changes.
• Define molar heat capacity.
• Distinguish between molar heat capacity at constant pressure and at
constant volume. Show their relationship based on Mayer’s equation.
• Show that the molar heat capacity at constant pressure is greater than
the molar heat capacity at constant volume.
C
• Evaluate Cp – Cv and p for an ideal gas.
Cv

• Identify the value of Cp for atomic gases and monotomic gases.
Cv

• Use TVγ−1 = constant for adiabatic processes to solve problems.
• State the assumptions made to define an ideal gas.
• Describe the kinetic theory of gases, including the importance of
Brownian motion and diffusion.
• Define r.m.s. velocity of a gas and the mean free path of a gas particle.
• Use the expression for the pressure of an ideal gas in terms of its density
and mean square speed of molecules to solve problems.
• Solve problems to determine P, V, T or r.m.s. speed of gas molecules for
an ideal gas, given relevant data.
Grade 12 13
Unit 1: Thermodynamics
• State Graham’s law of diffusion and use it to solve related problems.

• State Dalton’s law of partial pressure and use it to solve related problems.
• State the second law of thermodynamics.
• Appreicate that the second law of thermodynamics places sharp
constraints on the maximum possible efficiency of heat engines and
refrigerators.
• Distinguish between reversible and irreversible processes.
• Define entropy as a measure of disorder and state the second law of
thermodynamics in terms of entropy.
• Describe the fundamental principles of heat engines and refrigerators.
• Solve problems involving heat flow, work and efficiency in a heat engine.
• Identify that all real engines lose some heat to their surroundings.
• Investigate the physical principles that all heat engines and all
refrigerators must obey.
This section should 1.1 Thermal equilibrium and definition of temperature

fill approximately
1 period of
teaching time. Learning competencies
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Define the terms atomic mass, mole, molar mass and Avagadro’s number.
Use their relationship to solve related problems.
• Define the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
• Determine the relationship between temperature and energy transfer and
thermal equilibrium.
• State what is meant by an absolute scale of temperature.
• Draw phase diagrams to determine the triple point of a substance.
• Differentiate between the critical boiling point and the boiling point of a
substance.
SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

Temperature scales and phases of matter
SA Activity 1.1 in a small group. Discuss what is happening.
MA Activity 1.2 with a partner. Feed back results.
CA Review questions to be tackled with a partner.
Starting off
Thermodynamics is one of a number of traditional disciplines in physics that,
in terms of this course, has changed very little in the past 100 to 200 years. At
the same time, however, it is a grand topic that provides satisfying and, at times,
wondrous insights into the way that our universe operates.
This topic contains a lot of material that requires a theoretical approach. Simple
demonstrations, many of which are scenarios commonly encountered by students,
14 Grade 12
can then be used to discuss the effect of the laws of thermodynamics on their
everyday lives.
The aim of this first section is to set up the study of gases, heat engines and
other systems by ensuring students have well-defined ideas of temperature,
heating and thermal equilibrium through the application of the zeroth law of
thermodynamics.
Teaching notes
The introduction to this unit should focus on some of the historical aspects of
thermodynamics and its importance in the development of more efficient steam
engines during the Industrial Revolution. Some pictures of old steam engines,
or a model steam engine if available, may make the topic seem a little old
fashioned, but it is vital for pupils so see that this was once revolutionary and has
subsequently led to the development of more modern technology. In addition,
pupils may discuss some of the cosmological questions, as suggested at the start of
the unit, that thermodynamics can help us answer, although proper answers will
need to wait until after the study of the second law of thermodynamics.
Before students can understand temperature and heat at a particle level they need
to be able to use and understand the concepts of moles and molar mass. The
discussion activity is an opportunity for students to relate the number of particles
with the number of moles.
Some pupils may still struggle with the concepts of temperature, energy and, in
particular, heat. Discuss with your class what they think these terms mean and
why they think that way.
Temperature
Initially, temperature may be thought of as a measure of ‘hotness’. The zeroth
law of thermodynamics then provides a more strict definition of temperature
(this is its purpose), the significance of which should be realised. This means
that we can measure temperature with a variety of thermometers and this could
be demonstrated in class, if possible, using as many different thermometers as
possible. The types of thermometer that may be available include: liquid-in-glass
thermometer (mercury or ethanol), thermistor, thermocouple and constant-
volume gas thermometer. The physics behind how each type of thermometer works
will provide a good revision of expansion as well as an initial discussion of some
thermodynamic principles. A more quantitative definition for temperature, in terms
of the average random kinetic energy of particles, is also vital for the rest of this unit.
Energy
The ability of something that ‘has energy’ to do work should be clarified with
many examples. In addition, the whole of this unit deliberately avoids the use of
‘heat’ as a form of energy and this usage should be strongly discouraged when
used by students.
Heat
When the students were younger, they would have been taught that ‘heat energy’
is the form of energy that is somehow inside a body and allows for heating of
other bodies. Although the term ‘heating’ is valid for the flow of energy from a
Grade 12 15
Activity 1.1: Answer hotter body to a colder body, previously termed ‘heat energy’ is nothing more than
the sum of all the random distribution of kinetic energies of atoms or molecules
Heat flows from a within the body. Even this form of explanation will be superseded in the next
hotter substance to a section by the term ‘internal energy’.
cooler substance.
Activity 1.1 is helpful in discussing the terms above. All of these concepts can also
be easily demonstrated and then discussed in a valid way by making and using
a block of wood, as large as possible, with different particle velocities drawn on
opposite faces, as shown in Figure 1.1.
Hold the block high in the air with the ordered face towards the students, so that,
as you bring it down fast towards the desk, you can flip it over at the last minute
and, when banged hard onto the desk, the opposite face is towards the students.
The final, ordered kinetic energy that the particles had just before striking the
desk was converted into random kinetic energy of the particles − the block ‘heats
up’. This simple demonstration is extremely useful in discussing many concepts
in this unit, including the first and second laws. Clearly, as with any model, it is
not perfect. The main error is that it appears that the particles have no random
component of kinetic energy before impact. In fact, the random component
should be much greater than the ordered component even before the impact.
The students might like to try to imagine the one theoretical situation when it
could be true that the total random component is zero, at absolute zero.
One face Opposite face
Figure 1.1 Wooden block to describe the concepts in this unit.

Another common question students may ask is which of the terms ‘particles’,
‘atoms’ or ‘molecules’ should be used when referring to the basic building blocks
of matter. Generally speaking, ‘particles’ is used in theoretical models of matter,
for example, the kinetic theory of gases, or when a more general term is required.
Molecules can be used in many real examples, for example, water, air and hydrogen
gas. Atoms or ions may be required instead of molecules, but this will depend on
the specific substance concerned.
Students should be tested on the precise definition of the zeroth law of
thermodynamics. All students should be able to convert between Celsius and
kelvin temperature scales. Give them plenty of practice examples, and they could
Activity 1.2: Answer even research some common temperatures and express them in °C and K.
Students’ own The explanation of the third law of thermodynamics is as follows. To cool down
results. The an object it must be in thermal contact with a colder body in order to transfer
temperature in K energy to the colder body by heating. As no object exists at absolute zero to
should be 273 higher begin with, then for a particular object a colder body can only exist all the way
than the temperature down to absolute zero if an infinite number of cooling steps are taken. As this is
in °C in each case. not physically possible, absolute zero cannot be reached. There are, in fact, more
complex ways to cool down a substance, but these also have their limits.
16 Grade 12
Students need to understand the phases of matter. A phase diagram is a graph of

pressure against temperature. Two particular points on the graph should be noted:
the triple point, where all three states of matter exist in thermal equilibrium, and
the critical point, which is where the critical pressure and critical temperature of
a substance meet. Clear phase boundaries do not exist above this point. Students
need to know that this point only occurs at one specific temperature and pressure
whereas the boiling point of a substance depends on the surrounding pressure, so
a substance has a number of boiling points.
Activities
• Demonstration of a model steam engine
• Demonstration of the use of different types of thermometer
• Demonstration of a wooden block striking the table
• Sensing the difference when placing your hand in hot or cold water
• Researching range of temperatures and expressing them in °C and K
Resources
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/thereq.html
http://eo.ucar.edu/skymath/tmp2.html
Where next?
The concept of the triple point of water can be used to challenge more advanced
students: how can all three states of matter exist in thermal equilibrium? How
does this have to be achieved in practice? The use of phase diagrams might help to
explain the combined effects of temperature and pressure on matter.
If students are quick to pick up definitions and they are happy and familiar with
the particle theory of matter and how it is related to heating and temperature,
then this initial section can be covered quite quickly. If so, this would be a
good place to excite the pupils with a more in-depth discussion of the third law
of thermodynamics, although this topic is not in the syllabus. Keen and self-
motivated students will enjoy thinking more deeply about the workings of our
universe and some of the absolute thermodynamic limits that apply. Interesting
questions include:
• Why can absolute zero never be reached in practice?
• How close have we got to a temperature of absolute zero? (In 2000, a team
from the Helsinki University of Technology cooled a sample of rhodium metal
to 1 × 10–10 K.)
• Why is the energy of a substance at absolute zero just a minimum and not
actually zero (zero-point fluctuation energy)?
• What is a Bose–Einstein condensate? (This is related to a proposed, but not
fully accepted, fourth law of thermodynamics.)
Grade 12 17
Answers to review questions

1. a) –268.90 °C b) 1067 °C
2. a) 234 K b) 2.73 K
3. To be able to apply the zeroth law of thermodynamics, the bodies concerned
must be in thermal equilibrium with each other. This requires that there is no
net energy transfer between the bodies and so the temperature of each body
must remain constant.
4.
solid phase
compressible supercritical fluid
liqiud
critical pressure
Pressure
Pcr critical point

liquid
phase
Ptp triple point gaseous phase
vapour
critical
temperature
Ttp Tcr
Temperature
Triple point: where all three states of matter are able to exist in thermal
equilibrium
Critical point: where the critical temperature (temperature above which it
is not possible to form a liquid, regardless of any increase in pressure) and
critical pressure of a substance meet. Above this point, clear phase boundaries
cease to exist.
This section should 1.2 Work, heat and the first law of thermodynamics
fill approximately
4 periods of
• Give the definitions of isothermal, isobaric, isochoric and adiabatic
processes and draw their associated p–V diagrams.
• Calculate work and heat for ideal gas processes.
• Identify the appropriate form of the first law of thermodynamics for
isobaric, isochoric and isothermal processes.
• Apply thermodynamics laws to solve simple numerical problems.
• Solve problems involving calculations of pressure, temperature or volume
for a gas undergoing adiabatic changes.
18 Grade 12
• Define molar heat capacity.

• Distinguish between molar heat capacity at constant pressure and at
constant volume. Show their relationship based on Mayer’s equation.
• Show that the molar heat capacity at constant pressure is greater than
the molar heat capacity at constant volume.
C
• Evaluate Cp – Cv and p for an ideal gas.
Cv

• Identify the value of Cp for atomic gases and monotomic gases.
Cv

• Use TVγ−1 = constant for adiabatic processes to solve problems.

Internal energy
SA With a partner, discuss what they understand by ‘conservation of energy’. Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, boil of small beaker of water above a candle flame. Discuss and explain
what happens.
CA Discuss why, in general, there is a greater increase in internal energy in the liquid-to-gas
phase change compared to the solid-to-liquid phase change. Feed back ideas.
The first law of thermodynamics and calculating the increase in the internal energy of the system
SA With a partner, write definitions of adiabatic and isothermal processes and draw p–V
diagrams for these. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 1.3 in a small group.
CA Discussion activities on pages 13 and 14 of Students’ Book in small groups. Feed back ideas.
The first law for different thermodynamic processes
SA With a partner, write down what you think ‘iso’ means. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 1.4 with a partner.
CA With a partner, make a poster to summarise pages 15 and 16 of Students’ Book.
General expressions for a gas when it is heated
SA With a partner, discuss why the graphs in Figure 1.14 in the Students’ Book are the shape
given. Suggest experimental methods that would produce the four processes. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, summarise pages 16−20 of the Students’ Book. Feed back ideas on the
discussion activity on page 17.
Starting off
Start by asking the students what they understand by the law of conservation
of energy and the way that it can be used to solve problems. However, they
must be careful and specific in their definitions of thermodynamic terms and
in their approach to problems if they are to be able to apply the first law of
thermodynamics successfully, the law from which the conservation of energy
can be inferred. Problems relating to gases are generally more straightforward
than those for other states of matter, as fewer assumptions are required. Gases are
therefore studied in far more detail at this level.
Grade 12 19
Teaching notes
The concepts of system and surroundings should be discussed. Provide the
students with plenty of examples (such as a moving car, a light bulb operating
at normal temperature, the universe). The concept of internal energy is vital for
the first law and a simple activity of heating water until it is boiling will allow
for a discussion that extends the previous concept of random kinetic energies of
molecules to the random kinetic and potential energies of molecules. Students
should be able to state and explain the difference between the internal energy of
water at 100 °C and that of water vapour at 100 °C and why, in general, there is a
greater increase in internal energy in the liquid-to-gas phase change compared to
the solid-to-liquid phase change (greater increase in particle separation).
Some students may find it difficult to understand why particles have a greater
(potential) energy if they are further apart. An analogy could be drawn between
the increase in potential energy of particles as they move apart against the
electrostatic attraction of their neighbours and the increase in gravitational
potential energy of an object when work is done to lift it up against the
gravitational attraction of the Earth.
There are many terms and definitions in this section that students could be tested
on, in addition to knowing the first law of thermodynamics: internal energy,
adiabatic, isothermal, isobaric, isochoric, insulated, isolated, Cv, Cp, molar gas
constant. Students should compile their own glossary of key words and test each
other on them.
They also need to be able to formulate expressions for the energy transferred
by heating, electrical work and the mechanical work done on a solid or a gas.
This should be taught through a series of worked examples. Finally, and most
importantly, students will require a lot of practice in applying all these points to
problems that will involve the correct use of the first law of thermodynamics.
Common difficulties in applying the first law are identifying which, if any, of the
terms ∆U, ∆W and ∆Q are zero and then ensuring that the non-zero terms have
the correct sign. A number of examples should be provided in which these points
are stressed. For example, it could be simply demonstrated that when a light bulb
is switched on the response of the tungsten filament can be split approximately
into two steps:
Step 1: Electrical work is done on the filament (∆W has a positive value), the
internal energy of the filament increases (its temperature increases), but because
this step is so rapid the process is nearly adiabatic (∆Q is zero), so:
∆U = ∆W
Step 2: Once the filament has reached its operating temperature, there is still
electrical work done on the filament (∆W has a positive value), but heating of the
surroundings is done by the filament (∆Q has a negative value) and the change in
internal energy is zero (the filament is at a constant temperature), so:
0 = ∆W + ∆Q
For the bicycle pump example, students should be encouraged to think about the
air in the pump at the molecular level. In addition, it may be necessary to rapidly
compress the air a few times to produce a detectable increase in temperature.
The answer to the first discussion activity on page 13 of the Students’ Book is as
follows. If a gas of volume V inside a syringe is compressed by pushing down on
20 Grade 12
the circular piston of area A using a force F and this results in the piston moving a
Activity 1.3: Answer
distance ∆x (a positive displacement), then the work done on the gas is F∆x. If the
force is constant then it is also true that the pressure in the gas, p, is constant and The result should
F = pA, so the work done can be written as pA∆x. As a result of the compression, be:
the volume has changed by an amount –∆V and the work done on the gas is
Step 1: Temperature
written as –p∆V. The negative sign that came in as a positive change in ∆x led to a increases, ∆U is
negative change in ∆V. positive, ∆Q is zero,
The second discussion activity on page 13 of the Students’ Book asks students to ∆W is positive.
consider the following question. If we assume that the universe is the ultimate Step 2: Temperature
isolated system, then where did the energy within the universe come from before decreases, ∆U is
the Big Bang? Your students may enjoy researching or discussing the following negative, ∆Q is
possibilities: negative, ∆W is
zero.
• The universe is not, or at least was not always, an isolated system. Before and
during the Big Bang, energy entered our universe through a fifth dimension Step 3: Temperature
from a parallel universe (see The Never-ending Days of Being Dead by Marcus decreases, ∆U
Chown, Faber and Faber, 2007). is negative, ∆Q
is zero, ∆W is
• The laws of thermodynamics are not constant with time and therefore the first negative.
law of thermodynamics before or during the Big Bang may not have been the
Step 4: Temperature
same as it is now.
increases, ∆U is
The answer to the discussion activity on page 14 of the Students’ Book is as positive, ∆Q is
follows. For an isolated system, the law of heat exchange is the application of the positive, ∆W is
first law of thermodynamics to that system in the case where no work is being zero.
transferred (∆W = 0). Energy is being passed between any number of objects
within the system by heating so the net energy transfer is zero. The first law of
thermodynamics is therefore the more general of the two.
Process Form of first law

Isobaric ∆U = ∆Q – p∆V
Isochoric ∆U = ∆Q
Isothermal ∆Q = −∆W
Adiabatic ∆U = ∆W
The concepts of pressure–volume (p–V) graphs are introduced at this point so

that students can familiarise themselves with them before they encounter cyclical
heat engines. From Boyle’s Law, students should be aware that for an isothermal
expansion (constant temperature) pα V1 and the curve in Figure 1.14(b) in the
Students’ Book is obtained. This curve is called an isotherm. For an adiabatic
expansion, the temperature of the gas will always decrease as work is done on
the surroundings, so the curve will pass from one isotherm to a lower isotherm.
In addition, at any point on the p–V graph, the gradient is always greater for
an adiabatic process than for an isothermal process. Students should be able to
provide experimental methods that would produce the four processes identified
in Figure 1.14. The process of adiabatic expansion could be demonstrated using a
carbon dioxide fire extinguisher. This may also help in thinking about Question 2
of the review questions.
The study of molar heat capacities provides an opportunity for students to
combine the first law of thermodynamics and the ideal gas law to find out about
Grade 12 21
the behaviour of gases in more detail. Note that we have to use the ideal gas law
pV = nRT, which is not fully covered until the next section and the in-depth
analysis of molar heat capacities will need methodical teaching with student
understanding checked after each step.
Activities
• Heating water until it is boiling
• Switching on a light bulb
• The bicycle pump: as described in the Students’ Book
• Rubber band: a simple experiment for students to carry out and so experience
heating and cooling that has resulted from work being done on or by the
rubber band
• Fire extinguisher: helpful when discussing the answer to Question 2 of the
review questions
Resources
http://library.thinkquest.org/C001429/temperature/first_law_of_thermodynamics.htm
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/thermo1.html
Where next?
More advanced students would benefit from extending the theory on the molar
heat capacities of ideal gases to adiabatic processes, where it can be shown that pV
is always a constant.

1. Pass the current through the wire for a very short time only; compress the
helium gas in the syringe very quickly. In both cases, the time taken is so short
that negligible heating of the surroundings will occur and so the process is
nearly adiabatic.
2. Applying the first law of thermodynamics to the carbon dioxide:
∆U = ∆W + ∆Q. When released, the carbon dioxide expands and so it does
work on its surroundings and ∆W is negative. The expansion is rapid, so
negligible heating of the carbon dioxide can occur and the expansion is
approximated as adiabatic, ∆Q = 0. The internal energy of the carbon dioxide
therefore decreases. This means that the carbon dioxide will cool. The
expansion is so great that part of the carbon dioxide even solidifies.
3. a) ∆Q = –100 J
b) ∆W = 100 J
c) ∆U = 0 J
The first three parts of this question are answered in the following order:
Step 1: After a long period of time the lead will return to room temperature,
so ∆U = 0 J
22 Grade 12
Step 2: The work done on the lead by gravity = ∆W = mg∆h = 100 J

Step 3: Applying the first law of thermodynamics:
∆Q = ∆U – ∆W = –100 J,
so the lead has transferred this amount of energy to the surroundings by heating.
d) ∆T = 1.6 mK. Immediately after the impact no heating of the surroundings
has occurred and so the increase in temperature of the lead is given by
∆U = 100 J = mc∆T so ∆T = 100 J
(0.5 kg × 1.28 × 10 J/kg K)
5
4. a) 586 K or 313 °C. The ideal gas law tells us that, for constant pressure and
mass, VαT (Charles’s Law). If the volume doubles then so does the kelvin
temperature
b) 101.4 J. Work done by the gas on its surroundings
= p∆V = 101.35 kPa × 1.000 × 10–3 m3
1.3 Kinetic theory of gases This section should

fill approximately
Learning competencies 3 periods of
teaching time.
• State the assumptions made to define an ideal gas.
• Describe the kinetic theory of gases, including the importance of
Brownian motion and diffusion.
• Define r.m.s. velocity of a gas and the mean free path of a gas particle.
• State Graham’s law of diffusion and use it to solve related problems.
• State Dalton’s law of partial pressure and use it to solve related problems.

The gas laws (including Dalton’s law) and the ideal gas equation
SA With a partner, look at Figure 1.15 and discuss how this leads to the gas laws as set out on
page 22 of the Students’ Book. Feed back ideas.
Make a poster to summarise the gas laws, Dalton’s law of partial pressure and the ideal gas
equation.
CA Worked example on page 23 of Students’ Book to be tackled with a partner without given
solution. Feed back ideas.
Kinetic theory of gases
SA With a partner, summarise the kinetic theory of gases.
Activity 1.7 with a partner.
CA Discussion activity on page 26 of Students’ Book with a partner.
Grade 12 23
Brownian motion and diffusion

SA With a partner, write an explanation of Brownian motion. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, make a poster to summarise Graham’s law of diffusion.
Starting off
Students have already studied the investigations that led to the three gas laws. In this
section, they should be able to bring the gas laws together to form the ideal gas law
and then derive the kinetic theory of gases from first principles. Students should be
aware that by combining the kinetic model of the microscopic particles in a gas with
the empirical equation that relates the macroscopic quantities of the gas:
a) A number of insightful and remarkable relationships will be found for
gases.
b) This approach is an excellent example of the power of physics to provide
understanding about our universe by combining both theoretical and
experimental approaches to a problem.
Teaching notes
Students should already be fairly familiar with the individual gas laws. The
formation of the ideal gas law, pV = nRT, is usually clear and without too many
concerns, but take time to define each of the terms and its associated units.
Difficulties are more likely to arise in the use of the equation to solve specific
problems. Problems often involve a change in state of a fixed mass of gas. In this
case, for two sets of conditions, 1 and 2, it is very useful to use the ideal gas law in
the form:
p1V1 p2V2
=
T1 T2...
As long as the correct values can be plucked out from the question and the correct
Partial pressure of units used, in particular that temperature is measured in kelvin, then the correct
nitrogen = 4 × answer should be obtained. Plenty of practice is required using this equation. The
5 example on page 23 of the Students’ Book regarding the change in density of air
101 kPa = 80.8 kPa
will catch out many students and it should be tackled with a partner before the
Partial pressure of given solution is revealed.
oxygen = 1 ×
5 The kinetic theory of gases is more complex, more abstract and more inaccessible
101 kPa = 20.2 kPa
to less able students than is the ideal gas law. Time should be taken in going
through each step in the derivation, making clear the law or principle that is being
Activity 1.6: Answer applied. The assumptions should be discussed, including what the effect would be
on the derivation if a particular assumption was not made.
Students’ own In the activity that involves the calculation of <c> and crms for a group of example
assessments. They speeds, the students should calculate that <c> is 500 m/s and crms is 520 m/s.
should be able
crms is always greater than <c>, as when averaging the squares of the values the
to justify their
thinking. Credit
larger numbers will effectively receive a greater weighting within the average. It is,
should be given for of course, an amazing thing to think of the molecules in air travelling at such high
clearly reasoned speeds, on average. Students may wonder why this does not cause a great wind.
arguments. It should be re-emphasised that the motion is, of course, random and that the
average distance between collisions, the mean free path, is, in fact, very small.
24 Grade 12
The answer to the discussion activity on page 26 of the Students’ Book is as follows. Activity 1.7: Answer
In a gas, csound is always less than crms, because sound is propagated through the
medium by collisions between gas molecules, and it is therefore not possible for this The students
energy transfer to occur faster than the molecules themselves travel. should calculate
Students need to know Graham’s law of diffusion and use it to solve related that <c> is 500 m/s
problems. The worked example on page 29 could be given to students without the and crms is 520 m/s.
crms is always
given solution as an assessment of their understanding.
greater than <c>,
In the comparison of the two world views, which begins on page 29 of the as when averaging
Students’ Book, some students may be daunted by the sheer number of symbols the squares of the
used. Confusion can often arise when rearranging the equations algebraically. It values the larger
is worth, at this point, writing the following terms on the board and checking that numbers will
students are aware of the meaning of each one: effectively receive
p, V, T, R, k, N, n, NA, r, m, c, <c>, <c2>, crms and Ek. In addition, it should then be a greater weighting
within the average.
checked that they are happy to correctly rearrange, say, 13 Nm<c2> = nRT to <Ek>
It is, of course,
= 1 kT on their own.
3 an amazing thing
to think of the
molecules in air
Activities travelling at such
• Calculation of <c> and crms: good practice in order to understand the high speeds, on
difference between these two terms average. Students
may wonder why
• Computer simulations from the internet: important in understanding what this does not
changes occur in a gas from a microscopic and a macroscopic level cause a great
wind. It should be
re-emphasised that
Resources the motion is, of
course, random and
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/kinth.html that the average
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/252/kinetic_theory.html distance between
collisions, the
mean free path, is,
in fact, very small.
Where next?
Knowing that the actual mean free path of air at room temperature and
atmospheric pressure is around 65 nm, students should be able to calculate that,
on average, an air molecule will collide on the order of 8 × 109 times per second.
This data should then help them to work out an answer to Question 3 of the
review questions using a different method.
In the kinetic theory of gases, the total average pressure on any wall due to the
motion of N particles is given by the average pressure of one particle on a wall that
is perpendicular to the particle’s motion multiplied by N3 . A statistically correct
approach to this result would be far better than the common-sense approach used
in the Students’ Book. Mathematically able students should be encouraged to
research this improved approach and understand why it is important.

1. a) 130 kPa. As the volume and mass of gas is constant (sealed container), we
p
can apply p2 = 1 , so p2 = 101 × 373 kPa
T2 T1 290
Grade 12 25
b) 22%. As the volume of the container and the temperature are constant, we
can apply n2 = n2 so p2 = 101 = 0.78
p2 p1 p1 130
2. a) 6.1 × 10–21 J. <Ek> = 32 kT = 32 × 1.38 × 10–23 J/K × 293 K
b) 6.1 × 10–21 J. Same as part a)
c) 3.75 kJ. U = 32 RT = 32 pV (using ideal gas law) =
3 × 50 Pa × 5.0 × 104/104 m3
2
3. Approximately 1025 impacts per second.
Step 1: Surface area of palm ≈ 8 × 10–3 m2
Step 2: Atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa so the average force exerted on the
palm ≈ 808 N
Step 3: For a single nitrogen molecule: mass is 28 × 1.67 × 10–27 kg and the
r.m.s. speed at 293 K is 510 m/s, so the average change in momentum due to
each impact ≈ 4.77 × 10–23 kg m/s.
Step 4: By re-arranging Newton’s second law we obtain that the number of
impacts per second = (average force)/(average change in momentum caused
by each impact) ≈ 1.7 × 1025 s–1.
This section should 1.4 Second law of thermodynamics, efficiency and entropy
fill approximately
4 periods of
• Appreciate that the second law of thermodynamics places sharp
constraints on the maximum possible efficiency of heat engines and
refrigerators.
• Distinguish between reversible and irreversible processes.
• Define entropy as a measure of disorder and state the second law of
thermodynamics in terms of entropy.

Entropy and the second law of thermodynamics
SA With a partner, discuss what would be observed if you viewed a film of the two situations in
Figure 1.21 running forwards and then backwards. Would there be any change? Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, discuss the diffusion of bromine gas from one cylinder to another, as
described on page 32 of the Students’ Book.
CA Discussion activity on page 33 of the Students’ Book in a small group. Feed back ideas.
26 Grade 12
How is entropy related to energy and heat?

SA With a partner, discuss why the spreading out of random kinetic energy through heating
represents an overall increase in entropy. Feed back ideas.
MA Why does the number of possible arrangements of quanta increase as the number of atoms
increases? Discuss this question with a partner and feed back ideas. Play ‘the counters game’
described on page 28 of this book with a partner.
CA With a partner, make a summary of the main points of this lesson.
Why can we not build a power station that is perfectly efficient?
SA With a partner, outline the main processes that take place in a power station. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, make a poster to explain why heat engines can never be perfectly efficient.
CA Discussion activity on page 35 of the Students’ Book in small groups. Feed back ideas.
What processes can we reverse and why is this important?
SA With a partner, write down some things you meet in everyday life that can be reversed and
some that cannot be reversed. Feed back ideas.
Starting off
The idea of entropy and the second law of thermodynamics is an exciting and
sometimes mind-blowing topic to many students (and teachers!). The main reason,
in this course, for studying this topic in detail is so that students can gain an in-
depth understanding of heat engines, refrigerators and their respective theoretical
limitations. However, the application of the second law to the entire universe will
bring up many interesting points, including the direction of time itself.
Teaching notes
As this topic has such far-reaching consequences, it is important that it is not just
seen as ‘a rule that dictates how efficient heat engines can be’. Instead, a proper
understanding of this fundamental law will allow students to apply it in many
theoretical and practical situations. The students should be shown either video
footage or actual demonstrations of processes that either make sense only when
shown in one direction or make sense whether moving forwards or backwards
in time. Examples are given in the Students’ Book. In the examples, when all the
friction or air resistance, even the tiniest amount, is taken into account then every
process has only one direction in time: forwards. This observation is described by
the second law of thermodynamics.
It should be stressed to students that the second law of thermodynamics, however
abstract and complex it may seem at first, is a simple way of describing what goes
on within our universe. Like any physical theory, it cannot answer ‘why’ questions
like ‘Why does time not travel backwards?’ or ‘Why can heat engines not be 100%
efficient?’ It can answer questions like ‘Based on the fact that in our universe we
do not observe particles or objects travelling backwards in time, how is it that they
do not?’ The answer would be ‘If objects were to travel backwards in time then the
overall entropy of the universe would decrease and this is not permitted by the
second law of thermodynamics’. The second law gives us insight into the way the
universe operates, but not why it operates in that fashion.
Grade 12 27
To understand the second law properly, the students must be familiar with the
meaning of entropy and how it is determined for any system. Entropy is not
‘how spread out particles are at a particular instant’ but ‘how many different
arrangements could the particles be in at a particular instant’. The example in
Figure 1.20 in the Students’ Book should help greatly with this. When estimating
the number of possible states in a real gas, it may be advantageous to increase the
number of molecules in small multiples so students can realise how phenomenally
large the number 21022 is (but I would not suggest you ask them to write this
number out in full!). For example, Table 1.1 shows the results of doubling the
number of molecules each time.
Table 1.1 Doubling the number of molecules each time.
Number of Number of possible arrangements
molecules
As a As a number (up to four significant figures)
power
5 25 32
10 210 1024
20 220 1,049,000
40 240 1,100,000,000,000
80 280 1,209,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
160 2160 1,462,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
22
1022 210 (see Students’ Book)
The answer to the discussion activity on page 3 of the Students’ Book is as follows.
To work out the actual entropy of the bromine gas in Figure 1.23 in the Students’
Book using S = k × ln(W), calculators are not going to be able to do the calculation
directly, as inputting 21022 will cause a maths error to occur. Instead, the ‘natural
log’ has to be converted into ‘log to the base 2’ so S = k × ln(2) × log2(21022), which
simplifies to S = k × ln(2) × 1022 = 0.1 J/K. This answer is to only one significant
figure as the number of molecules is only to one significant figure.
Ask students to consider the entropy changes when a house is tidied. To tidy up a
house, work must be done by the person’s body. This will result in an increase in
temperature of the objects moved (due to friction and air resistance) and of the
air (due to heating by the person’s body). As the air and objects become hotter, the
entropy of the air and objects increases, and this will be far more than enough to
counteract the decrease in disorder in the house.
The counters game

Entropy will always increase when energy is transferred from a single object to
many objects, when it ‘spreads out’, because of the quantisation of energy on a very
small scale.This activity can be played in
pairs to help students understand why.
A single die is required. Draw energy levels
(straight lines) on a piece of paper, as in
Figure 1.2. Place five counters (any suitable
small objects will do) on the ground-state
(lowest) energy level and one counter on
energy level 6. The counters should
somehow be labelled 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
Figure 1.2 The counter game.
28 Grade 12
The order in this initial situation is high, as there is only one possible Activity 1.8: Answer
arrangement: the first counter has all six quanta of energy and the rest of the
counters have zero. Now, if the energy is allowed to be transferred between a) as ice cubes
counters, then the number of possible arrangements is suddenly much higher: melt, the
the entropy will increase as there are far more ways for six counters to share six molecules of
quanta rather than one counter to have all six quanta. To do this, one person in water move
the pair is responsible for moving any one counter up one level at time. The other further apart.
person is responsible for moving any one counter down one level at a time. Each This change can
person takes turns in rolling the die and the number they roll determines which only be reversed
counter is moved up or down one level. In this way, each time both students throw if the whole
the die, energy is transferred from one counter to another. Counters cannot go glass of water
below or above the energy levels on the paper. If this happens, then throw the die is refrozen, but
the molecules
again. This activity should help explain why transferring energy from a hotter
from the original
body to a colder body by heating always increases the entropy of the system. ice cube will
The activity can be extended to see how long it takes for a pairing to obtain one then all be
counter with three quanta of energy, then four quanta, etc. Again, this will help mixed with the
22
reinforce the nature of 210 . molecules that
There are many versions of the second law and students should understand each were originally
one and why, when looked at in detail, they are, in fact, all versions of the same water.
statement: the total entropy of the universe cannot decrease. The remainder of this b) as a heater
section is to give students the idea that the second law of thermodynamics places warms the air
limits on the efficiency of heat engines. This will then be looked at quantitatively in a room, the
in Section 1.5. warmer air rises
and new air
The answer to the discussion activity on page 35 of the Students’ Book is as molecules take
follows.As the entropy of the universe must always increase, energy in the the place of
universe must continue to become more and more ‘spread out’ amongst the atoms the molecules
within the universe. There will be no concentrations of energy; instead, all atoms that have been
will have only a small amount of energy each. There may be slight fluctuations in heated.
which a few atoms have a little more energy than others, but because the number c) as clothes
of atoms in the universe is so large, these fluctuations will be tiny. There will be no dry, the water
stars, no life, no order. This scenario is termed the ‘Heat Death’ of the universe. molecules
attached to
The idea of a reversible process can be tricky to understand, as it is practically them evaporate
impossible. Instead, it is an ideal that a number of systems can be approximated into water
to. There are plenty of examples of irreversible processes that should be discussed, vapour and
with descriptions of what is going on at the molecular level. disappear into
the breeze.
Activities
• The counter game: useful to understand why entropy increases as energy
spreads out and to reinforce how unlikely it is for energy to become
concentrated again
• Discussion of irreversible processes: important to understand what is
happening at a molecular level
Resources
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/seclaw.html
http://schools-wikipedia.org/wp/s/Second_law_of_thermodynamics.htm
Grade 12 29
Where next?
The more-able students should research some of the other cosmological
implications of the second law of thermodynamics including what happens near
to and at a black hole.

1. This is a question for discussion and the answer can take several forms. One
approach is to acknowledge that we do not ‘consume’ energy, we just transform
it into different forms (first law of thermodynamics). Eventually, however, all
the energy we transform or transfer will end up in the form of random kinetic
energy of atoms or molecules and so particles can arrange themselves in many
more ways. The entropy has increased (second law of thermodynamics), so we
have decreased or consumed negentropy.
2. a) No. According to the first law, if the internal energy of the ball is constant
then all the energy transferred by heating could be used by the ball to do
work against gravity, to jump.
b) No. The second law states that the entropy of a closed system must increase
so the number of possible energy states for the atoms in the ball must
increase. This does happen as the amount of randomly distributed
kinetic energy of the particles does increase.
c) No. Referring to Section 1.4 of the Students’ Book, the size of the
probability that all the bromine gas in the two joined cylinders gives us an
idea of how unlikely the ball is to jump in the air.
Q
3. At the heat source, the decrease in entropy is given by hot , where Qhot is the
Thot
amount of energy transferred from the heat source and Thot is the temperature
Qcold
of the heat source. At the heat sink, the increase in entropy is given by T ,
cold
where Qcold is the amount of energy transferred to the heat sink and Tcold is the
temperature of the heat sink. As, by definition, Tcold < Thot, then it is possible
for Qcold < Qhot with no change, or even a slight increase, in entropy. The work
done by heat engine is then given by Qhot – Qcold.
This section should 1.5 Heat engines and refrigerators

fill approximately
3 periods of
• Describe the fundamental principles of heat engines and refrigerators.
• Solve problems involving heat flow, work and efficiency in a heat engine.
• Identify that all heat engines lose some heat to their surroundings.
• Investigate the physical principles that all heat engines and refrigerators
must obey.
30 Grade 12

What are heat engines and how do they work?
SA With a partner, write down as many examples as you can of heat engines. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, make a poster to explain how heat engines work.
CA With a partner, write down five things that you have learnt in this lesson. Feed back ideas.
Real heat engines and the efficiency of a heat engine
SA With a partner, discuss the types of heat engines that you meet in everyday life. Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, work on a presentation about real heat engines and the efficiency of heat
engines.
CA Presentations from main activity.
Refrigeators and heat pumps
SA With a partner, discuss the question ‘What would happen to the temperature in a room if a
refrigerator was left running with the door open?’ Feed back ideas.
End of unit questions to be tackled with a partner.
Starting off
Begin by discussing heat engines in general. Students should be aware of the
definition of a heat engine: a device that transforms heat energy into mechanical
work. Students could work in small groups to discuss how the drinking bird
shown in Figure 1.26 operates, before moving on to find out how heat engines
work in general.
Teaching notes
Students should be aware of the form of the second law of thermodynamics given
on page 38 of the Students’ Book.
Students can summarise information in many forms, but the poster form allows
them to work with others and discuss how to display information in a way that
is visually appealing. To do this effectively, they must internalise the information
from the Students’ Book so that they can make decisions on what information to
use in their poster.
We move on to discuss examples of real heat engines. Students will have
experience of petrol and diesel engines and it can be very motivating for students
to be able to apply their learning in such a direct way. In this section students can
see how their earlier learning about adiabatic, isochoric and isothermal processes
can be applied in a familiar situation. The efficiency of a heat engine is of vital
importance to designers of engines for vehicles, etc.
Refrigerators are part of students’ lives. Again, students will be motivated by
seeing how their learning relates directly to their everyday lives.
Activities
• Poster to explain how heat engines work
• Presentation about real heat engines and the efficiency of heat engines
• Sketching p−V diagram for a refrigerator
Grade 12 31
Resources
http://theory.ph.man.ac.uk/~judith/stat_therm/node15.html
http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/sm1/lectures/node57.html
Where next?
This is the final topic in this unit. Students may wish to carry out further research
into the topics covered in the unit in their own time.

1. A heat engine is a device that transforms heat energy into mechanical work.
2. Efficiency = W
QH
In this case, QH = 1200 kJ, W = QH – QC = 1200 kJ – 800 kJ = 400 kJ
Efficiency = 400 = 33.3%

1200
The maximum theoretical efficiency is
T
ηmax = 1 – C
TH
In this case
ηmax = 1 – ( 200 ) = 66.67%

600
3. isochoric: the volume of the system remains constant
p p p
V V V
(b) (c) (d)
adiabatic: no energy transfer into or out of the system as a result of heating
p p p p
V V V V
(a) (b) (c) (d)
isothermal: the temperature of the system remains constant
p p p p
V V V V
(a) (b) (c) (d)
32 Grade 12
isobaric: pressure in the system remains constant

p p
V V V
(c) (d)
4. A very simple cycle may involve just four stages. This may be seen in
Figure 1.30 of the Students’ Book.
3 4
Pa
2 1
Win
V
V2 V1
Figure 1.30 A simplified p–V cycle

If we consider each part of the cycle in turn we can see how work might be
extracted from the system.
1 to 2
The volume of the gas inside the engine is reduced at constant pressure
(isobaric). This may achieved through a slow compression, allowing heat to
flow out of the system or more commonly by rapidly cooling the system.
You should recall the work done on the gas at constant pressure is given by:
• ΔW = pΔV
In terms of the quantities in Figure 1.30:
• Win = pa(V1 – V2)
This is equal to the area under the line 1–2, as shown in the diagram.
As this is an example of an isobaric process there must be no increase in
temperature. If we apply the first law of thermodynamics we get:
• ΔU = ΔQ + ΔW
• 0 = ΔQ + pa(V1 – V2)
• ΔQ = –pa(V1 – V2)
• ΔQ is the heat flow out of the system.
2 to 3
Heat is then allowed into the system (QH or Qin). This is often achieved by
igniting a fuel air mix. This may cause a rapid increase in pressure, whilst the
volume remains constant.
Again considering the first law of thermodynamics:
• ΔU = ΔQ + ΔW
Grade 12 33
In this case as there is no change in volume then no work is done on or by

the gas and so all of the heat energy goes into increasing the internal energy
of the gas:
• ΔU = Qin
This gives rise to an increase in temperature and so an increase in pressure.
3 to 4
The gas may then expand and as it does so it does work on its surroundings.
This is very much an idealised example as heat would also need to be put in at
this stage in order to keep the pressure constant.
The work done by the gas as it expands is equal to the area under the line 3–4.
4 to 1
Heat energy is then extracted from the system at constant volume.
This leads to a drop in pressure and the system returns to its starting point.
This process then repeats or ‘cycles’. In each cycle, the work extracted is given
by the area enclosed by the cycle.
The larger this area the greater the amount of work extracted per cycle.
5. Figure 1.46 of the Students’ Book shows a simple refrigerator. Inside every
fridge there is a network of pipes containing a special fluid. The movement of
this fluid around the fridge transfers thermal energy from inside the fridge
(the colder region) to the surroundings (the hotter region).
Starting at the top left the liquid passes through an expansion valve. This is
specially designed to force the liquid to change state into a gas and expand.
This results in the gas doing work and so its temperature falls. The gas is
pumped around the system, through the inside of the fridge.
Thermal energy flows from the
expansion valve,
inside of the fridge into the gas. liquid expands
This results in the temperature to become a gas
inside the fridge falling. This

does not break the second law as
the gas is much colder than the heat transferred
into the cold gas
inside of the fridge. (QC)
heat transferred
Work is then done on the gas into the cold gas
in order to compress it and (QH)
turn it back into a liquid. This
is the work put into the system
(Win). This causes an increase in
temperature inside the fluid.
The fluid then passes through a compressor
and pump
series of pipes on the back of the
refrigerator. As it is now hotter
than the surroundings and so gas compressed to
liquid and becomes
thermal energy is transferred to hotter
the room (QH).
Figure 1.46 A simple refrigerator
Just like a heat engine, this process then cycles. The liquid passes through the
expansion valve, turns into a gas and cools.
34 Grade 12
Answers to end of unit questions

3 3
1. a) 2.07 × 10–20 J. <Ek> = kT = × 1.38 × 10–23 J/K × 1000 K
2 2
0.0020 kg/mol
b) i) mass of a hydrogen molecule = = 3.3 × 10–27 kg
NA
c = sqrt (2 × <Ek>) = 3500 m/s
rms
3.3 × 10–27 kg
ii) mass of a helium molecule = 0.0040 kg/mol / NA = 6.6 × 10–27 kg
crms = sqrt (2 × <Ek>) = 1200 m/s
6.6 × 10–27 kg
c) 0.2 × escape velocity = 2200 m/s so we would expect to find helium in our
atmosphere but not hydrogen, as is the case.
2. a) At take-off: p1 = 1.0 × 105 Pa T1 = 290 K V1 = to be calculated
High in atmosphere: p2 = 1.0 × 103 Pa T2 = 230 K V2 = 1.0 × 106 m3
Using p1V1 = p2V2 , we obtain volume at take-off = 1.3 × 104 m3
T1 T2
pV (1.0 × 105 Pa × 1.3 × 104 m3)
b) i) n = = = 5.4 × 105
RT (8.3 J/K mol × 290 K)
ii) mass = number of moles × molar mass = 2200 kg
c) Internal energy is proportional to average kinetic energy of molecules,
which is proportional to the temperature. So internal energy at specified
height = 230 × 1900 MJ = 1500 MJ
290
3. a) The internal energy of a system is the sum of the random distribution of
kinetic and potential energies associated with the molecules within that
system. In an ideal gas, the sum of potential energies is zero as there are no
interactions between molecules except for during collisions. In a real gas,
the sum of potential energies will be small but non-zero.
b) i) A to F ii) A to B, C to D, E to F iii) A to B, C to D, E to F
4. At surface of lake: p1 = 101 kPa (atmospheric pressure) V1 = to be calculated
At depth of 40 m: p2 = (4 × 101 kPa) + 101 kPa = 505 kPa V2 = 20 mm3
Assuming that the temperature is constant, p1V1 = p2V2.
This gives, volume of bubble at surface of lake (V1) = 100 mm3
pV (5.00 × 104 Pa × 1.00 × 10–3 m3)
5. a) At A: n = = = 0.0201
RT (8.31 J/K mol × 300 K)

V V
b) If the pressure is constant for a fixed mass of gas: 1 = 2
T1 T2

This gives volume of gas at B = 1.00 × 10–3 m3 × 500 K = 1.67 × 10–3 m3.
300 K
3
c) From the Students’ Book: internal energy of one mole of ideal gas = RT
2
Internal energy at A = 3 × 8.31 J/K mol × 300 K × 0.0201 = 75.2 J
2
d) The internal energy at B = 125.3 J (i) A to C: the volume does not change
so no work is done. Energy absorbed by heating, ΔQ, is therefore given by:
ΔQ = ΔU = 125.3 J – 75.2 J = 50.1 J
Grade 12 35
ii) A to B: the volume increases so work is done by the gas on it surroundings.

Energy absorbed by heating is therefore given by:
ΔQ = ΔU + pΔV = 50.1 J + (5.00 × 104 Pa × 0.67 × 10–3 m3) = 83.6 J
6. a) First law of thermodynamics or law of conservation of energy
b) In order for the low-density ball to enter the bottom of the water tank, work
needs to be done on it in order to push it in. This will require at least the
gravitational potential energy that the ball had at the top of the water, so
no work can be done on the pulley belt. In addition, there will always be
some energy transferred to the surroundings when the ball moves from A
to B, either by friction or air resistance so the energy within the system will
decrease over time.
7. In order to tidy up a house, work must be done by the person’s body. This will
result in an increase in temperature of the objects moved (due to friction and air
resistance) and of the air due to heating by the person’s body. As the air and objects
are hotter, there will be an increase in entropy of the air and objects and this will be
far more than enough to counteract the decrease in disorder in the house.
8.
P
Qin(QH)
4
W
Qout(QC)
V2 V1 V
Figure 1.37 An idealised Otto cycle (petrol engine)

The cycle responsible for the extraction of work from a petrol engine is
referred as the Otto cycle. The diagram in Figure 1.37 shows an idealised p–V
diagram for the Otto cycle.
Starting on the bottom left of the diagram the volume of the gas inside the
piston is V2.The piston is pulled down (due to the rotation of the shaft) and
a fuel air mix is drawn in through the open inlet valve. The pressure remains
constant and the volume of gas inside the cylinder increases to V1.
The valve is closed and the piston moves back up, compressing the gas back
to V2. This process happens quickly and so the compression is adiabatic, no
heat flows out of the gas. This results in an increase in temperature (and so
pressure) as work is done on the gas. This can be seen in the line 1–2.
At 2 the fuel air mix is ignited by a spark from the spark plug. Combustion
occurs very quickly and as a result the process can be considered to be
isochoric, the volume of the gas remains constant. There is a significant
amount of heat realised in this process (Qin or QH). This heat increases the
36 Grade 12
temperature and so the pressure of the gas inside the piston. This can be seen
in the line 2–3.
Between 3 and 4 work is done by the gas as it forces this piston down. This
again happens very quickly without any heat flowing out of the system and so
it is an adiabatic change. The volume of the gas increases back to V1 and the
pressure drops.
Heat then flows out of the system (Qout or QC) and the temperature of the gas
drops causing a drop in pressure back to the original pressure. This can be seen
in the line 4–1.
The final part of the cycle involves the piston moving back up, but this time the
exhaust valve is open and so the pressure remains constant as the waste gases
are expelled. We are now back at the bottom left and the process starts again.
Just like our simplified earlier example the difference between the work done
by the gas and the work done on the gas is the area enclosed by the cycle. The
power of the engine is then found as the product of this difference and the
number of cycles per second.
9. a) The maximum theoretical efficiency is
η = 1 – (TC)
max
TH
In this case
ηmax = 1 – (288) = 53.8%
623
b)
Energy would be lost from front of fire and as waste hot air out of top of
chimney.
10. The maximum theoretical efficiency is
η = 1 – (TC)
max
TH
In this case
ηmax = 1 – (373) = 61.7%
973
The efficiency of given heat engine is 0.4 × 61.7 = 24.68%
W
Efficiency = = 24.68
QH
QH = 5000 = 202.6 J
24.68
Grade 12 37
Oscillations and waves Unit 2
This unit should Learning competencies for Unit 1

fill approximately
18 periods of By the end of this unit students should be able to:
teaching time. • Describe the periodic motion of a vibrating object in qualitative terms,
and analyse it in quantitative terms (e.g. the motion of a pendulum, a
vibrating spring, a tuning fork).
• Define simple harmonic motion (SHM) and describe the relationship
between SHM and circular motion.
• Derive and use expressions for the frequency, periodic time, displacement,
velocity and acceleration of objects performing SHM.
• Draw and analyse x−t, v−t and a−t graphs for SHM.
• Use Newton’s second law and Hooke’s law to derive ω = √k/m.
• Describe the effects: free oscillations, damping, forced oscillations and
resonance.
• Analyse the components of resonance and identify the conditions
required for resonance to occur in vibrating objects and in various media,
including the effects of damping on resonance.
• Explain the energy changes that occur when a body performs SHM.
• Draw and interpret graphs showing the variation of kenitic energy and
potential energy of an object performing SHM.
• Relate the energy of an oscillator to its amplitude.
• Solve problems on SHM involving period of vibration and energy transfer.
• Describe the characteristics of a mechanical wave and identify that the
speed of the wave depends on the nature of the medium.
• Use the equation v = √T/µ to solve related problems.
• Describe the characteristics of a travelling wave and derive the standard
equation y = Acos(ωt + Φ).
• Define the terms phase, phase speed and phase constant for a travelling
wave.
• Explain and graphically illustrate the principle of superposition, and
identify examples of constructive and destructive interference.
• Identify the properties of standing waves and for both mechanical
and sound waves, explain the conditions for standing waves to occur.
Including definitions of the terms node and antinode.
• Derive the standing wave equations.
• Calculate the frequency of the harmonics along a string, an open pipe
and a pipe closed at one end.
38 Grade 12
Unit 2: Oscillations and waves
• Explain the modes of vibration of strings and solve problems involving

vibrating strings.
• Explain the way air columns vibrate and solve problems involving
vibrating air columns.
• Analyse, in quantitative terms, the conditions needed for resonance in air
columns, and explain how resonance is used in a variety of situations.
• Identify musical instruments using air columns, and explain how different
notes are produced.
• Define the intensity of sound and state the relationship between
intensity and distance from source.
• Describe the dependence of the speed of sound on the bulk modulus and
the density of the medium. Use v = √B/ω.
• Give intensity of sound in decibels, and define the terms threshold of
pain and threshold of hearing.
• Describe the intensity level versus frequency graph to know which the
human ear is most sensitive to.
• Explain the Doppler effect, and predict in qualitative terms the frequency
change that will occur in a variety of conditions.
• Explain some practical applications of the Doppler effect.
2.1 Periodic motion (basic concepts) This section should

fill approximately
7 periods of
Learning competencies teaching time.
• Describe the periodic motion of a vibrating object in qualitative terms,
and analyse it in quantitative terms (e.g. the motion of a pendulum, a
vibrating spring, a tuning fork).
• Define simple harmonic motion (SHM) and describe the relationship
between SHM and circular motion.
• Derive and use expressions for the frequency, periodic time, displacement,
velocity and acceleration of objects performing SHM.
• Draw and analyse x−t, v−t and a−t graphs for SHM.
• Use Newton’s second law and Hooke’s law to derive ω = √k/m.
• Describe the effects: free oscillations, damping, forced oscillations and
resonance.
• Analyse the components of resonance and identify the conditions
required for resonance to occur in vibrating objects and in various media,
including the effects of damping on resonance.
• Draw and interpret graphs showing the variation of kenitic energy and
potential energy of an object performing SHM.
Grade 12 39
• Relate the energy of an oscillator to its amplitude.

• Solve problems on SHM involving period of vibration and energy transfer.

Masses on springs
SA With a partner, make a list of as many things that you can think of that oscillate. Feed back
ideas.
MA In a small group, experiment with a mass on a spring oscillating system then do Activity 2.1.
CA Discussion activity on page 56 of Students’ Book in small groups.
Simple harmonic motion
SA With a partner, summarise Students’ Book pages 56−58.
CA Discussion activity on page 58 of Students’ Book in small groups.
Observing SHM
SA With a partner, write a list of examples of SHM. Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, carry out an experiment to observe SHM as shown in Figure 2.8 in
Students’ Book.
CA Activity 2.3 with a partner.
Circular motion, SHM and angular frequency
SA With a partner, summarise Students’ Book pages 60−61.
MA Discussion activity on page 63 of Students’ Book in small groups.
CA With a partner, make a poster to summarise Students’ Book pages 62−66.
Time period of a simple pendulum
SA With a partner, write a definition of ‘time period’. Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, carry out an experiment to determine the time period of a simple
pendulum.
CA In a small group, discussion activity on page 70 of Students’ Book.
Forced oscillations, resonance and damping
SA With a partner, explore providing a driving force by using a small blob of modelling clay on
the end of a piece of string.
MA In a small group, demonstrate resonance using the set up in Figure 2.22 in Students’ Book.
CA Activity 2.4 in small groups.
Energy in SHM
SA With a partner, write down the law of conservation of energy. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, make a spidergram to summarise this using Students’ Book pages 75−77.
CA Review questions 1−5 to be tackled with a partner.
40 Grade 12
Starting off
Begin by asking students to give examples of vibrations in everyday life. Then
show students a plumb line and ask for a volunteer to start it oscillating from side
to side. Follow this by taking a spring loaded with a mass, as shown in Figure 2.1,
and ask for a volunteer to set it in motion.
spring
mass
Figure 2.1 A mass–spring system

Can students give any real life applications of either of these two examples?
(Pendulum on clock, jack-in-the-box toy, cuckoo clock might be mentioned.)
Explain that this section explores the physics behind this motion, which is called
simple harmonic motion.
Teaching notes
Start by considering a pendulum. You can make a pendulum by taking a piece
of string and adding a mass of modelling clay at the bottom. Use this pendulum
as you discuss how it works as described in the Students’ Book. Involve students
in making the pendulum move and discuss the forces acting on it at the various
stages of its motion. You need to use practical equipment to ensure that students
fully engage with the text and can see what is happening. Make sure that students
realise the vector (directional) nature of the displacement – the value of the
displacement to the left of the centre position will be equal and opposite to the
value of the displacement to the right.
Then move on to discuss a mass on a spring. Again, make sure that you have one
for the students to look at or, if possible, have several so that students can work
through this section in small groups, observing the behaviour of the mass. The
students can then attempt the activity. Encourage them to discuss the activity with
their peers – talking about science and expressing ideas clearly is an important
skill to develop. The students can stay in these groups for the discussion activity.
a)
spring kx
Mg = kx
mg
mass
Grade 12 41
mass
b)
spring kx2
spring kx2
kx2 – mg = ma
mg kx2 – mg = ma
a
mass mg
a
mass
c)
spring kx3
spring kx3
mg – kx3 = ma
mg mg – kx3 = ma
a
mass mg
a
mass
The answers to the discussion activity are as follows. When the bob is moving
away from the equilibrium position and slowing down, the direction of the
acceleration is the opposite to the direction of motion because the bob is
slowing down. (i) The direction of the acceleration is towards the equilibrium
position. (ii) The direction of the acceleration is opposite to the direction of
displacement.
The definition of simple harmonic motion (SHM) is important and you

should ensure that students understand it and how it relates to Figure 2.6.
Before considering the mathematics of SHM, if possible you should set up a
demonstration so that students can observe SHM. The simplest set up is to use
a bucket with a small hole in the bottom suspended over a piece of paper, as
shown in Figure 2.8 of the Students’ Book. Involve students in carrying out this
demonstration – if they are involved they will remember the shape of the graph
much more easily!
The mathematics involved in this section requires students to be comfortable
with trigonometric functions. Give a quick quiz to check that students can sketch
graphs of sine and cosine functions (shown opposite). Explain that these functions
are given the general term ‘sinusoidal’. Students also need to know how to use
radians as a measure of angle – again, a quick quiz can establish whether you need
to do any teaching on this to remind them. A full turn of 360° is 2π radians.
Make sure that students remember the definitions of amplitude, A, time period,
T, and the displacement, x. You can do this by drawing a copy of Figure 2.7 on the
board with these quantities missing and asking students where they should go.
42 Grade 12
Make sure that the students understand the point made about the cosine function
being a better description of the motion if the SHM is started by displacing the
oscillator and then releasing it: the cosine function has its maximum at time t = 0
and thus the displacement is maximum at t = 0 then it describes the motion better
than the sine function, which has displacement = 0 at t = 0.
The activity simply ensures that students are able to substitute values into the
equation and that they are aware where the cosine function is 0 and 1. The
answers should be as follows.
t x = Acos(2πt/T) Acos(?) x=?
0 x = Acos(2π0/T) Acos(0) A
T/4 x = Acos(2πT/4T) Acos(π/2) 0
T/2 x = Acos(2πT/2T) Acos(π) −A
3T/4 x = Acos(2π3T/4T) Acos(π3/2) 0
T x = Acos(2πT/T) Acos(2π) A
The graph is therefore as shown in Figure 2.2
Displacement
A
T
/
2
0 t
T 3T T
/ /
4 4
−A
Figure 2.2 Displacement–time graph for one period.
Students should then discuss in groups why SHM is called simple. The answer is
that the sinusoidal function is the simplest it can be in this case.
The relationship between frequency and time period is important and you should
ensure that students understand why it is an inverse relationship. You can use
worked examples as an opportunity for formative assessment – by setting the
problem for students to tackle without revealing the solution, you can observe
how they go about solving the problem or, indeed, being unable to tackle the
problem, which gives you valuable information about their level of understanding.
After giving them a chance to tackle the problem, and asking for students to
explain their solutions, you could reveal the given solution and discuss the steps.
Grade 12 43
This activity gives further practice in applying the technique.

a) −4.7 cm
b) −2.9 cm
The significance of the negative value is that the displacement is in the opposite
direction.
The fact that period does not vary with amplitude is useful when building clocks
since a clock needs to have a constant time period for its pendulum even if the
pendulum loses energy.
Students met circular motion and terms connected with it in Grade 10. Use a
piece of string with a pencil attached at the end to demonstrate Figure 2.10. Draw
the axes on the board, then attach one end of the string to the centre point.
Move the pencil from point C to point P. Ask someone to mark on the construction
lines for angle θ. Check that students understand why h = Asin θ – they will have
covered such trigonometry in their mathematics studies but sometimes they
need to be prompted to apply knowledge from one subject in another! You can
demonstrate angular speed by moving the pencil round at different rates and
showing how it moves through different angles in the same period of time if the
angular speed changes.
The discussion activity is an opportunity for students to consolidate their learning.

If possible, they could make a card model of the situation. The motion of the
piston will approximate to SHM if the rotation of the wheel is a constant speed
and direction.
Then move on to discuss the relationship between displacement, velocity and
acceleration in SHM. Students will need to apply knowledge of differentiation of
trigonometric functions from their mathematical studies here. Differentiating
sin(ωt) with respect to time gives ωcos(ωt), and differentiating cos(ωt) with
respect to time gives –ωsin(ωt). Students should know that velocity is rate of
change of displacement and acceleration is rate of change of velocity from their
previous studies of motion. Since velocity is rate of change of displacement it
will be the gradient of the displacement–time graph. It is zero at the maximum
displacement, i.e. when x = ±A.
We can use differential calculus to find gradients. Thus, if the equation for the
displacement is x = Asin(ωt) then the equation for the velocity, which is the
equation for displacement differentiated with respect to time, is v = ωAcos(ωt).
Since the maximum value for cos(ωt) is 1, the maximum velocity v0 is ωA. This
happens when the object passes through the equilibrium position.
Similarly, since acceleration is the rate of change of velocity it will be the gradient
of the velocity–time graph. Also, the equation for velocity = ωAcos(ωt). If we
differentiate this with respect to time we find the equation for acceleration
a = −ω2Asin(ωt). This has a maximum value a0 = −ω2A when sin(ωt) = 1.
Students should learn these relationships and how the graphs are related, as
shown in Figure 2.14. Ask students to explain how starting with the displacement
described in terms of the cosine function leads to the equations x = Acos(ωt),
v = −ωAsin(ωt) and a = −ω2Acos(ωt).
44 Grade 12
The extended worked example is an opportunity for students to consolidate their

learning. You can carry out assessment on their understanding of the concepts by
observing how they tackle the problem without the benefit of the given solution.
The derivation of the general expression for velocity in terms of displacement
relies on students knowing the trigonometric identity sin2θ + cos2θ = 1. Check
that they have this knowledge by asking them to give you an identity that could be
used to replace sin2θ. They should respond 1 − cos2θ. Work through the derivation
slowly, asking questions to check understanding as you go.
We move on to calculate the time periods of real examples of SHM. Work through
the procedure with the students, writing the equations on the board as you go (or
better still, asking students to come up and do this for you).
When considering the time period of a mass–spring system use a mass–spring
system to demonstrate as you work through the derivation. It is always easier
for students to follow such an argument if they have a visual aid. It is of course
important that students find a way of remembering the final equation.
When considering the time period of a simple pendulum, again, use a pendulum
as you work through the derivation. You could ask students to compare the two
equations and note their similarities and differences. They should also ensure
that they are aware of the approximations made to arrive at the expressions.
The mathematical approximation θ ≈ sin θ, for example, is only valid for small
values of θ.
The discussion activity will test students’ understanding of the derivations and the
approximations.
Figure 2.20 shows other examples of systems that perform SHM. You might like to
demonstrate these to students.
The next section covers forced oscillations and resonance. Students have already
seen free oscillations in the previous section. The spring and the pendulum
oscillated at their natural frequency. If you add a driving force to the oscillator
then the frequency of the oscillation will be forced to be that of the driver. If the
frequency of the driving force is different from the natural frequency then the
oscillation will be relatively small. However, if the frequency of the driving force is
the same as the natural frequency, then resonance occurs. Point out that students
may have experienced this when they push someone on a swing as described
in the Students’ Book. If you can make a simple model swing as shown in the
diagram to demonstrate this then it would be helpful.
Set up the apparatus shown in Figure 2.22 of the Students’ Book to demonstrate
resonance to students. Talk through the examples of resonance in everyday
life described in the Students’ Book. Discuss the
potential for damage to bridges from resonance. straw
Explain the importance of designing machines
to avoid resonance. The discussion activity gives
students an opportunity to think through the issues string
involved in the design of a suspension bridge and
why it is difficult to change its natural frequency of
vibration after it has been built. Briefly, to change
its natural frequency you would have to change card
its mass or its length, neither of which would be
straightforward! Figure 2.3 A model swing
Grade 12 45
Damping of oscillations occurs when there is a force such as air resistance to

oppose the motion. Discuss the types of damping shown in Figure 2.25 of the
Students’ Book and talk through the examples given.
This activity is an opportunity for students to consolidate this learning. If you

can set up a pendulum moving first in air and then in a tank of water, and then
in some thick treacle, students will be able to relate their observations of how
long it takes for the oscillations to reduce and the changes in amplitude to the
theory and justify their answers more easily. A pendulum in air is subject to light
damping, in water to heavier damping and in thick treacle to critical damping.
Figure 2.27 is an important graph for students to remember. Discuss the theory
behind it and question students to test understanding.
The final section in this topic discusses energy in SHM. Students will need to
apply their learning from mathematics and remember the energy equations for
potential energy and kinetic energy from earlier units. They need to know that the
area under a graph is equal to the product of the variable on the vertical axis and
the variable on the horizontal axis, which is why the work done in Figure 2.28 is
the area under the graph, since work done = force × displacement.
Work through the theory by asking questions to elicit the given equations from
1
students. Make sure that they can explain the reason for W = 2 kx2 first, then ask
them to give you the PE equation, then the total energy. Ask them to explain how we
1 1
get from total energy = 2 mv02 to total energy = 2 mω2A2 (remember that v0 = ωA).
Make sure that students can explain the derivation which follows Figure 2.29, which
requires basic mathematical manipulation and substituting k/m for ω2 which we
found when considering the time period of oscillation of a mass on a spring.
Activities
• Discussion on direction of acceleration
• Showing how the displacement varies with time if cosine used
• Discussion on why simple harmonic motion is called simple
• Calculating displacement
• Discussion on why pendulum clocks tend to use quite large masses
• Discussion on why it is difficult to change the natural frequency of oscillation
of a suspension bridge once it has been built
• Identifying types of damping
Resources
http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/periodic_motion.htm
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/sound.html
46 Grade 12
Where next?
The rest of this unit considers waves – first wave motion in general and then
sound waves, loudness and the human ear.

1. a) T = 1/f = 1/30 = 0.033 s
b) The acceleration in the centre = 0 and the acceleration at the maximum
displacement of an oscillation = −ω2 × 0.03 = −(2π/0.033)2 × 0.03
= −1088 m/s
c) The velocity in the centre = ω × 0.03 = 5.71 m/s and at the maximum
displacement of an oscillation the velocity is 0.
T2g
2. We use the formula T = 2π gl so T2 = 4π2 gl and l = 2
√ 4π
so l = 1 × 1 × 9.81/4 × 3.14 = 0.25 m
2
This formula is valid as long as the angle of displacement is small, that

the mass of the string can be ignored and that the mass of the bob can be
considered as a point mass.
3. A mass of 500 g is suspended on a vertical spring of spring constant k = 10 N/m.
a) T = 2π m = 2π = 0.5 = 1.41 s. Frequency = 1/1.41 = 0.71 Hz
√k √ 10
b)
Amplitude of oscillation
ƒ0 Frequency of driving force

Natural frequency of
driven oscillator

c)
small amount of damping
Amplitude of oscillation / m
large amount of damping
ƒ0 Frequency of periodic
natural frequency of driving force / Hz
driven oscillator

Grade 12 47
d)
Increased mass lowers
resonant frequency
a
F

4. A simple pendulum has a length of 1.2 m and the bob has a mass of 800 g.
The pendulum swings with an amplitude of 14 cm.
a) v = ωA = 2.86 × 0.14 = 0.4
b) EK = ½ × m × v2 = ½ × 0.8 × 0.06382 = 0.002 J
c) At displacement 8 cm, v2 = ω2(0.142 – 0.082) = (0.456)2 × 0.0132 = 0.0028
m/s
The kinetic energy = ½ × 0.8 × 0.0028 = 0.00112 J and the potential energy
= total energy – kinetic energy = 0.002 – 0.00112 = 0.00088 J
5. The graphs show the features of the different forms of damping.
a) Displacement / m light damping c) Displacement / m
amplitude / m critical damping
0 Time (s) Time (s)
b) Displacement / m heavier damping d) Displacement / m

over damping
amplitude / m
0 Time (s) Time (s)
Damping will decrease the amplitude of the oscillation at the resonant

frequency as shown in the graph.

small amount of damping
Amplitude of oscillation / m
large amount of damping
ƒ0 Frequency of periodic
natural frequency of driving force / Hz
driven oscillator
48 Grade 12
2.2 Wave motion This section should

fill approximately
4 periods of
• Describe the characteristics of a mechanical wave and identify that the
speed of the wave depends on the nature of the medium.
• Use the equation v = √T/µ to solve related problems.
• Describe the characteristics of a travelling wave and derive the standard
equation y = Acos(ωt + Φ).
• Define the terms phase, phase speed and phase constant for a travelling
wave.
• Explain and graphically illustrate the principle of superposition, and
identify examples of constructive and destructive interference.
• Identify the properties of standing waves and for both mechanical
and sound waves, explain the conditions for standing waves to occur.
Including definitions of the terms node and antinode.
• Derive the standing wave equations.
• Calculate the frequency of the harmonics along a string, an open pipe
and a pipe closed at one end.
• Explain the modes of vibration of strings and solve problems involving
vibrating strings.
• Explain the way air columns vibrate and solve problems involving
vibrating air columns.
• Analyse, in quantitative terms, the conditions needed for resonance in air
columns, and explain how resonance is used in a variety of situations.
• Identify musical instruments using air columns, and explain how different
notes are produced.

Transverse and longitudinal waves
SA With a partner, write down all you can remember from previous grades about transverse and
longitudinal waves. Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, explore transverse and longitudinal waves using a slinky.
CA With a partner, summarise Students’ Book pages 81−85 in a form of your choice.
Constructive and destructive interference
SA With a partner, write down definitions of ‘constructive’, ‘destructive’ and ‘interference’. Feed
back ideas.
MA With a partner, summarise Students’ Book pages 85−86.
CA Discuss ‘Think about this...’ on page 86 of Students’ Book in small groups.
Grade 12 49
Unit 2: Oscillations and waves email:- gamebaye.gb@gmail.com , facebook:-gamebaye@yahoo.com or Gemachu Abi Beyisa
Standing waves (1)

SA With a partner, explore reflected waves using a piece of string fixed at one end.
MA In a small group, design some apparatus to demonstrate stationary waves on strings.
CA Demonstrate your apparatus to the rest of the class.
Standing waves (2)
SA With a partner, write a definition of a standing wave. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, make a poster about standing waves in pipes, and beats.
Starting off
Explain that this topic will explore the physics behind the motion of waves that
students will have observed in everyday life. Begin by demonstrating water waves
in a shallow tank of water. Talk about other examples of waves that students
experience – remind them about their studies of the electromagnetic spectrum in
Grade 10. Which region of this spectrum do they experience all the time? (Visible
light) What sort of waves are electromagnetic waves? (Transverse)
Teaching notes
The topic begins by showing students the difference between transverse waves
(which they met in Grade 10) and longitudinal waves. Take a slinky and involve
students in creating these two types of waves in the slinky as you discuss the text
in the Students’ Book. Draw diagrams of transverse and longitudinal waves on
the board (as in Figures 2.32 and 2.33 in the Students’ Book) but leave out the
labels. Ask students to come up and write the labels in the correct place on your
diagrams to check that they are comfortable with the terms used.
Students met the relationship between wave speed, frequency and wavelength in
Grade 10. Set the worked example as a problem for students to solve and use this
as an opportunity to assess their recall of the use of this formula before revealing
the given solution. Go through the section on wave speed through different media
carefully.
The mathematical description of wave motion requires students to be familiar
with the trigonometric functions from their mathematical studies. Link this
section to the students’ experience of SHM in topic 2.1. Work through the theory
carefully then ask students to draw a graph which shows the snapshot of the wave
at point C, which is a quarter of a wavelength behind B. They should produce a
diagram like this.
time at point C t/s

time period
Figure 2.4
50 Grade 12
To understand figure 2.34 fully, students need to be aware of how functions are
transformed. Make sure that they understand where the terms –π/2, –π and
–2πt/T come from. (The distance that is equivalent to ¼ of a wavelength is π/2, ½
a wavelength is equivalent to π, etc.) Students need to remember the final equation
describing the wave after time t.
The principle of superposition is explained briefly. Superposition and interference
are two ways of describing the same thing, and we then go on to discuss
constructive and destructive interference. You can demonstrate interference with
water waves using a shallow tank of water and ask two students to set up a circular
wave each in the tank. They should describe what they observe. They should try
having the two waves in phase, out of phase, or just out of phase and observe the
difference that this makes to the interference pattern. (If you can arrange for more
students to be involved in this then it would be beneficial, but equipment may
not be available to do this.) Question students as you work through the theory to
check understanding.
We move on to discuss reflections of waves. Use a slinky fixed at one end to
demonstrate reflection of a transverse wave when one end is fixed and there is a
phase shift. You could fix one end by simply asking a student to hold it still while
another student creates a travelling wave. Ask students to describe what they
observe.
Use a string that is fixed at both ends to demonstrate the theory about standing
waves on strings. Work through Figure 2.41 carefully. Question students to check
their understanding. Ensure that students note that the solid line shows the wave
that we see and that the dotted red and blue lines are the two travelling waves
which are interfering with each other and we do not actually see them.
Explain the terms node and antinode. It is important that students remember that
an antinode is a point where the oscillation is greatest – it is easy to get the two
mixed up as ‘anti’ can suggest less! Students should also be aware that any points
at the same distance from a node will oscillate in phase with each other. Work
through the mathematics of standing waves carefully. Students will need to be
aware of the trigonometric identity sin P + sin Q = 2sin P+Q cos P–Q .
2 2
Work through the section on wavelength and the length of a string. Ensure that
students follow the argument by asking them for the next step. For example, ask
them to explain how we get from the first equation to the second (rearrange it).
How do we get the third equation from the second (substitute v/f for λ). How do
we get the fourth from the third (rearrange it).
Set students the worked example on page 91 of the Students’ Book and assess how
they tackle it. Note that using the equation gives the fundamental frequency, but
the question asks for the frequencies. Tell students that this is rather like solving
a trigonometric equation in mathematics, where the answer comes out as a single
angle but you then have to find the other related angles that also fit the equation
by adding a multiple of π.
Figure 2.44 illustrates the modes of vibration of a string fixed at both ends. It is
important that students remember this diagram to assist them when they are
answering questions like the one in the previous worked example. Students also
need to note the term ‘harmonic’.
Students need to remember the parameters that affect the fundamental frequency:
length, tension and mass per unit length. You can demonstrate the difference
Grade 12 51
in tone by asking for volunteers to play the same note on different stringed
instruments. (You could also do this by having one instrument and plucking a
string or bowing across the string in different ways if this is easier to arrange.)
We move on to discuss standing waves in organ pipes that are closed at one end.
This analysis does not just apply to organ pipes but to any pipe that is closed at
one end. Make sure that students understand that the diagrams are simplifications
of what actually happens but are sufficient for our purposes. They should also note
that only odd harmonics are produced when one end is closed. Set the worked
example on page 93 of the Students’ Book to check understanding before revealing
the given solution.
We extend the discussion to pipes that are open at both ends. This analysis gives
the same rules as for harmonics on a string but instead of having a node at both
ends an open pipe has antinodes. Make sure that students understand how standing
waves can be set up in air, and how reflections from buildings and mountains set up
standing waves that can be problematic for mobile phone signals.
The section on beats requires students to be aware of the formula used earlier:
sin P + sin Q = 2sin[(P+Q)/2)]cos[(P−Q)/2]. The time between nodes is the time
period which corresponds to the frequency difference between the notes. It is
important that students are able to use the formula for the beat frequency.
Resources
http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/waves.htm
http://paws.kettering.edu/~drussell/Demos/waves/wavemotion.html
Where next?
The next topic explores sound, loudness and the human ear, before exploring the
Doppler effect.

1. v = f λ so λ = v/f = 340/512 = 0.664 m/s
2. v = f λ so f = v/λ = 3 × 108/630 × 10−9 = 4.76 × 1014 m/s
3. a)
i)
Displacement 3
/cm 2
1
t
−1
−2
−3

ii)
Displacement 3
/cm 2
1
t
52 −1 Grade 12
−2
t
−1
−2
−3
b)

ii)
Displacement 3
/cm 2
1
t
−1
−2
−3
4. a) i)
displacement
2 mm
t=0
1.2 m distance/x
-2 mm
0.6 m
ii)
displacement
t = 0.5 ms
2 mm
1.2 m distance/x
-2 mm
0.6 m
b) Sketch graphs of displacement Y against time t for the oscillation produced

by this wave for the first 4 ms.
i)
displacement
2 mm

4 ms time t
2 mm
ii)
displacement
2 mm
4 ms time t
2 mm

5. T = f12 × 2L × ρ = 4402 × 0.64 × 0.002 = 248 N
6. As you swing towards the speaker the music may shift upwards in frequency
and then as you move away the frequency may shift downwards.
Grade 12 53
7. A pipe, 68 cm long, is open at one end and closed at the other. When air is
blown across the open end sound is produced at 110 Hz.
i) v = f × 4L = 110 × 4 × 0.68 = 299.2 m/s
ii) 3 × 110 = 330 Hz
8. In an experiment to measure the speed of sound in air, a speaker directs sound
towards a wall, along a path perpendicular to the wall. The wall reflects the
sound wave and this produces a standing wave. A microphone and electronic
measuring device is used to measure the amplitude of the sound at different
distances from the wall. Minimum values of amplitude are detected at 28 cm
when the frequency used is 600 Hz.
a) v = frequency × wavelength = 600 × 2 × 0.28 = 336 m/s
b) The minimum values of sound are not zero because standing waves are set
up by the reflection of the sound by the wall and there cannot be complete
cancellation to produce a node. As the sound spreads out as it travels the
amplitudes of incident and reflected waves are only similar close to the wall.
This section should 2.3 Sound, loudness and human ear

fill approximately
7 periods of
• Define the intensity of sound and state the relationship between
intensity and distance from source.
• Describe the dependence of the speed of sound on the bulk modulus and
the density of the medium. Use v = √B/ω.
• Give intensity of sound in decibels, and define the terms threshold of
pain and threshold of hearing.
• Describe the intensity level versus frequency graph to know which the
human ear is most sensitive to.
• Explain the Doppler effect, and predict in qualitative terms the frequency
change that will occur in a variety of conditions.
• Explain some practical applications of the Doppler effect.

Sound loudness and intensity
SA With a partner, make a list of ‘loud’ and ‘soft’ sounds. Feed back ideas.
CA With a partner, tackle worked example on page 99 of Students’ Book before given solution is
revealed.
Hearing and the decibel
SA With a partner, write down how you think the human ear detects sound.
MA With a partner, research how the human ear detects sound.
CA Present the findings of your research in the form of a poster.
54 Grade 12
Which materials carry sound waves better?

SA With a partner, discuss whether sound is likely to travel better in air, water or glass. Feed
back ideas.
MA In a small group, devise an experiment to see which materials from a selection carry sound
waves best.
CA Feed back the results of the experiment.
The speed of sound
SA With a partner, discuss the factors that may affect the speed of sound. Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, carry out an experiment to determine the speed of sound. (http://media.
paisley.ac.uk/~davison/labpage/tube/tube.html)
CA Feed back results of the experiment.
The Doppler effect (1)
SA With a partner, discuss what you hear as a police siren approaches and moves away. Feed
back ideas.
MA In a small group, demonstrate the Doppler effect by fixing a tuning fork to a turntable,
sounding the tuning fork and spinning the turntable.
CA Feed back the results of the experiment.
The Doppler effect (2)
SA With a partner, write a brief description of the Doppler effect. Feed back ideas.
Applications of the Doppler effect
SA End of unit question 10 to be tackled with a partner. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, make a poster about applications of the Doppler effect.
End of unit questions 1−9 to be tackled with a partner.
Starting off
Ask students how they might measure how loud a sound is. Do students think
that they would all be able to agree on precisely how loud a given sound is? Ask
students to work with a partner to make a list of ‘loud’ and ‘soft’ sounds. They
should feed back ideas.
Teaching notes
Work through the section on loudness and intensity carefully, referring back to
your discussion when you started off with this topic. Students may have heard
the term ‘decibel’ before but they may not realise that it relates to the intensity of
sound. Explain how individual responses to audible frequencies vary considerably
with age and other factors. It is relatively easy to damage hearing by over-exposure
to loud sounds.
The students have met the Young’s modulus of solids in Grade 11. It is interesting
to note how the speed of sound varies in different materials.
We end this topic by discussing the Doppler effect. Students will have experienced
this effect in everyday life when they hear sirens on ambulances or police cars.
Make sure that students understand the equation given for the Doppler effect.
Grade 12 55
Set the worked example to assess understanding. The discussion activity gives
further consolidation: if the pitch does not change at all then the ambulance is not
moving away from you, or approaching: it is likely to be adjacent to you!
Students need to be aware of the various applications of the Doppler effect. They
are most likely to experience medical imaging and blood flow measurement
directly but many will be motivated by the fact that the Doppler shift can tell us so
much about the history of the universe.
Activities
• Discussion on Doppler effect
Resources
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/sound/U11L2d.cfm
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/earsens.html
Where next?
Students will learn more about interference of light waves in Unit 3.

1. Use I (dB) = 10log10 I
I0
I (dB) = 10log10 6.2 × 10
–6

1 × 10–12
= 10log106 200 000
= 67.9 dB
I
2. 130 = 10log10 1 × 10–12
I
13 = log10 1 × 10–12
I
1 × 10–12 = 1 × 1013
I = 1 × 1013 × 1 × 10–12
= 10 Wm2
3. a) Use v = B
√ ρ
v= 2.2 × 109
√ 1000
= 1483.2 m/s
b) Use v = Y
√ ρ
v= 160
√ 07500
= 0.146 m/s
56 Grade 12
c) Use v = Y
√ρ
v= 422
√ 3500
= 0.355 m/s
4. As you swing towards the speaker the music may shift upwards in frequency
and then as you move away the frequency may shift downwards.
5. For f = 440 Hz
v 340
λ = = = 0.7727 m
f 440
∆λ
Relative velocity = 20 m/s = × 340
λ
20
∆λ = × 0.7727
340
= 0.04545
∴λ = 0.7727 – 0.04545
= 0.7272
340
f = = 467.5 Hz
0.7272
6. The relative velocity of the two approaching cars is
15 + 12 = 27 m/s
The frequency that each driver will hear from the other car is
1
fL = fs ––––
1– –vv–––
s
where fs = 256 Hz
vs = 27 m/s
v = 340 m/s
fL = 1
1 – 27
340
1
= 256
0.9206
= 278 Hz
7. The Doppler effect has a number of applications including:
Astronomy
Observations of the spectral lines in the visible spectrum of light from distant
galaxies show a red-shift. This has been used to demonstrate the universe is
expanding and is a key piece of evidence in support of the big bang theory.
The Doppler effect is used to measure the speed at which stars and galaxies are
approaching or receding from us.
Medical imaging and blood flow measurement
An echocardiogram is used to determine the direction and velocity of blood
flow using the Doppler effect (in this case ultrasound is used).
Other flow measurements
Instruments like the laser Doppler velocimeter are used to measure velocities
Grade 12 57
in a fluid flow. In this case a laser light is fired at a moving fluid. A Doppler
shift is observed from reflections off of particles moving with the fluid.
Radar
The Doppler effect is used in some types of radar. It is used to measure the
velocity of a range of objects. A radar beam is fired at a moving target and
reflects from the surface back to the detector. Any change in wavelength is
then recorded and the object’s velocity can be accurately determined. Doppler
radar is used in a range of applications, including the speed of motorist, tennis
serves, even the speed of a football struck towards a goal.

1. a) total energy = ½ × m × ω2A2 m = 0.04 A = 0.1 m ω2 = 9.81/1.4 so total
energy = 0.0014 J
b) amplitude of the resulting oscillations = 0.1 m
c) period of the resulting oscillations = 2.4 s
d) maximum velocity of the bob = ωA = 0.26 m/s
e) maximum kinetic energy of the bob = ½ × m × v2 = 0.0014 J
2. a) maximum acceleration of the piston = −ω2A = −(100)2 × 0.1 = 1000 rev/s2
b) maximum speed of the piston = 6000/60 = 100 rev/s
c) the maximum force acting on the piston = 0.75 × 1000 rev/s2 = 750 N
3. a) The mass performs simple harmonic motion because the acceleration is
proportional to the displacement.
b) Period T = 34/20 = 1.7 k = 4 × π2 × 0.5/1.72 = 6.82
c) x0 = mg/k = 0.5 × 9.81/6.82 = 0.72 m
d) For a spring, the period of oscillation is not related to gravitational field
strength so the period would be the same. However, the equilibrium
extension would be 0.5 × 1.6/6.82 = 0.06 m so it would be considerably
reduced.
4. a) The natural frequency of the suspension system is the same as the driving
frequency created by passing over the series of speed bumps.
b) k = ω2m = 9 × (820 + 820) = 8100
5. a) You need to hit it on the top to produce a transverse wave.
b) You need to hit it at the side to produce a longitudinal wave.
6. The frequencies of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th harmonics of this string are 392 Hz, 588
Hz and 784 Hz.
7. a)
4th harmonic
f = 4f1
L = 2λ
1.6
λ= = 0.8
2
1.6 m
58 Grade 12
b) f = 4 × f1 = 4 × 2400/0.8 = 12 000 Hz
c)
displacement
0.5 m
time
0.2 m
8. When tuning a piano, a musician plays a note that should be at 110 Hz while at
the same time tapping a 110 Hz tuning fork and holding it next to the strings.
He hears beats at 4 Hz.
a) The beat frequency is the difference between the two frequencies. So the
piano could either be producing 110 + 4 Hz = 114 Hz or 110 – 4 Hz =
106 Hz.
b) Temporary displacement/m
Time / s

T B

c) He needs to tighten or loosen the strings for that note so that when the
note is played at the same time as the tuning fork is tapped, he cannot
detect beats. He checks all the other notes for beats and adjusts the strings
as necessary. He then checks that the pitch is correct between the notes.
9. If this were not the case then higher frequency notes would sound louder than
lower frequency notes (without the musician adjusting how s/he plays the note
in the first place).
10. True wavelength of sound = velocity of sound in air/frequency = 340/1000 =
0.34 m.
Change in wavelength = relative velocity of listener and source away from each
other × wavelength/velocity of sound = 18 × 0.34/340 = 0.018
Frequency = speed of sound/wavelength,
so frequency either
340/(0.34 + 0.018) = 950 Hz or
340/(0.34 − 0.018) = 1056 Hz
Grade 12 59
Wave optics Unit 3
This unit should Learning competencies for Unit 3

fill approximately
teaching time. • Define the term wave front.
• State Huygens’s principle.
• Understand reflection and refraction of plane wave fronts (including
diagrams).
• Understand the proof of the laws of reflection and refraction using
Huygens’s principle.
• State the laws of reflection and refraction.
• Describe reflection and refraction in terms of the wave nature of light.
• Describe the phenomena of wave interference as it applies to light in
qualitative and quantitative terms using diagrams and sketches.
• Compare the destructive and constructive interference of light with
superposition along a string.
• Identify the interference pattern produced by the diffraction of light
through narrow slits (single and double slits).
• Define an interferometer as a device which uses the interference of two
beams of light to make precise measurements of their path difference.
• Define thin film interference and apply and use the equations to solve
problems.
• Explain the interference in Young’s double slit experiment.
• Carry out calculations involving Young’s double slit experiment.
• State the conditions necessary for the interference of light to be shown.
• Describe the diffraction due to a single slit, including the interference
caused by rays of light coming from different parts of the slit.
• Describe and explain the diffraction of light in quantitative terms using
diagrams.
• Describe the effects of using a diffraction grating.
This section should 3.1 Wave fronts and Huygens’s principle

fill approximately
1 period of
• Define the term wave front.
• State Huygens’s principle.
60 Grade 12
Unit 3: Wave optics

Wave fronts
SA Students work with a partner to answer questions in a quiz to test how much of content
from Grade 10 unit 6 and Grade 12 unit 2 they recall. Feed back results.
MA Activity 3.1 in small groups.
CA Activity 3.2 with a partner. Feed back ideas.
Review questions to be tackled with a partner.
Starting off Activity 3.1: Answer

Students have studied wave optics in Grade 10 and waves and oscillations in unit
2. Devise a quiz using unit 6 of Grade 10 and unit 2 of this Grade to see how much Students’ own
of this content students remember. Also have a discussion about where students results. Give credit
may have observed waves in everyday life: e.g. at the sea, on a stretch of water for clarity of
when the wind blows. expression in the
report.
Activity 3.1
Teaching notes gives students
the opportunity
We begin by asking the question ‘What are wave fronts?’. Use a tank of water and to explore
a stick to show students what happens when a source oscillates in water. Ask them water waves for
to describe the pattern in their own words. Make sure that students understand themselves. They
how the wave front diagrams in Figures 3.1 and 3.2 come about. should work in
In previous grades, students used ray diagrams to represent the direction of light. small groups and
write a report on
Now they need to understand that the ray actually represents the direction of
the investigation.
the wave front. Demonstrate waves moving from a rectangular source in a tank
of water as shown in Figure 3.7 by using a rectangular sheet of plastic as the Discuss the three
oscillator. Make sure that students see how the wavelength can be varied. points in Huygens’s
principle with the
class, questioning
students to check
Activities understanding.
• Ripple tanks Activity 3.2
gives students an
• Five consecutive wave fronts
opportunity to
consolidate their
understanding of
Resources the principle.
http://www.holophony.net/Wavefieldsynthesis.htm
http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/1534201/introduction_to_wave_front_ Activity 3.2: Answer
huygens.html
The resulting
diagram should be
Where next? an extension of
The next topic applies Huygens’s principle to reflection and refraction of plane Figure 3.11.
wave fronts.

1. A wave front is an imaginary line joining points of a wave that are in phase.
Grade 12 61
Unit 3: Wave optics
2. Huygens’s principle states that:

• every point on a wave front acts as a source of spherical secondary waves
• these secondary wavelets spread out in all directions and have the same
frequency and speed as the original wave (and so the same wavelength)
• a new wave front is formed as these wavelets combine together.
3.
B
A B Wavelets form from each

B A point along a wave front
to create a new wave
front in front of the first
A
Wave fronts travelling out

from a point source

This section should 3.2 Reflection and refraction of wave fronts

fill approximately
1 period of
• Understand reflection and refraction of plane wave fronts (including
diagrams).

Reflection and refraction of wave fronts
SA Work in groups to come up with as many examples of reflection and refraction that they
meet in everyday life as they can. Feed back ideas.
CA In a small group, consider why the light looks the same colour as it moves through a block.
Feed back ideas.
Starting off
Students met reflection and refraction in Grade 10. Divide the class into groups
and give a short time for students to come up with as many examples of reflection
and refraction that they experience in everyday life as they can. Discuss ideas
when you bring the class back together. See whether students can complete this
sentence: ‘When light is reflected in a plane mirror, the angle of ……… equals the
…………’ (angle of incidence = angle of reflection).
62 Grade 12
Unit 3: Wave optics
Teaching notes
Students should recognise Figure 3.13. Now we need to extend this to Figure 3.14,
which shows the wave fronts. Activity 3.3 gives students an opportunity to draw
such diagrams for themselves. They will need plain paper, rulers and protractors.
Make sure that students understand how the diagrams in Figures 3.16 and 3.17
have been constructed.
The results should be similar to Figure 3.14 but with the angles as 30°, 45° and 60°.
Ask students to explain what happens when light refracts from one medium
to another (on a ray diagram, the ray bends towards or away from the normal,
depending on whether the exit medium is more or less dense than the entry
medium). It is important that students can understand why there is a change in
wave speed and length in refraction which does not occur in reflection. Students
met Snell’s law in Grade 10. Activity 3.4 gives an opportunity for students to
consolidate their understanding by drawing a wave front diagram to show a wave
increasing in speed as it enters a different medium. The result should show an
increase in wavelength as the wave enters the different medium, and the refraction
should be such that the ray moves away from the normal.
Students are then asked to consider why the light looks the same colour as it
moves through the block. The answer is that light is a mixture of wavelengths so
we are unable to detect the subtle change with our human eyes.
The result should show an increase in wavelength as the wave enters the different
medium, and the refraction should be such that the ray moves away from the normal.
Students are then asked to consider why the light looks the same colour as it
moves through the block. The answer is that light is a mixture of wavelengths so
we are unable to detect the subtle change with our human eyes.
Activities
• Wave front diagrams
• Refraction
Resources
http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312432/lessons_part-03.html
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/gcse/physics/properties-of-waves/reflection-of-waves.html
Where next?
The next topic uses Huygen’s principle to prove the laws of reflection and
refraction.
Grade 12 63
Unit 3: Wave optics

1. Law of reflection: angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Snell’s Law: sin θ1/sin θ2 = v1/v2 = λ1/λ2
2. a) b)
60° 30°
20°
75°
This section should 3.3 Proof of the laws of reflection and refraction using
fill approximately Huygens’s principle
2 periods of
teaching time.
Learning competencies
• Understand the proof of the laws of reflection and refraction using
• Describe reflection and refraction in terms of the wave nature of light.

Huygens’s principle applied to reflection and refraction
SA With a partner, write Huygens’s principle in your own words. Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, prepare a presentation on either Huygens’s principle applied to reflection or
Huygens’ principle applied to refraction.
CA Present presentations.
Applications of the wave nature of light
SA With a partner, summarise the corpuscular theory of light and why it was superceded by the
wave theory of light.
MA In a small group, research a given application of the wave nature of light (see page 65 of
this book).
Starting off
Ask students to write Huygens’s principle in their own words. Discuss responses.
Ask students to explain the laws of reflection and refraction in their own words.
64 Grade 12
Unit 3: Wave optics
Teaching notes
Divide the class into small groups. Assign half the class to working on section
about applying Huygens’s principle to reflection, and the other half to applying the
principle to refraction. Students should prepare a presentation for the rest of the
class to explain the proof. In order to explain the theory to their peers, students
will have to deepen their own understanding and become engaged in their
learning.
We now move on to use the corpuscular theory of light. Discuss the way this
theory was used to explain reflection and refraction. However, students need
to appreciate that there are applications that cannot be explained using the
corpuscular theory. Demonstrate the polarisation of light using polaroids. Assign
groups of students to research scientific and technological applications of the wave
nature of light:
• polarisation
• Polaroid sunglasses
• rainbows
• polished gemstones
• stage lighting
• television
• ultra-violet radiation and the ozone layer
• medical and night vision applications of infra-red cameras
• the greenhouse effect.
Activities
• Demonstrate polarisation of light using polaroids
• Research scientific and technological applications of the wave nature of
lightext?
Resources
http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath242/kmath242.htm
http://www.walter-fendt.de/ph14e/huygenspr.htm

1. The law of reflection is angle of incidence = angle of reflection. Snell’s law
states that
sin θ1 v1
=
v2
sin θ2
where sin θ1 and sin θ2 are the sines of the angles from the normal in medium
1 and medium 2, respectively, and v1 and v2 are the speeds in medium 1 and
medium 2, respectively.
Grade 12 65
Unit 3: Wave optics
2. It is possible to confirm the law of reflection using Huygens’s construction.

Normal ray
(perpendicular
Incident wave to barrier)
Ray (at right
angles to
wavefront)
Reflected wave
Wavefronts
Angle of Angle of
incidence i reflection r
3. Using the same technique it is possible to confirm Snell’s law of refraction.

C
E H L Huygens’ principle
D H L demonstrates how
H L a wavefront passing
B into a denser medium
A K K K is refracted towards
O M the normal, with a
O M corresponding reduction
R
O M in speed and hence
F wavelength.
S N C
4. Newton suggested that light was made up of a stream of tiny particles called
corpuscles. Newton explained reflection by considering that the corpuscles
were repelled at the surface perfectly elastically. The proposed force acted
perpendicularly to the surface so there was no change in the horizontal
component and so the angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
normal

air
downwards force
in this region
water

Newton explained refraction in terms of a downward force acting
perpendicularly to the surface.
Newton said that as the corpuscle approaches the boundary it experiences
this accelerating force, so its vertical velocity increases, leading to a change of
direction.
66 Grade 12
Unit 3: Wave optics
3.4 Interference This section should

fill approximately
1 period of
• Describe the phenomena of wave interference as it applies to light in
qualitative and quantitative terms using diagrams and sketches.
• Compare the destructive and constructive interference of light with
superposition along a string.
• Identify the interference pattern produced by the diffraction of light
through narrow slits (single and double slits).
• Define an interferometer as a device which uses the interference of two
beams of light to make precise measurements of their path difference.
• Define thin film interference and apply and use the equations to solve
problems.

Interference
SA With a partner, explore the difference between sound and light diffraction as decribed on
page 120 of the Students’ Book. Feed back observations.
In a small group, explore diffraction through either a single slit or a double slit.
CA With a partner, summarise this section in the form of your choice.
Starting off
Begin by demonstrating the difference between sound and light diffraction as
described in the Students’ Book. Ask a student to go outside the room and call
another student.
Teaching notes Activity 3.3: Answer

Divide the class into groups. Students should be given the opportunity to observe
Students’ own
diffraction of light through a single and double slit. You can make single and results.
double slits by using a razor blade and a ruler to cut slits in a piece of card.
Students can use plain paper as the screen. The room will need to be darkened in
order for students to see the pattern formed.
Discuss how Huygen’s principle is applied to diffraction. Activity 3.5 gives
students the opportunity to show how the principle is applied to diffraction and
use diagrams to show why gaps equal to the wavelength give a more pronounced
effect.
Remind students about the principle of superposition that they met in the last
unit. Discuss destructive and constructive interference, and the production of
maxima and minima. Apply the theory to students’ observations at the start of the
lesson.
Grade 12 67
Unit 3: Wave optics
Students need to understand the theory about diffraction through a double slit
and diffraction through a single slit and be able to explain the diffraction patterns.
It would be worth dividing the class in half and asking half the class to work in
small groups to explain diffraction through a double slit and half the class to work
in groups to explain diffraction through a single slit. By using this technique we
are, as explained above, engaging students in their learning and developing their
communication skills.
Make sure that students understand the theory about the interferometer and thin
film interference by asking questions as they work with a partner on a summary
of this topic. Summarising material is a good way for students to engage with
the content as they must first understand the content before they extract the key
points to summarise.
Activities
• Observe diffraction of light through a single and double slit
• Diffraction
Resources
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/waves/u10l3c.cfm
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/py105/WaveInterference.html
Where next?
The next topic considers Young’s double slit experiment and an expression for
fringe width.

1. When light passes through a small gap every point of the light wave within the
gap creates its own circular wavelet. The gap therefore effectively creates a new
wave source. These wavelets travel out and form a new wave front. This may be
seen in the diagram.
The centre of this new wave front has the
highest intensity, with the intensity falling
towards the edge. At the end of this new
wave front another circular wavelet is
created; this leads to the edges of the wave
front bending around, as shown in the
diagram. The result of this effect is the new
wave front and so the wave itself spreads
out.

wavelets new wave front
68 Grade 12
Unit 3: Wave optics
2. A series of maxima and minima is created as the light diffracted from each slit
superposes.
observed
interference
pattern
superposition
screen
As the light passes through slit A it diffracts and so spreads out. The same
effect occurs at slit B. We have effectively produced two sources of light.
As the light diffracts from each slit it overlaps and superposition occurs. This
produces a noticeable interference pattern on the screen.
The interference pattern is a series of bright and dark fringes of equal width.
The brightest fringe is located in the middle and is called the central maximum
(or occasionally the zero-order maximum). The bright fringes either side are
called the first-order maxima, followed by the second-order maxima, etc.
A simple sketch of intensity against distance is as follows:
central maximum
first-order maximum
second-order maximum

first-order minimum
These alternating maxima and minima are formed due to the light from each
slit interfering. At the central maximum, the light striking the screen from slit
A has travelled the same distance as the light from slit B. As a result, the waves
are in phase (assuming the light at A and B is in phase), and so constructive
interference occurs.
3. At the first-order minima the light from each slit has had to travel a different
distance. This is referred to as the path difference. The light from one slit
travels further and, at the minima, arrives in anti-phase with the light from
the other slit. There is a phase difference of π and so destructive interference
Grade 12 69
Unit 3: Wave optics
occurs. The light from one slit has travelled exactly half a wavelength further
and so a peak meets a trough.
first-order

screen
At the first-order maxima the path difference is exactly one wavelength. This
means that the light from each source is back in phase and so constructive
interference occurs and maxima are observed.
This process continues as you move along the screen creating a series of
maxima and minima.
4. The interference pattern produced by a double slit comprises of a series of
equal width maxima and minima known as fringes.
The interference pattern produced by a single slit comprises a wide central
maximum (twice the width of subsequent maxima) with minima either side.
This section should 3.5 Young’s double slit experiment and expression for fringe
fill approximately width
2 periods of
teaching time.
• Explain the interference in Young’s double slit experiment.

Young’s experiment
SA With a partner, write down what you understand by the term ‘interference’. Feed back ideas.
MA In small groups, produce a poster explaining Young’s experiment.
CA Write down one key point from this lesson. Feed back ideas.
Explaining the interference pattern
SA With a partner, write down two key things about Young’s experiment. Feed back ideas.
MA In the same small groups as last lesson, add to the poster to explain the interference
pattern seen in the experiment.
70 Grade 12
Unit 3: Wave optics
Starting off
Explain that this topic concentrates on one particular demonstration of
interference, carried out by Thomas Young.
Teaching notes
Students should work in small groups to produce a poster explaining a) Young’s
experiment and b) explaining the interference pattern seen in the experiment.
As the students work, go round the class questioning the groups to check
understanding.
Present the worked example as a problem for students to tackle independently.
After allowing time for them to attempt it, discuss methods of solution before
revealing the given solution. If necessary, give further examples based on the one
here so that your students have more practice.
Activities
• Produce a poster describing and explaining Young’s slit experiment
Resources
http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/physics/light/node9.html
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/interference/doubleslit/l
Where next?
The next topic discusses coherent sources and sustained interference of light.

1. Young used a single light source passing through first a single slit, then a
double slit before being projected onto a translucent screen. The resulting
interference pattern is due to the difference in distance between the two slits
and the screen.
2. Some reasonably straightforward trigonometry enables us to derive a
relationship between D the distance from the slits to the screen, w the distance
between successive light or dark fringes, s the slit separation and λ the
wavelength of the light used. Referring again to Figure 3.47, we know that:
AR – BR = λ
If angle ABC = θ, then:
sin θ = AC = λ
AB s
But the diagram also shows that sin θ = PR/OR. Since θ is very small
(remember that this diagram exaggerates the position – in practice PR is about
2 mm while OP is about 1 m) OR ≈ OP, so we can write:
PR
sin θ ≈ OP
Grade 12 71
Unit 3: Wave optics
Since PR = w and OP = D, we can use the expression sin θ = λ/s given above
and write:
λ = w or λ = ws
s D D
AO=OB l
AC=l A
C
O
B w + = + =
P
Q
R
D Waves meet in phase: Waves meet antiphase:
constructive interference destructive interference
Figure 3.47 Light waves leave slits A and B in phase. Since AP = BP, the waves must
arrive at P in phase, so constructive interference occurs here and a bright area is
seen. The distance AR is exactly one wavelength more than the distance BR, so the
waves also arrive at R in phase, leading to a bright area here also. The distance AQ
is exactly half a wavelength more than the distance BQ, so the waves arrive at Q
antiphase, resulting in a dark area.
3. a) Light with a higher frequency has a shorter wavelength. Fringes will be
closer together.
b) Narrower slits will produce a sharper image.
c) By increasing the distance from the screen the interference pattern will
appear wider.
ws
4. Use λ =
D
w = 26 × 10–3 m
s = 0.25 × 10–3 m
D = 10 m
26 × 10–3 × 0.25 × 10–3
λ =
10
–7
= 6.5 × 10 m
= 650 nm
72 Grade 12
Unit 3: Wave optics
3.6 Coherent sources and sustained interference of light This section should
fill approximately
1 period of

Coherent sources and interference
SA With a partner, discuss the meaning of the term ‘coherent’ in this context. Feed back ideas.
MA Watch a demonstration of Young’s experiment using a laser. With a partner, write a report on
the demonstration, including observations.
Starting off
Explain that, in order for experiments such as Young’s to work, a coherent light
source is required. Discuss the meaning of the word ‘coherent’ in this context.
Here, coherent means that the waves are the same type, the frequency is the same
and the phase relationship between the waves should be constan.
Teaching notes
Young made sure his light was coherent by using a monochromatic filter (to
ensure the same frequency of light) and a single slit to ensure that the phase
relationship was constant.
A laser is a source of coherent light. If possible, set up the apparatus shown
in the Students’ Book to demonstrate interference using a laser as the light
source. Students should write a report on the demonstration, to include their
observations.
Activities
• Demonstrate interference using a laser
Resources
www.pa.uky.edu/~bjohnson/PHY213_Chapter24_Sec1to3.ppt
http://www.tutornext.com/lloyds-mirror/16048
Where next?
The next topic considers diffraction through a single slit and some consequences
of diffraction in optics.
Grade 12 73
Unit 3: Wave optics

1. Coherent means that the waves are the same type, the frequency is the same,
and the phase relationship between the waves should be constant.
2. An interference pattern is not observed between the light from car headlights
because the light sources are not coherent.
This section should 3.7 Diffraction due to a single slit and a diffraction grating
fill approximately
2 periods of
• Describe the diffraction due to a single slit, including the interference
caused by rays of light coming from different parts of the slit.
• Describe and explain the diffraction of light in quantitative terms using
diagrams.
• Describe the effects of using a diffraction grating.

Diffraction due to a single slit
SA Quiz on the work covered so far in this unit to be tackled with a partner. Feed back on
answers.
MA With a partner, summarise the section on issues caused by diffraction by making a poster.
CA What are the problems caused by diffraction? Discuss in small groups and feed back ideas.
Using a diffraction grating
SA With a partner, discuss how light from a car headlights far way looks like a single point but
as the car approaches becomes two points sources. Why is this? Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, carry out an experiment to investigate a diffraction grating. Write a report.
Starting off
Devise a short quiz to revise the work covered so far in this unit, especially that in
Section 3.4.
Teaching notes
Discuss this section as a class, questioning students to check understanding.
Ensure that students do not ‘switch off ’ when the text becomes mathematical –
encourage them to take it a step at a time and follow the argument. When you
have discussed the text as a class, ask students to make their own summary using
the information for revision purposes.
There are times when diffraction produces unwanted effects. Students should work
with a partner to produce a poster to explain in quantitative terms why these occur.
74 Grade 12
Unit 3: Wave optics
Students should work in small groups to explore diffraction gratings. They should
write a report on the investigation before tackling the review questions and end of
unit questions with a partner. Working in pairs encourages students to talk about
their learning and justify their thinking.
Activities
• Poster to explain in quantitative terms why unwanted diffraction effects occur
• Investigation of diffraction grating
Resources
http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Chemistry-Vol-4/
Diffraction.html
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/grating.html
Where next?
This is the final topic in this unit. Students need to summarise their notes for the
unit in a form that can be used for revision.

1. Note that we assume that waves reaching the slit are plane waves travelling in
a direction perpendicular to the slit. As the wave passes through the slit, each
point on the wave may be considered to act as the source of a new, circular
wavefront, as we saw earlier. This means that a plane wavefront with the same
width as the slit will travel away from the slit in the same direction as the
original wave was travelling. Now consider a direction that makes an angle θ
with the original direction of travel in such a way that there is a path difference
of one wavelength. between the wavelet from A and that from B (see Figure 3.49).
Plane waves reach

the slit travelling
perpendicular to it A θ
a C
l /2
θ
B
l l

Figure 3.49
Point C is midway between points A and B. The wavelet from point C is
therefore exactly antiphase with the wavelet from point A, and so the two
wavelets can cancel out. For every secondary wavelet formed at a point along
AC, there can always be found another secondary wavelet from a point along
BC with which the wavelet can cancel. In this way all the light coming from
Grade 12 75
Unit 3: Wave optics
AC cancels out all the light coming from BC, no light energy flows at angle θ
to the original direction of travel, and a dark band appears on the screen in
this direction. From the diagram it can be seen that:
sin θ = λ/a
Since the conditions for light from the two halves of the slit cancelling each
other will also exist when the path difference is 2λ, 3λ, and so on, it follows
that in general the minima of intensity occur at angles given by:
sin λ = nλ/a, where n = 1, 2, 3 ...
2. Green light has a shorter wavelength than red light, therfore the interference
pattern produced by green light will have a larger number of bands than that
produced by red light.
3. The resolving power of a microscope is limited by the wavelegth of light. Blue
light will improve the reso;ving power as it has the shortest wavelength of
visible light.

1. Huygen’s principle states that all points along a wave front produce a series of
secondary wavelets. These wavelets travel at the same speed and have the same
frequency as the original wave. The wavelets combine to form a new wave
front and the process continues.

This diagram shows how a wave is propagated according to Huygens’s principle.
When constructing a wave front diagram of a wave reflecting off a surface this
law must also be obeyed.
θ1 θ2
Figure 3.14 A wave front diagram demonstrating the law of reflection
76 Grade 12
Unit 3: Wave optics
Care must be taken to ensure this law is still valid. Notice that the wavelength
of the wave does not change upon reflection.
When constructing a wave front diagram of refraction, if the wave is slowing
down there is a decrease in wavelength (the reverse is true if there is an
increase in speed). This must be clear from the diagram.
Figure 3.19 A simple wave front diagram of refraction
Huygens’s principle may be used to explain the phenomena of wave

diffraction.
When light passes through a small gap every point of the light wave within the
gap creates its own circular wavelet. The gap therefore effectively creates a new
wave source. These wavelets travel out and form a new wave front. This may be
seen in the diagram in Figure 3.29.
The centre of this new wave front has the highest intensity, with the intensity
falling towards the edge. At the end of this new wave front another circular
wavelet is created; this leads to the edges of the wave front bending around, as
shown in the diagram. The result of this effect is the new wave front and so the
wave itself spreads out.
wavelets new wave front
Figure 3.29 Using Huygens’s principle to explain diffraction
Grade 12 77
Unit 3: Wave optics
2. With one slit covered, the interference pattern will change, with the central
maximum being twice as wide as the first order maxima, and much brighter.
double slit translucent screen

interference
pattern observed
from here
lamp
single slit
coloured interference pattern
filter of alternating light
and dark patterns
Figure 3.46 Young’s double slit experiment

3. Young produced an interference pattern on a translucent screen by placing
a light source behind a monochromatic filter and passing the filtered light
through first a single slit, then a double slit. The filter reduced the light to a
single wavelength, to reduce blurring of fringes. The single slit ensured that
light arriving at the double slit was in phase. In practice, the distance between
the two slits is typically <0.5mm and the distance from the screen 1–2m.
ws λD
4. λ =so w =
D s
5.89 × 10–7 × 1.2
=
0.55 × 10–3
= 1.29 mm
5. a) An interference pattern of alternating light and dark bands will be
observed. A light band represents a region of constructive interference,
where the difference in distance travelled from the two slits equals a
whole number of wavelengths. A dark band shows a region of destructive
interference, where the difference in distance travelled is a number of half
wavelengths.
λD 475 × 10–9 × 2.2
b) w = =
s 0.4 × 10–3
= 2.61 mm
78 Grade 12
Unit 3: Wave optics
6. a)
a b
Figure 3.39 The central maximum observed in the interference pattern created
by a single slit is twice as wide as the first-order maxima (a = 2b).
b) The width of the slit is inversely proportional to the width of the fringes
produced, so a narrower slit will produce wider fringe spacing.
7. The distance between first and third order minima equates to 2 fringe widths,
so need to w/2.
ws
Using λ =
D
λD
s =
w
680 × 10–9 × 0.4
=
0.5 × 3 × 10–3
= 18 mm
Grade 12 79
Electrostatics Unit 4
This unit should Learning Competencies for Unit 4

fill approximately
teaching time. • Analyse in quantitative terms, electric fields and the forces produced
by a single point charge, two point charges and two oppositely charged
parallel plates.
• Define the term electric dipole and electric dipole moment. Describe what
happens to a dipole placed in an electric field.
• State Gauss’s law, and define Gaussian surface and electric flux.
• Describe and explain in quantitative terms the electric field that exists
inside and on the surface of a charged conductor.
• Describe Millikan’s oil drop experiment.
• Apply the concept of electric potential energy to a variety of contexts.
• Use the formula for electric potential due to an isolated point charge.
• Apply the concepts of electrical energy to solve problems relating to
conservation of energy.
• Derive the relationship between electric field strength and potential.
• Compare electric potential energy with gravitational potential energy.
• Derive the formula for a parallel plate capacitor (from Gauss’s law),
including the use of a dielectric.
• Define the dielectric constant.
• Explain qualitatively the charge and discharge of a capacitor in series
with a resistor.
• Explain the behavior of an insulator in an electric field.
• Define electric energy density and derive the formula for the energy
density for an electric field using a parallel plate capacitor.
• Solve problems involving capacitances, dielectrics and energy stored in a
capacitor.
80 Grade 12
Unit 4: Electrostatics
4.1 Electric charge and Coulomb’s law This section should

fill approximately
5 periods of
• Analyse in quantitative terms, electric fields and the forces produced
by a single point charge, two point charges and two oppositely charged
parallel plates.
• Define the term electric dipole and electric dipole moment. Describe what
happens to a dipole placed in an electric field.
• State Gauss’s law, and define Gaussian surface and electric flux.
• Describe and explain in quantitative terms the electric field that exists
• Describe Millikan’s oil drop experiment.

Electric fields
SA With a partner, answer quiz questions on content of Grade 10, unit 2. Feed back and discuss
answers.
MA With a partner, summarise the important features of electric field lines and the corresponding
electric field.
Electric field strength and Coulomb’s law
SA Activity 4.2 with a partner. Feed back ideas.
With a partner, summarise the text on Coulomb’s law
CA Activity 4.4 with a partner. Feed back solutions.
Forces due to multiple charges
SA Why does the test charge in Figure 4.18 experience a force from both the other charges?
Discuss with a partner and feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, make a summary of Students’ Book pages 149−150.
CA What makes a good summary? Discuss in small groups and feed back ideas.
Gauss’s law
SA With a partner, compare electrostatic and gravitational forces.
MA With a partner, make a mind map about Gauss’s law using the information in the Students’
Book.
Grade 12 81
Electric fields, electric dipoles and Millikan’s experiment

SA Activity 4.7 with a partner.
MA With a partner, make a spidergram to summarise the information on electric fields and
dipoles.
In a small group, prepare a presentation on Millikan’s oil drop experiment.
Activity 4.1: Answer Starting off

+ + +
+ + Students last met the content of this topic in Grade 10, unit 2. Borrow a copy of
the Grade 10 Students’ Book and devise a quiz to bring this content back to the
+ +
+ +
+
+ + +
+
front of students’ memories.
0V
Activity 4.2: Answer Teaching notes

This is an Ask students about the similarities between Coulomb’s law and Newton’s law of
opportunity for universal gravitation. (Both are inverse square relationships, the form of both
students to apply is kab/c2. In the case of Coulomb’s law, a and b are charges and c is the distance
the definition: between them; in Newton’s law of universal gravitation a and b are masses and c is
E = F/q = 6 × the distance between them.)
10 −6/1.6 × 10-19
Begin by reminding students about the nature of electric fields and the types of
= 3.75 × 1013 N/C
charge. Remind students about the size of the charge on an electron, and how many
electrons would be needed to give a charge of 1 C. (The charge on an electron is
Activity 4.3: Answer −1.6 × 10−19 C so you would need 1.6 × 10−19 electrons for a charge of 1 C.)
Top plate − Ve Consider now the important features of electric field lines and the corresponding
Electron electric field:
beam x
F y • direction
F
• crossing
Bottom plate + Ve
• spacing
Activity 4.4: Answer • neutral point.
Activity 4.4 gives Show students how to plot equipotential lines on a sheet of conducting material.
an opportunity for Students have met the mathematical definition of electric field strength earlier
students to use in their studies. It is important to stress that electric field strength is a vector
Coulomb’s law. The quantity: it has size and direction.
first force students When the definition of electric field strength, Newton’s second law and the
have to find is
equations of constant acceleration are combined, we can explain the motion of
3.99 × 10 −9 N. The
answer to part a) is
charges in an electric field. Go through the theory carefully, questioning students
5.99 × 10 −9 N and as you go to check understanding. Make sure that students are comfortable with
the answer to part the mathematical manipulation required.
b) is 2.24 × 10 −9 N. The introduction to Coulomb’s law should be revision for students. Stress the
importance of the permittivity of free space. The worked example should be given
Activity 4.5: Answer to students to tackle without the given solution so that you have an opportunity
Activity 4.5 to assess understanding. Bring the class back together to discuss solutions before
gives students an revealing the given solution.
opportunity to apply We consider next the forces due to multiple charges. The case of three charges in a
the theory. The line is a straightforward subtraction.
answer is 7 × 1013q.
82 Grade 12
Students need to remember that if the charges are opposite then the resultant is Activity 4.6: Answer
found by addition and if the charges are in two dimensions then they need to
apply vector addition techniques. Make sure that they are comfortable with the This is an
mathematics needed for vector addition. opportunity for
students to apply
Divide the class into groups. The groups should work to produce a summary of what they have just
the information about experimental verification of Coulomb’s law. Discuss the learnt. They should
summaries as a class and decide what features are included in a good summary. produce an inverse
square graph.
Discuss the comparison between electrostatic and gravitational forces. Ask the
Students have met
students to tackle the worked example independently before discussing solutions
the electric field
and revealing the given solution. strength between
Ask students to produce a mind map about Gauss’s law using the information in two parallel plates
the Students’ Book. in previous grades.
Activity 4.7 is an
We consider the electric field around a point charge. Make sure that students are opportunity for
able to derive the equation a) from Coulomb’s law and electric field strength b) them to apply their
from Gauss’s law. Ensure that they are not put off by the mathematics: if they take knowledge.
a step at a time they should be fine.
Use a computer simulation of Millikan’s oil drop experiment to introduce this part
of the topic. You can find one at http://webphysics.davidson.edu/applets/pqp_ In i) the electric
preview/contents/pqp_errata/cd_errata_fixes/section4_5.html field strength will
be halved and in
Ask students to prepare a presentation on this experiment in small groups. ii) the electric field
lines will be in the
Activity 4.10: Answer opposite direction
and the strength
a) negative d) mg = Qv
will be doubled.
d
b) A
Q = mg v
electrostatic attraction Activity 4.8: Answer
d
mg = 9.79 × 10−15 × 9.81 × 200 000
Activity 4.8 is an
B = 1.92 × 10−8c opportunity for
e) Charger 1 electron = 1.6 × 10−19 c students to find the
c) E = v Number of electrons = 1.92 × 10−8 force on an electron.
d 1.6 × 10−19 The answer is 500 ×
= 5000 = 1.2 × 1011 1.6 × 10 −19/40 x 10 −3
0.025 = 2 × 10 −15 N. You
= 200 000 v/m could ask students
to investigate
the electric field
Activities between two parallel
plates using a
• Plot equipotential lines on a sheet of conducting material charged foil strip.
• Electric field strength
• Force calculations Activity 4.9: Answer
• Produce a summary of the experimental verification of Coulomb’s law In this activity,

water will be
• Investigate the electric field between two parallel plates attracted or
• Presentation on Millikan’s experiment repelled from a
charged strip since
water molecules are
Resources permanent dipoles,
as shown in Figure
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/Charge.html 4.26 on page 156 of
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/elefor.html the Students’ Book.
Grade 12 83
Where next?
The next topic considers electric potential.

1. An electric field is the region around a charged object where another charged
object will experience a force. Electric field strength is defined as the force per
unit charge acting on a positive test charge placed in the field.
2. a) Electric field strength between plates
V
E = = 50 000 = 1250 kJ
d 0.04
b) F = Eq = 1250 × 103 × 5 × 10–9
= 6.25 × 10–3 N
Q1 Q2 (5 × 10–9)
3. a) F = =
4π ε0 r2 4π × 8.85 × 10–2 × (0.04)2
= 1.405 × 10–4 N
b) F = ma so m = F = 1.4 × 10 = 0.01427 g
–4

a 9.81
Reading = 8.205 + 0.014 = 8.219 g
4. a) i) Kinetic energy gained = V × q = 600 × 1.6 × 10–19 = 9.6 × 10–17 J
ii) KE = ½ mv2
–17
v2 = 2 × 9.6 × 10 –31
9.11 × 10
v = 14.5 × 106 m/s
V
b) i) E = = 500 = 12 500 N/C
d 0.04
ii) +250V
Anode
−250V
Screen
iii) The beam experiences a force towards the positive plate and therefore
accelerates upwards whilst maintaining a constant horizontal velocity.
The shape of the path between the plates is an upward curve.
5. Gauss’s law states that the electric flux through any closed surface is
proportional to the enclosed electric charge. The use of a Gaussian surface (an
imaginary surface)enables simple calculations to determine the field strength
at any given point on the surface as long as the shape of the surface is simple
(sphere, cylinder, etc.).
84 Grade 12
4.2 Electric potential This section should

fill approximately
5 periods of
• Apply the concept of electric potential energy to a variety of contexts.
• Use the formula for electric potential due to an isolated point charge.
• Apply the concepts of electrical energy to solve problems relating to
conservation of energy.
• Derive the relationship between electric field strength and potential.
• Compare electric potential energy with gravitational potential energy.

What is electric potential?
SA Why may electric potential at any point in an electric field also be defined as the potential
energy of each coulomb of positive charge placed at that point? Discuss with a partner and
feed back ideas.
CA What is the significance of the negative term in the original definition of potential? Discuss
with a partner and feed back ideas.
Equipotentials
SA With a partner, discuss what you understand by the term ‘equipotential’. Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, summarise equipotentials in a) a uniform field, b) a radial field, c) more
complex fields.
CA Activity 4.11 in small group.
Activity 4.12 in a small group.
The relationship between electric field strength and electric potential
SA Activity 4.13 with a partner. Feed back ideas.
CA Discuss the results of Activity 4.14
Electric potential energy
SA What would the change in EPE of an electron be if it moved from B to C in Figure 4.46?
Discuss in small groups. Feed back ideas.
MA Summarise Students’ Book pages 169−170 with a partner.
CA Worked example on page 170 without given solution. Feed back ideas.
Comparing gravitational and electric fields
SA Explain the formula connecting kinetic energy and change in electric potential energy to a
partner. Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, summarise the comparison between gravitational and electric fields.
Grade 12 85

Remind students about potential energy. Place objects at different heights and
Activity 4.11 is an ask students to tell you which has the greatest potential energy and give reasons
opportunity for for their answer. It is important for students to realize that the higher an object is
students to use placed in space, the more work is needed to put it there and therefore the higher
the formula. The the potential energy.
answers are 0.58 V,
1.4 × 10 −5 V, 2.16 ×
10 −13 m and 2.223 ×
10 −8 C. Teaching notes
Begin by considering electric potential as the work done to bring two charges
close together. Work through the section in the Students’ Book carefully,
Activity 4.12: Answer questioning students to check that they understand each stage of the argument.
The lines around a

Students then need to understand how to calculate electric potential, before
5 C charge will be considering the potential around a single point charge. Again, work through this
twice the distance section, questioning students to check understanding. The worked example is an
apart that those opportunity for students to consolidate their understanding so they should be
around a −10C given the opportunity to tackle it without the given solution initially. You may like
charge are. to ask the students to discuss the ‘think about this’ section in small groups and
then feed back ideas to the rest of the class.
We move on to consider equipotentials. Divide the class into groups and ask
different groups to summarise equipotentials in a) a uniform field, b) a radial field,
c) more complex fields. The latter could be given to more able students. Ask the
groups to work on Activity 4.11 together.
The results should We move on to discuss the relationship between electric field strength and electric
be as follows. potential. As usual, question students to check that they can follow the argument.
V(v) Activity 4.13 is an opportunity to consolidate this learning.
The results should be as follows.

d(m)
Plates closer together V
Steeper gradient (x10-32) 14
greater field strength.
V(v)
12
10
8
r (cm) 1 2 4 6 8 10
6 V (x10-32) 14.4 7.2 3.6 2.4 1.8 1.4
6
d(m) 4
Higher potential on 2
positive plate also
results in greater field strength.
2
The gradient tells 1
4
you the electric
field strength. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 r (cm)
Activity 4.14 At r = 2 cm
extends this to the Field strength = 6 x10-32 /2cm = 3 x 10-30J
potential gradient At r = 8 cm
Field strength = 1 x10-32 /4cm = 2.5 x 10-31J
for a proton.
86 Grade 12
Discuss the section on Electric potential energy, questioning to check Activity 4.15: Answer
understanding as usual. Students should discuss the ‘think about this’ section in
small groups and feed back ideas. Set the worked example for students to tackle 2.89 x 10 −14 J.
independently before discussing solutions. Activity 4.15 is another chance for
students to tackle this sort of problem.
Make sure that students understand the formula that connects kinetic energy and
change in electric potential energy.
Finally, ask students to work in small groups to summarise the comparison
between gravitational and electric fields.
Activities
• Measure equipotentials
Resources
http://www.rwc.uc.edu/koehler/biophys/4b.html
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/alevel/physics/electric-potential/electric-potential-v.html
Where next?
The next topic considers capacitors and dielectrics.
Answers to revision questions

1. Electric potential at any point is the potential energy of each Coulomb of
positive charge placed at that point.
2. 14 986 V
3. a) + + + +
– – – –

b)
Field lines

Lines of euipotential
Grade 12 87
4. 0.0014 J
5. Assume all the KE is converted to electrical potential.
Q
½mv2 = q
4π ε0 r
Qq
5.1 × 10–13 =
4π ε0 r
Qq 92 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 2 × 1.6 × 10–19
r = =
4π ε0 × 5.1 × 10–13 4π × 8.85 × 10–12 × 5.1 × 10–13
= 8.3 × 10–14 m

This section should 4.3 Capacitors and dielectrics

fill approximately
4 periods of
• Derive the formula for a parallel plate capacitor (from Gauss’s law),
including the use of a dielectric.
• Define the dielectric constant.
• Explain qualitatively the charge and discharge of a capacitor in series
with a resistor.
• Explain the behavior of an insulator in an electric field.
• Define electric energy density and derive the formula for the energy
density for an electric field using a parallel plate capacitor.
• Solve problems involving capacitances, dielectrics and energy stored in a
capacitor.

Capacitors and capacitance
SA Work with a partner on quiz questions on topic 2.4 of Grade 10. Discuss answers.
MA With a partner, make notes in a form of your choice on capacitors and capacitance.
CA Activity 4.16 in small groups.
Gauss’s law and capacitance
SA With a partner, write down Gauss’s law. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, make notes on Gauss’s law and capacitance.
CA Write down two things you have learnt in this lesson.
How capacitors are constructed
SA With a partner, write down one thing you can remember about the construction of capacitors
from Grade 10. Feed back ideas.
MA Work in groups to produce a poster about how capacitors are constructed.
CA Discuss dielectric materials in small groups and make a short summary.
88 Grade 12
Using capacitors and electric energy density

SA With a partner, write down a use of capacitors. Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, discharge a capacitor and then make a summary about the uses of
capacitors and electric energy density.
Starting off
Students last met capacitors in topic 2.4 of Grade 10. Devise a short quiz to bring
this learning back to the front of students’ minds. Borrow a copy of the Grade 10
Students’ Book to help you..

Ask students to make their own notes in a form of their choice on capacitors and
The answers are 7.2
capacitance. These notes should be suitable for an aide memoire for a presentation × 10–6 F, 0.0004 V,
to a small group of their class mates. Students should then work in small groups to 2.5 × 10 −10 C.
complete Activity 4.16.
Discuss how Gauss’s law relates to capacitance. Ask students to make notes from
the Students’ Book.
We then move on to discuss how practical capacitors are constructed and what
factors influence the size of the capacitance. Students studied this in Grade 10
so it should be familiar. Ask them to work in groups to produce a poster about
how capacitors are constructed and the factors that influence the size of the
capacitance.
Lead a discussion on dielectric materials, using the information in the Students’
Book as a starting point.
Show students how to use a Leyden jar. Give them an opportunity to come and
charge and discharge the jar.
Students should then experiment with connecting capacitors in series and in
parallel and observing the effects of the two arrangements. They should carry out
the activities described in the text. We then move on to discuss the energy stored
The answers are:
in a capacitor – again, this should largely be revision for students. However, here 0.06 F, 0.03 J, 1.5
we do consider the V/Q graph and what the area under the graph represents. × 10–8 C, 0.0000015
Students need to be encouraged to look carefully at the axes of graphs to see what J, 600 V, 0.0012 F.
they are showing before attempting to answer any question! The activity gives
students an opportunity to apply the energy formula.
Make sure that students understand the short section about Electric energy
density. Students should now be given the opportunity to discharge a capacitor
using the information given in the Students’ Book. They should then make a
summary about uses of capacitors.
Complete the unit by asking students to research and report on an industrial
process that uses electrostatics.
Grade 12 89
Activities
• Poster about how capacitors are constructed and the factors that influence the
size of the capacitance
• Charge and discharge the Leyden jar
• Discharge a capacitor
• Research and report on an industrial process which uses electrostatics
Resources
http://physics.info/dielectrics/
www.youtube.com/watch?v=sg1KZqi4tQM
Where next?
Students will meet capacitors again in Unit 7.

1. Capacitance is the ability to store charge. It is charge per unit volt.
2. In section 4.1 we used Gauss’s law to show the field between two parallel plates
is given by:
E=σ
ε0
where σ was the charge per unit area on each plate. Therefore this relationship
can be written as:
E=σ Q
ε0 = Aε0
The potential difference between each plate may be given by:
V = Ed
Therefore
V = (Q / Aε0) d
V = Qd
Aε0
Substituting this in to our defining equation for capacitance we get:
C= Q
V
C = Q / (Qd / Aε0)
This cancels to give:
C = ε0A
d
This equation gives the capacitance of two parallel plates in a vacuum.
3. A dielectric is an electrical insulator that may be polarised by an electric field.
This has the effect of dramatically increasing the charge stored at a given p.d.
A dielectric contains a series of dipoles (or molecules that will become dipoles
when a field is applied). In this case the dipole is just simply a molecule with
positive and negative ends. These dipoles are usually randomly organised.
90 Grade 12
As seen in section 4.1, when an electric field is applied to the dielectric charges
do not flow through the material (like they would in a conductor), but they do
cause the dipoles to rotate and line up with the
electric field.
The use of a dielectric dramatically increases the permittivity of the region in
between the plates and so allows much more charge to be stored at the same p.d.
4. a) i) CTOT = 1
1+ 1
6 (3 + 3)
= 3 µF
ii) For the single 6µF capacitor
Q = CV
= 6 × 10–6 × 30
= 1.8 × 10–4 C
For each of the two 3 µF capacitors
Q = CV
= 3 × 10–6 × 30
= 0.9 × 10–4 C
iii) The p.d. across the 6 µF capacitor is 30 V
The p.d. across the 3 µF capacitor is 30 V
1 = 1 + 1
b)
TOT 6 3 + y
C
1 1 1
4 – 6 = 3 + y
1 = 1
12 3 + y
y = 9 µF
c) Total charge QTOT = CTOT × V
= 1 × 60
1+ 1
6 12
= 2.40 × 10–4 C
is is the charge on the 6 µF capacitor and the 3 and 9 µF capacitors
Th
in parallel.
–3
The p.d. across the 6 µF capacitor is 240 × 10 = 4 × 10–2 V
6
5. a) i) 0.015 C
ii) 0.01 C
Q = 0.005 = 10 V
b) V =
C 500 × 10–6
c) i) E = ½CV2 = ½ × 1000 × 10–6 × 152
= 0.1125 J
ii) 0.0375 J
Grade 12 91
6. a) 1.39 × 10–12 F
b) 3.34 × 10–11 C
7. a) parallel
b) The plates move to become more aligned, increasing the area of overlap,
and thus capicitance.
ε ε A –6
8. C = 0 r A = Cd = 0.5 × 10 ×–12 0.00025 = 6 m2
d ε0 εr 8.85 × 10 × 2.3
9. E = ½CV = ½ × 10 × 10 × (2 × 104)2 = 2000 J
2 –6
10. The flashing neon is caused by the capicitor charging and discharging. Initially
the neon is unlit until the voltage across the capacitor reaches Vmin and
the neon lights. the capacitor now charges through the neon due to its low
resistance, until the voltage across it drops below 0.75 Vmin. The neon now goes
off increasing its resistance and the capacitor begins to charge again.
V
VMIN
0.75 VMIN

1. In experiments to determine the nature of fundamental particles, scientists can
use a mass spectrometer to find the ratio of charge to mass for particles. This
ratio is a fundamental property of a charged particle and identifies it uniquely,
but until the determination of the value of the charge on an electron, it was
impossible to break down the ratio and find the mass of that particle. In 1909,
Robert Millikan developed an experiment which determined the charge on a
single electron.
Although he had a variety of extra bits and pieces to make it function
successfully, the basic essence of Millikan’s experiment is pure simplicity. The
weight of a charged droplet of oil is balanced by the force from a uniform
electric field, so that the oil drop remains stationary. Using the same apparatus,
Millikan undertook variations, one in which there was no field and the
downward terminal velocity of the oil drop was measured, and another in
which the field was adjusted to provide a stronger force than gravity and the
terminal velocity upwards was measured.
When oil is squirted into the upper chamber from the vaporiser, friction gives
the droplets an electrostatic charge. This will be some (unknown) multiple of
the charge on an electron, because electrons have been added or removed due
to the friction. As the drops fall under gravity, some will go through the anode
and enter the uniform field created between the charged plates. If the field is
switched off, they will continue to fall at their terminal velocity.
92 Grade 12
2.
Free body diagram for suspended ball
EHT supply
Light
insulating l
filament
Shadows cast on
θ
screen by use of
A distant light source Tension in suspension
B
T
Insulating
rod Graph paper Electrostatic force
A B F
Sphere A is charged to constant potential from EHT supply.
Sphere B is charged by touching it with a flying lead from EHT x
supply to differing potentials V B, giving different charges on it.
Since QB = CVB, the charge on B is proportional to its potential. r
Weight W
x x
(µ F) (µ F)
VB
0 2
0
1/r
,
Graphs showing how results from the investigation may be plotted to verify Coulomb s law
F = Tsin θ
W = Tcos θ
F = tan θ
W
F = W tan θ
Force F (10–3 N) 35.5 63.1 142 568

Distance r (10–3 m) 36 27.0 18.0 9.0
3. E = V = 2000 = 200 000 V/m

d 0.01
Top plate
Alpha X
particle
Bottom plate
Grade 12 93
4. F = ma
a = F/m where m = me = 9.1 × 10-31 m/s2
a = 2 × 10-14 / 9.1 × 10-31
Force
= 2.2 × 1016 m/s2 10-11N
v2 – u2 = 2as 8
v2 = 2 × 2.2 × 1016 × 0.025
6
v = 1.1 × 1015 m/s
4
5 10 15 20 25 Distance (mm)

5. Electric flux is defined as the electric field multiplied by the area of the surface
perpendicular to the field.
6. V = Ed = 0.64 × 10–3 × 3×106
= 1920 V
7. Force required on sphere
F = W tan θ = 0.05 × 10–3 × 9.81 tan 10
= 8.6 × 10–5 N
Size of field required using F = Eq
E = F = 8.6 × 10–9 = 10 750
–5

q 8 × 10
V = Ed
= 10 750 × 0.1
= 1075 V
8. Field strength at C due to A
1 Q 1 × 5 × 10–6
EA = =
4π ε0 r2 4π × 8.854 × 10–12 × 0.052
_ 18 × 106
= 17.9 × 106 ~ 5
Field strength at C due to B 2 23°
1 Q 1 1 × 10–5
EB = = × 5
4π ε0 r2 4π × 8.854 × 10–12 0.052
_ 36 × 106
= 35 × 9 × 106 ~
7°
Resultant field at C is 52 × 106
9. i) PE = mgh = 50 × 10–3 × 9 × 81 × 100
= 49 J
ii) EEPE = Vq = 300 × 100 × 1 × 10–10 = 3 × 10–6 J
10. E = δ/ε0 Q = σA = 5.65 × 10–13 × π × 0.052
σ= E = 500 = 4.4 × 1011 C
ε0 8.854 × 10–12
= 5.65 × 1013
11. The amount of charge a capacitor can store per volt applied across it.
94 Grade 12
12.
1.5 V 200 µF
470 kΩ

V = IR
I= 1.5 = 3.2 µA
470 × 103
Vc = Vs (I – e–t/RC)
RC = 470 × 103 × 200 × 10–6

= 94
t (s) 5 30 70 100 150
Vc 0.07 0.4 0.78 0.98 1.2

Vc
Energy stored = ½CV2

= ½ × 200 × 10–6 × 1.52
= 2.25 × 10–4 J
13. CTOT = 1 = 100 = 11.11 µF

1 + 1 9
25 5 + 10 + 5
14. Maximum of 12 µF when all in parallel, and minimum of 0.28 µF when all in
series, with many others inbetween.
15. Energy stored E = ½QV = ½ × 10 000 × 10–6 × 12 = 0.06 J
ΔT = 0.06 = 0.103 K
1.5 × 10–3 × 390
16. Assuming resistor value to be 5 × 104 Ω
Using t = RC
C = t
R
= 10 × 104
5
= 2 × 10–4 F
= 200 μF
ε0εRA 8.85 × 10–12 × 2.3

17. C = = × 50 × 10–4
d 0.1 × 10–3

= 1.02 nF
Grade 12 95
Steady electric current and Unit 5
circuit properties

fill approximately
teaching time. • Define the terms resistance, resistivity, conductivity, current density, drift
velocity.
• Define the units coulomb, volt, ohm, watt, joule.
• Identify that current density is a vector quantity.
• Express drift velocity in terms of current density, number of charge
carriers per unit volume and elementary charge.
• Explain how the sources of e.m.f. produce a p.d.
• Express the relationship between e.m.f., terminal p.d. and internal
resistance.
• Analyse, in quantitative terms, circuit problems involving potential
difference, current and resistance.
• Compute the p.d. across a resistor in a circuit.
• State Kirchoff’s junction rule.
• Identify that Kirchoff’s junction rule is a consequence of the law of
conservation of charge.
• State Kirchoff’s loop rule.
• Identify that the loop rule is a consequence of the conservation of
energy.
• Use Kirchoff’s rules to solve related circuit problems.
• Identify the sign conventions appropriately in applying Kirchoff’s rules.
• Solve problems involving network resistors.
• Describe how a galvanometer can be modified to measure a wide range of
currents and potential differences.
• Describe how shunt resistors are used to measure a wide range of currents
and p.d.
• Calculate shunt and multiplier value for use with a meter to give different
current and voltage ranges.
• Solve problems in which a meter resistance is involved.
• Identify and appropriately use equipment for measuring potential
difference, electrical current, and resistance (e.g. use multimeters and a
galvanometer to make various measurements in an electrical circuit, use
an oscilloscope to show the characteristics of the electrical current).
96 Grade 12
Unit 5: Steady electric current and circuit properties
• Explain the principle of the Wheatstone bridge and solve problems

involving it.
• Explain the principle of the potentiometer and how it can be used for
measurement of e.m.f, p.d., resistance and current.
• Solve problems involving potentiometer circuits.
5.1 Basic principles This section should

fill approximately
4 periods of
• Define the terms resistance, resistivity, conductivity, current density,
drift velocity.
• Define the units coulomb, volt, ohm, watt, joule.
• Identify that current density is a vector quantity.
• Express drift velocity in terms of current density, number of charge
carriers per unit volume and elementary charge.
• Explain how the sources of e.m.f. produce a p.d.
• Express the relationship between e.m.f., terminal p.d. and internal
resistance.
• Analyse, in quantitative terms, circuit problems involving potential
difference, current and resistance.
• Compute the p.d. across a resistor in a circuit.

Conduction electrons, conductivity, resistivity, resistance and drift velocity
SA Produce a mind map on the uses and applications of electricity in small groups. Feed back
ideas.
MA Activity 5.1 in small group.
How does a source of e.m.f. produce a p.d.?
SA Activity 5.3 in small group.
The relationship between e.m.f., terminal p.d. and internal resistance
SA Worked example on page 207 of Students’ Book with a partner without given solution.
Feed back ideas.
CA Report on activity with a partner.
Grade 12 97
Combining resistors
SA With a partner, write down the formulae for combining resistors in series and in parallel.
Feed back ideas.

Ask students to work in small groups to produce a mind map on the uses and
If the number of applications of electricity. After a short period of time (say 10 minutes) bring the
ball bearings is class back together and discuss ideas.
increased then the
average speed of
the ball bearing Teaching notes
will decrease for
a given angle of Begin by making sure that students understand that an electric current is a flow
the board. If the of charge. The first two worked examples make sure that students can use the
angle of the board relationship between charge, current and time. Move on to talk about conduction
is increased and electrons – students will learn more about the structure of the atom in unit 8, but
the number of ball for now they just need to realise that in conductors there are electrons that are free
bearings is kept to move within the lattice, as shown in Figure 5.1.
constant, then the
average speed of Now explain how conduction electrons are involved in a material’s conductivity,
the ball bearings resistivity and resistance. Explain the relationship between resistance, length of
will increase. wire, resistivity and cross-sectional area. Students are given practice in using this
relationship in Worked examples 5.3 and 5.4.
Drift velocity is an important concept and Activity 5.1 is an analogy for drift
velocity. Students should carry it out in small groups.
Now discuss the relationship between current density and drift velocity. Activity
5.2 is an opportunity for students to consolidate their learning so far.
Ohm’s law: V = IR Activity 5.2: Answer
Suppose a current I Outcomes will vary but the following may be helpful.
flows for t seconds conductivity
in a component.
σ = ρl
The charge that ρ = RA
flowed led to l
E joules being Resistance resistivity
dissipated in the R
current
component.
density J = σE
We know that
Q = It
E = QV
This means that drift
E = ItV velocity vd
J
Power = energy vd =
nq
time
P = ItV
t
= IV Now move on to consider how a source of e.m.f. produces a p.d. Activity 5.3 is an
V = IR so P = I2R opportunity to students to revisit learning from Grade 10.
98 Grade 12
Plotting V−I characteristics is a fairly straightforward practical activity for Activity 5.5: Answer
students.
Students should
Activity 5.4: Answer realise that the
gradient of their
Students need to know that electricity is charged at a rate for each 1 kW for graph gives the
1 hour (1 kWh). value for the
resistance of 50
To run a 75 W bulb for 100 hours would use 75 × 100 Wh = 7500 Wh = 7.5 kWh
cm of wire. They
This would cost 7.5 × 10 c = 75 c should divide this
To run a 15 W bulb for 100 hours would use 15 × 100 Wh = 1500 Wh = 1.5 kWh calue by 50 to find
the resistance per
This would cost 1.5 × 10 c = 15 c cm.
Students should use their own estimates of time to carry out similar calculation of
savings.
Students’ own
Students are asked to consider how much money could be saved on electricity bills results.
by using 15 W bulbs instead of 75 W bulbs.
Next, consider the relationship between e.m.f., terminal p.d. and internal Activity 5.7: Answer
resistance. Students should attempt the worked example on page 207 of the
Students’ Book, with a partner, without the given solution. They should then Students should use
attempt Activity 5.6 in a small group, before writing a report on the activity with a circuits like these.
partner.
This section concludes by showing students how to analyse circuits. Activity 5.7 A
should be carried out in small groups before the review questions are tackled by
students working with a partner.
V
Activities
• An analogy for drift velocity A
• Summarising your learning
• Remembering Ohm’s law and power
• Plotting V−I characteristics for an unknown resistance
• Saving on your electricity bill
V
• E = V + Ir
• Verification of the laws of combinations of resistors
Resources
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circuits/
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html
Where next?
The next section considers Kirchoff ’s rules, which are important tools for analysis
of circuits.
Grade 12 99
email:- gamebaye.gb@gmail.com , facebook:-gamebaye@yahoo.com or Gemachu Abi
Beyisa

1. a)
Q (C) I (A) t (s)
? 0.2 10 × 60 = 600
Use Q = It
= 0.2 × 600
= 120 C
b) Charge on 1 electron = 1.6 × 1019 C
Number of electrons = 120 19
1.6 × 10
= 7.5 × 1020
2. a)
Q (C) I (A) t (s)
? 7500 240 × 10–3
Use Q = It
Q = 7500 × 240 × 10–3
= 1800 C
b) One electron has charge 1.6 × 1019 C
Number of electrons = 1800 –19
1.6 × 10
= 1.125 × 1022
3. a) Copper has a lower resistivity than zinc.
b)
ρ (Ω m) R (Ω) l (m) A (m2)
? 0.13 1 (0.2 × 10–3)2 × 3.14
Use ρ = RA
l
= 0.13 × (0.2 × 10 ) × 3.14
–3 2
1
= 1.63 × 10–8 Ω m
c) The actual value is not 1.63 × 10–8 Ω m. The calculated value is slightly
different because we used an aproximation, 3.14, for the value of π.
4.
J (A/m2) σ (S/m) E (V)
? 63.0 × 10 6 12
Use J = σ E
= 63.0 × 106 × 12
= 7.56 × 108 A/m2
100 Grade 12
5.
Vd (m/s) n A (m2) I (a) q (C)
0.00028 ? 2 × 10–3 1.5 1.6 × 10–19
Vd = I

nqA
n = I
VdqA
= 1.5
0.00028 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 2 × 10–3
= 1.5
8.96 × 10–26
= 1.67 × 1025
6. a)
p.d. (V) I (A) R (Ω)
6 ? 30 + 40 + 50 + 1 = 121.5
Use Ohm’s law V = IR
I=V
R
= 6
121.5
= 0.05 A
b)
P (W) I (A) R (Ω)
? 0.05 120
Use P = I2R
= 0.052 × 120
= 0.3 W
c) Power in internal resistance
P (W) I (A) R (Ω)
? 0.05 1.5
P = I2R
= 0.052 × 1.5
= 3.75 × 10–3 W
Total power = 0.3 + 3.75 × 10–3
= 0.30375
Percentage wasted in internal resistor
3.75 × 10–3
0.30375 × 100 = 1.23%
d) P.d. across the 40 Ω resistor
p.d. (V) I (A) R (Ω)
? 0.05 40
= 0.05 × 40
= 2 V
Grade 12 101
7. a) i) 10 Ω
A B
1 = 1 + 1 15 Ω
RT 10 15
= 15 + 10
150
= 25
150
RT = 150 = 6 Ω
25
6Ω 30 Ω
ii) This resistence is equivalent to
RT = 6 Ω + 30 Ω
= 36 Ω
b) When variable resistor is 0 Ω, resistance between A and B will be
1 = 1 +1
RT 10 0
RT = 0 Ω
10 Ω 30 Ω
So resistance will be equivalent to
RT = 30 Ω
V = IR
I=V
R
= 12
30
= 0.4 A
When variable resistor is 15 Ω , RT is 36 Ω (from a) ii)).
I=V
R
= 12
36
= 0.33 A
This section should 5.2 Kirchoff’s rules

fill approximately
2 periods of
• State Kirchoff’s junction rule.
• Identify that Kirchoff’s junction rule is a consequence of the law of
• State Kirchoff’s loop rule.
• Identify that the loop rule is a consequence of the conservation of
energy.
• Use Kirchoff’s rules to solve related circuit problems.
• Identify the sign conventions appropriately in applying Kirchoff’s rules.
102 Grade 12

Kirchoff’s junction rule
SA With a partner, write down the law of conservation of charge. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, work through Worked example 5.12 without given solution. Feed back ideas.
CA With a partner, make a poster to explain Kirchoff’s junction rule and how it follows from
Kirchoff’s loop rule
SA With a partner, explain how Kirchoff’s loop rule follows from conservation of energy.
MA With a partner, summarise pages 215–218 in the Students’ Book.
Starting off
Ask students to work with a partner to write down the law of conservation of
charge. Take feed back after about 5 minutes.
Teaching notes
Ask students to explain how Kirchoff ’s junction rules follows from the law of
conservation of charge. Students should then work through Worked example 5.12
without the given solution and feed back ideas for solution before you reveal the
given solution. Students should then work with a partner to explain Kirchoff ’s
junction rule and how it follows from conservation of charge, which is an effective
way to summarise the learning in this lesson.
Kirchoff ’s loop rule follows from conservation of energy. Ask students to work
with a partner to explain why this is the case. Take feed back of ideas before asking
students to work with the same partner to summarise Students’ Book pages 215–218.
Students should then work with a partner to tackle the review questions for this
section.
Activities
• Poster to explain how Kirchoff ’s junction rule follows from conservation of
charge
Resources
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_4.html
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/alevel/physics/kirchoffs-laws-and-potential-dividers/
kirchoffs-first-and-second-laws.html
Where next?
Students will need the concepts in this section to understand how shunt resistors
are used in ammeters and voltmeters.
Grade 12 103

1. a) Kirchoff states that the total current flowing into a point is equal to the
total current flowing out of a point.
b) The junction rule is a consequence of the conservation of charge since
charge cannot appear or disappear, so the total charge going into a point
must be the same as the total charge going out of a point.
c)
ID
D 4.8 A
6Ω A I1
T S
C I2
I2 30 Ω B
Use Kirchoff ’s junction rule at junction S.

Current in = 4.8 A
Current out = I1 + I2
4.8 A = I1 + I2 1
R1 = 3R2 and, since R1 and R2 are in parallel, the p.d. (V) across them will
be the same.
From Ohm’s law:
V = 3I1R2 = I2R2
3I1 = I2 2
Substitute from 2 into 1
4.8 A = I1 + 3I1
4.8 A = I
1
4
= 1.2 A
Substitute back into 2 I2 = 3 × 1.2
= 3.6 A
Now use Kirchoff ’s junction rule at juntion T.
Current in = I1 + I2 = 4.8 A
Current out = ID = 4.8 A
So at A, current is 1.2 A
at B, current is 3.6 A
at C, current is 3.6 A
at D, current is 4.8 A
2. a) Consider junction S.
Use Kirchoff ’s junction rule 1.6 V
92 Ω 0.4 A
1.6 = 0.4 + I S
1.2 A = I I
36 Ω
b) Voltmeter reads p.d. across 36 Ω resistor.
V
= 1.2 × 36
= 43.2 V
104 Grade 12
3.
12 V To find reading on ammeter we
need the value of I.
A
8Ω I1 I
R1 A
S
I2 I1
8Ω 16 Ω R2
I2
V

The circuit can be simplified to the above.
R2 = 3R1 1
Use Kirchoff ’s loop rule, we know that

12 V = I1R1 = I2R2 2
Substitute from 1 into 2
12 = I1R1 = I23R1
12 = I = 3I
1 2
R1
= 1.5 A
I1 = 1.5 A I2 = 0.5 A
Now use Kirchoff ’s junction rule at junction S.
I = I1 + I2
=1.5 A + 0.5 A
= 2 A
So reading on ammeter is 2 A.
To find reading of voltmeter, we need p.d. across 16 Ω resistor.
Current through 16 Ω is I2 = 0.5 A
p.d. = 16 × 0.5
= 8 V
5.3 Measuring instruments This section should

fill approximately
2 periods of
• Describe how a galvanometer can be modified to measure a wide range of
currents and potential differences.
• Describe how shunt resistors are used to measure a wide range of currents
and p.d.
• Calculate shunt and multiplier value for use with a meter to give different
current and voltage ranges.
• Solve problems in which a meter resistance is involved.
• Identify and appropriately use equipment for measuring potential
difference, electrical current, and resistance (e.g. use multimeters and a
galvanometer to make various measurements in an electrical circuit, use
an oscilloscope to show the characteristics of the electrical current).
Grade 12 105

Modifying a galvanometer to measure currents and p.d.s
SA With a partner, write an explanation of how shunts are used in ammeters and voltmeters.
Feed back ideas.
CA Worked examples 5.17 and 5.18 to be tackled with a partner without given solutions. Feed
back ideas.
Using electrical measuring instruments
SA With a partner, explain why an ammeter should be used in series in a circuit and a voltmeter
in parallel. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 5.9 in small groups
Starting off
Students should be asked to read Students’ Book pages 220–223 and then work
with a partner to write an explanation of how shunts are used in ammeters and
voltmeters. After about 10 minutes, they should be asked to feed back ideas.

Students should be asked to complete Activity 5.8 in small groups.
Converting a
galvonometer to Students should then tackle Worked examples 5.17 and 5.18 with a partner
a ammeter and a without the given solutions, and feed back ideas on the solutions before you reveal
voltmeter the given solutions.
Student’s own Students should work with a partner to explain why an ammeter is used in series
results with a circuit and a voltmeter is used in parallel with a given part of a circuit. They
should feed back ideas after about 5 minutes.
Activity 5.9: Answer Students should then work in small groups on Activity 5.9 before they tackle the
review questions for this section with a partner.
Using electrical
measuring
instruments Activities
Student’s posters
should include • Converting a galvanometer to an ammeter and voltmeter
details about what
• Using electrical measuring instruments
each instrument
measures, and
how it should be
connected in a Resources
circuit to function http://www.studyphysics.ca/30/voltamm.pdf
correctly.
http://www.yenka.com/content/item.action?quick=1i7
Where next?
The final section in this unit considers two particular measuring circuits: the
Wheatstone bridge and potentiometer.
106 Grade 12

1.
4.997 A
40 Ω
5A
0.003 A

Use Kirchoff ’s junction rule at X: 5 – 0.003 = 4.997 A
This is the current that goes through R.
VXY must drive 0.003 A through the coil.
VXY IR = 0.003 × 40 = 0.12 V
This is also the p.d. across the resistor R.
p.d. (V) I (A) R (Ω)
0.12 4.997 ?
R = V
I
= 0.12
4.997
= 0.024 Ω
2.
R 40 Ω

In this case a current of 0.003 A flows between X and Y.
If the p.d. between X and Y is to be 5 V
p.d. (V) I (A) RT (Ω)
5 0.003 40 + R
Use Ohm’s law R = V
T
I
40 + R = 5
0.003
40 + R = 1666.67 Ω
R = 1626 Ω
3. Before the ammeter was added, the total resistance was 300 Ω.
When the ammeter is added the resistance is (300 + R) Ω
p.d. (V) I (A) RT (Ω)
9 0.015 300 + R
Grade 12 107
Use Ohm’s law

300 + R = 9
0.015
= 600
R = 600 – 300
= 300 Ω
4. a) In series
b) In parallel
This section should 5.4 The Wheatstone bridge and potentiometer

fill approximately
5 periods of
involving it.
• Explain the principle of the potentiometer and how it can be used for
measurement of e.m.f, p.d., resistance and current.
• Solve problems involving potentiometer circuits.

Using a Wheatstone bridge
SA Activity 5.10 in a small group.
CA With a partner, write a report on Activity 5.11.
Applications of a Wheatstone bridge
SA With a partner, write down what you have learnt about a Wheatstone bridge. Feed back ideas.
CA Group presentations.
Using a potential divider circuit to measure and compare e.m.f.
SA Activity 5.13 in a small group.
CA With a partner, write a report on activity 5.14.
Using a potential divider to find internal resistance of a cell and to measure current
SA With a partner, write down a definition of internal resistance. Feed back ideas.
CA Activity 5.16 in a small group.
Applications of a potentiometer
SA With a partner, summarise the applications of a potential divider that you have explored so
far. Feed back ideas.
108 Grade 12

Explain the basic principles of the Wheatstone bridge before students attempt
Activity 5.10 in a small group. Using a Wheatstone
bridge (1)
Student’s own
Teaching notes results.
Students should carry out Activity 5.11 in a small group, before writing a report
on this activity with a partner. Activity 5.11: Answer
Students should then be asked to work with a partner to write down what they
have learnt so far about a Wheatstone bridge before carrying out Activity 5.12 in a Using a Wheatstone
small group. bridge (2)
Groups should present the results of their research. Student’s own

results.
Move on to consider a potential divider. Students should carry out Activities 5.13
and 5.14 in a small group, before working with a partner to write a report on
Activity 5.14. Activity 5.12: Answer
A Wheatstone
Activity 5.13: Answer bridge is used to
accurately measure
How could a potential dvider circuit be used to measure e.m.f? resistance.
Using such a circuit you can measure p.d. across known resistances and then apply Applications
Kirchoff’s loop rule to find e.m.f. (this assumes supply voltage has negligible include strain
internal resistance). gauges, break
detection in
electrical power
Activity 5.14: Answer lines, temperature
measurement.
Using a potential divider circuit to compare the e.m.f. of two cells.
Activity 5.13 can be extended. The measurements taken in Activity 5.13 can be
repeated with a second cell and ythen the two e.m.f.s can be compared.
How could a
Before carrying out Activity 5.15 and Activity 5.16 in a small group, students potential divider
should work with a partner to write a definition of internal resistance and feed be used to measure
back ideas after about 5 minutes. current.
Find p.d. across
one known resistor
Activity 5.15: Answer then apply Ohm’s
law to this resistor
to calculate current
Using a potential divider circuit to find the internal resistance of a cell.
flowing through
Measure the p.d. across each resistor. Use E = V + Ir and find the difference both resistors (it is
between the sum of the two measured p.d.s and the supply voltage. This is the Ir the same as they
term. Measure the current I and calculate r. are in series).
Now ask students to summarise what they have learnt so far about the applications
of a potential divider with a partner. Allow about 10 minutes for this before asking
students to feed back ideas.
Grade 12 109

Students should tackle Activity 5.17 in a small group before they work with
a partner to tackle the review questions for this section and the end of unit
Applications of a questions.
potentiometer
These include audio
control, position
Activities
transducers, • Using a Wheatstone bridge
dimmer switches.
• Applications of a Wheatstone bridge
• How could a potential divider circuit be used to measure e.m.f.?
• Using a potential divider circuit to compare the e.m.f. of two cells
• Using a potential divider circuit to find the internal resistance of a cell
• How could a potential divider circuit be used to measure current?
• Applications of a potentiometer
Resources
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus/Electrical_Measurements/Wheatstone_
Bridge/Wheatstone_Bridge.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potentiometer
Where next?
Students will study alternating current in unit 7.

1. R 100 Ω
G
200 Ω 400 Ω

An unknown resistance is placed in a circuit along with three known
resistances.
The point at which no current flows through the galvanometer is found.
This is the point at which, in the above circuit
R = 200
100 400
R = 200 × 100
400
= 50 Ω
2. 400 = 800 400 Ω 800 Ω
800 R
G
0.5 = 800 800 Ω R
0.5
= 1600 Ω
110 Grade 12
3. If the two resistances and the supply voltage are known, then the p.d. across
each resistor can be calculated using the formula.
R2
V2 = × Vs for the p.d. across R2
R1 + R2
R1
× Vs for the p.d. across R1
V1 =
R1 + R2
4.

p.d. between X and Y = x V
= 6 – 3.6 V
= 2.4 V
Use Ohm’s law and current same in 800 Ω resistor and RXY
3.6 = 800 × I
2.4 = RXY × I
2.4 = RXY
3.6 800
2.4 × 800 = R Ω
XY
3.6
RXY = 533.3 Ω
= 0.5333 kΩ
Answers to End of unit questions

1.
Q (C) I (A) t (s)
? 50 × 10–3 6 × 60 × 60
Use Q = It
= 50 × 10–3 × 6 × 60 × 60
= 50 × 10–3 × 21 600
= 1080 C
2. a)
p.d. (V) I (A) R (Ω)
6 8.6 ?
Use V = IR
R=V
I
= 6
8.6
= 0.698 Ω
Grade 12 111
b)
ρ (Ω m) R (Ω) A (m2) l (m)
π × (0.7 × 10–3)2
? 0.698 0.075
= 1.5386 × 10–6
Use ρ = RA
l
= 0.698 × 1.5386 × 10–6
0.075
= 1.43 × 10–5 Ω m
3.
J (A/m2) σ (S/m) E (V/m)
1 = 1.79 × 107
? –8 6
5.6 × 10
Use J = σE
= 1.79 × 107 × 6
= 1.074 × 108 A/m2
4.
n A (m2) I (A) Vd (m/s) q (C)
8 × 1028 1.5 × 10–6 0.5 ? 1.6 × 10–19
Use Vd = I

nqA
= 0.5
8 × 1028 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 1.5 × 10–6

= 0.5
19 200
= 2.6 × 10–5 m/s
5. a) Kirchoff ’s loop rule states that in any closed loop in a circuit the sum of the
e.m.f is equal to the sum of the p.d.s.
b) E.m.f is energy per unit charge transferred into electrical energy and
p.d. is energy transferred from electrical energy. Since energy is always
conserved. In a circuit, the electrical energy is supplied by the battery (the
e.m.f) is used in the circuit as p.d.s across the components. No surplus
energy arrives back at the battery. This is Kurchoff ’s loop rule.
c) A I2
B I2
C I4
D I4
E 3I4
112 Grade 12
6. a) From Figure 5.44 Vs = I(10 + 10 + r)

= 0.25 (20 + r) 1
From Figure 5.45
10 r
=R
10
R=5+r
Vs = 0.67 (5 + r) 2
Equate 1 and 2
0.25(20 + r) = 0.67 (5 + r)
5 + 0.25r = 3.35 + 0.67r
1.65 = 0.42r
1.65 = r
0.42
r = 3.93 Ω
b) E.m.f. = Vs
Substitute value 3.93 Ω for r in 1
Vs = 0.25 (20 + 3.93)
= 0.25 × 23.93
= 5.9825 V
7. The coil of the instrument is drawn in Figure 5.24(a). The current can be
fed into the coil and out again via the hairsprings at top and bottom; no
commutator is needed in this case because the rotation of the coil is restricted
to just a fraction of a turn.
very light
pointer
scale
horseshoe
hair spring magnet
(one end fixed to the
many turns of coil, the other end
copper wire to the framework
of the instrument)
metal pin at top
and bottom,
acting as axles hairspring
jewelled bearing soft iron cylinder
at top and bottom which is fixed

Figure 5.24 The moving-coil galvanometer
Figure 5.24(b) shows a view of the complete arrangement from above. The coil
can rotate inside the gap of a steel horse-shoe magnet whose pole pieces are
curved. The soft iron cylinder which sits in the middle of the coil (but does
not rotate with it) itself gets turned into a magnet because of the presence of
the permanent magnet; one of its effects is to increase the strength of the field
within the gap.
Grade 12 113
8. Different range settings can be achieved by varying the value of the shunt
resistor.
9. R
9.995 A
10 A G

x 60 Ω y
0.005 A
Add shunt R as shown.

Using Kirchoff ’s junction rule, 10 – 0.005 A = 9.995 A through R.
VXY = I × 60
= 0.005 × 60
= 0.3 V
R = 0.3
9.9995
= 0.03 Ω
10. a)
0.005 A G
x 60 Ω

Full scale deflection needs 0.005 A
b) R = V = 10 = 2000 Ω
I 0.005
X = 2000 – 60
= 1940 Ω
11.
R1 R3 R1 R3
=
E
G
R2 Rx
R2 Rx

R1 and R3 are precisely known, and R2 is a calibrated variable resistor, with dial
or scale reading. An unknown resistor is connected (Rx) and R2 adjusted to
give zero reading on the galvonometer.
R
At this point Rx = R2 × 3
R1
12. Potentiometer circuit
Vs
R2 R1
RL

114 Grade 12
13. The potentiometer circuit has a sliding contact and acts as an adjustable potential
divider. With the load resistor RL in place the voltage VL across it will be
VL = R2 Vs
R1 + R2
14. A potentiometer circuit such as that in question 9 can be used to compare
two e.m.f.s if the potential difference is found across each resistor and
then Kirchoff ’s loop rule is applied to find Vs. If Vs is then charged and the
measurements repeated, two values of Vs (e.m.f.s) can be compared.
15. Vs
Vout

The resistance of the thermistor will vary with temperature, this means that
Vout will vary. At low temperatures, Vout will be high and the heater is switched
on. As the temperature rises, Vout falls until it is at a minimum. At this point,
the heater is switched off.

Grade 12 115
Magnetism Unit 6

fill approximately By the end of this unit students should be able to:
12 periods of
teaching time. • Define magnetic field.
• State the properties of magnetic field lines.
• Describe the properties, including the three-dimensional nature, of
magnetic fields.
• Describe the magnetic properties of matter.
• Distinguish between the terms diamagnetic, paramagnetic and
ferromagnetic materials.
• Describe the causes of the Earth’s magnetism.
• Describe the motion of a charged particle in a magnetic fields.
• Identify a moving charge sets up a magnetic field.
• Use the equation F = qv × B to determine the magnitude and direction of
the force.
• Use the expression for the force on a charged particle in a magnetic field.
• Solve problems on the motion of charged particles in electric and
magnetic fields.
• Describe the path if θ ≠ 90°.
• Describe J.J. Thompson’s experiment of charge to mass ratio.
• Determine the value of charge to mass ratio for this specific experiment.
• Derive the expression F = I(l × B).
• Use the expression for the force on a current-carrying conductor in a
magnetic field.
• Determine the magnitude and direction of torque acting on a current loop.
• Define magnetic dipole moment.
• Describe the working mechanism of a direct current motor.
• Describe and illustrate the magnetic field produced by an electric current
along a straight conductor.
• Calculate the magnetic field strength of a straight current carrying wire.
• Analyse and predict using the right hand rule the direction of the
magnetic field produced when electric current flows through a long
straight conductor.
• State Biot−Savart law.
• Apply and use Biot−Savart law to determine the expression for magnetic
field strength of a current element.
116 Grade 12
Unit 6: Magnetism
• State Ampere’s law and use it in solving problems.

• Describe and illustrate the magnetic field produced in a solenoid and
predict its direction using the right hand rule.
• Determine the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field at a
location.
• Resolve the horizontal and vertical components of the Earth’s magnetic
field.
• Describe how a tangent galvanometer works.
6.1 Concepts of magnetic field This section should

fill approximately
1 period of
• Define magnetic field.
• State the properties of magnetic field lines.
• Describe the properties, including the three-dimensional nature, of
magnetic fields.

Magnetic fields
SA With a partner, write a definition of a magnetic field. Feed back ideas.
Starting off
Students have met magnetic fields in earlier grades. Ask them to work with a
partner to write a definition of a magnetic field. After about 5 minutes, take feed
back.
Teaching notes
Ensure that students realise that a magnetic field is a vector quantity. Students
should carry out Activity 6.1 in small groups.
Grade 12 117
Unit 6: Magnetism

Demonstrating the magnetic flux lines around a magnet
a) in two dimensions
S tudents have met this idea in Grade 10 and should come up with an
arrangement like the one shown here.

b) in three dimensions
S tudents could put glycerine (or other transparent oil) containing iron filings
in the clear bottle. They could then suspend the bar magnet in the liquid. The
iron filings would ‘map’ the field of the bar magnet as shown.

F or a horseshoe magnet, students could use the experimental approaches
described above and replace the bar magnet with a horseshoe magnet.
The field is as follows:

N S

Worked example 6.1 is designed to ensure that students are able to use the
formula. The review questions for this section should be tackled by students
working with a partner. This ensures that they are given the opportunity to discuss
their understanding of the concepts and thus consolidate their learning.
Activities
• Demonstrating the magnetic flux lines around a magnet
Resources
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magcon.html
http://studyphysics.ca/2007/30/06_forces_fields/18_apply_mag.pdf
118 Grade 12
Unit 6: Magnetism
Where next?
The next section discusses the Earth and its magnetic field, and different classes of
magnetic materials.

1. A magnetic field is a region where a magnet exerts a force.
2.
S N
N S

3. Put some glycerine (or other transparent oil) in which iron filings are
suspended in a clear plastic bottle. Put a bar magnet in the oil. The iron filings
will align themselves with the magnetic flux lines around the magnet.
4.
Ø (Wb) B (T) sin θ A (m2)
? 20 × 10–3 0.866 10 × 10–4
Use Φ = BA sin θ
= 20 × 10–3 × 10 × 10–4 × 0.866
= 1.73 × 10–5 Wb
6.2 The Earth and magnetic fields This section should

fill approximately
1 period of
• Describe the magnetic properties of matter.
• Distinguish between the terms diamagnetic, paramagnetic and
• Describe the causes of the Earth’s magnetism.

Magnetic properties of matter
SA With a partner, summarise the information about diamagnetic, paramagnetic and
Starting off
It is important that students realise the distinction between the different classes
of materials discussed in this section. While students work in pairs to summarise
the information on page 238 of the Students’ Book, walk around the class and
question students to check understanding.
Grade 12 119
Unit 6: Magnetism

Plotting the Make sure that students understand that the geographic north pole is the
combined magnetic magnetic south pole (and hence the north pole of a compass will point to the
field of the Earth geographic north pole). Make sure that students understand the basis of the
and a bar magnet dynamo theory of the Earth’s magnetism. Students should carry out Activity 6.2
Students should in a small group.
use a small compass Students should tackle the review questions for this section with a partner.
and place it at
various points on
the paper.
Activities
• Plotting the combined magnetic field of the Earth and a bar magnet
Resources
They should plot http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/lookingatearth/29dec_magneticfield.html
the direction of the http://www.geomag.bgs.ac.uk/education/earthmag.html
needle deflection
at the points and,
from these, produce
the magnetic
Where next?
flux lines. The The next section explores the motion of charged particles in a magnetic field.
neutral points are
where there is no
magnetic flux. Answers to review questions
1. All materials are diamagnetic. Diamagnetism is the tendency of a material to
oppose an applied magnetic field.
Paramagnetic materials have unpaired electrons that will tend to align
themselves in the same direction as the applied magnetic field so they
reinforce the field.
Ferromagnetic materials, like paramagnetic materials, have unpaired electrons
but in this case the electrons align with the field and parallel to each other.
This means that, even when the applied field is removed, the electrons in the
material maintain a parallel orientation.
2. There is a theory that circulating electric currents in the molten core of the Earth
produce the magnetic field. The rotation of the Earth plays a part in generating
the currents which are presumed to be the source of the magnetic field.
120 Grade 12
Unit 6: Magnetism
6.3 Motion of charged particles in a magnetic field This section should

fill approximately
3 periods of
• Describe the motion of a charged particle in a magnetic fields.
• Identify a moving charge sets up a magnetic field.
• Use the equation F = qv × B to determine the magnitude and direction of
the force.
magnetic fields.
• Describe the path if θ ≠ 90°.
• Describe J.J. Thompson’s experiment of charge to mass ratio.
• Determine the value of charge to mass ratio for this specific experiment.

The motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field
SA With a partner, attempt Worked examples 6.2 and 6.3 without given solution. Feed back
ideas.
CA Feed back on activity.
The motion of charged particles in electric and magnetic fields
SA With a partner, attempt Worked example 6.4 without given solution. Feed back ideas.
CA Present findings of research.
J. J Thompson’s experiment
SA Explain the steps for finding the charge to mass ratio to a partner.
MA With a partner, make a summary of J. J. Thompson’s experiment and circular motion of
particles in magnetic fields.
Starting off
Students will need to know about the vector cross product for this section. Ask
them to work with a partner to write a definition of the vector cross product.
Teaching notes
Students should attempt Worked examples 6.2 and 6.3 with a partner but without
the given solution. Allow about 10 minutes for this before taking ideas on
solutions and revealing the given solution. Discuss any differences in approach
Grade 12 121
Unit 6: Magnetism
between students’ solutions and the given solutions. This is a valuable exercise for
students. Students should attempt Activity 6.3 in a small group.
Determining the
Allow students the opportunity to feed back ideas on how they tackled the activity.
strength of a
magnetic field
Discuss various approaches.
Use a moving test Ensure that students follow the argument for the derivation of the expression for
charge, measure velocity in a velocity selector before asking them to attempt worked example 6.4
acceleration of with a partner without the given solution. As before, allow about 5 minutes for
charge, F = ma this before taking ideas on solutions. Students should attempt activity 6.4 in a
F small group.
Then B =
qv sin θ
Allow time for students to present the results of their research in a form of their
choice. The ability to communicate scientific ideas clearly and concisely is a
valuable skill for students to develop.
Now move on to explain J. J. Thompson’s experiment. Students should explain
Researching how the text to a partner. To be able to explain content, a student must understand
electric and the argument in order to communicate it to someone else. After doing this
magnetic fields are exercise, students should be equipped to make a summary of the experiment and
used in traditional the information about circular motion of particles in magnetic fields. A mass
televisions and spectrometer is an important piece of analysis equipment.
computer screens.
Students should tackle the review questions for this section with a partner.
Student’s own
research.
Activities
• Determining the strength of a magnetic field
• Researching how electric and magnetic fields are used in traditional television
and computer screens
Resources
http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/physics/mag/node3.html
http://cnx.org/content/m31547/latest/
Where next?
The next topic considers the magnetic force on current-carrying conductors.

1. Bqv = mv
2
r
r= mv
Bq
2.
F (N) q (C) v (m/s) B (T) sin θ
? 1.6 × 10–19 1.4 × 107 5 × 10–5 0.766
F = qvB sin θ
= 1.6 × 10–19 × 1.4 × 107 × 5 × 10–5 × 0.766
= 8.58 × 10–17 N
122 Grade 12
Unit 6: Magnetism
3. For 54Fe
q (C) m (kg) V (V) B (T) r (m)
1.6 × 10–19 1.66 × 10–27 × 54 600 45 × 10–3 ?
= 8.964 × 10–26

q 2V
Use =
m B2r2
r = 2Vm
√ qB2
= (2 × 600 × 8.964 × 10–26)
√ 1.6 × 10–19 × (45 × 10–3)2
= 1.07568 × 10–22
√ 3.24 × 10–22
= √ 0.332
= 0.576 m
For 56Fe
q (C) m (kg) V (V) B (T) r (m)
1.6 × 10–19 1.66 × 10–27 × 56 600 45 × 10–3 ?
= 9.296 × 10–26
As above
r = 2Vm
√ qB2
= (2 × 600 × 9.296 × 10–26)
√ 1.6 × 10–19 × (45 × 10–3)2
= 1.11552 × 10–22
√ 3.24 × 10–22
= √ 0.344
= 0.587 m
For 57Fe
q (C) m (kg) V (V) B (T) r (m)
1.6 × 10–19 1.66 × 10–27 × 57 600 45 × 10–3 ?
= 9.462 × 10–26
As above
r = 2Vm
√ qB2
= (2 × 600 × 9.462 × 10–26)
√ 1.6 × 10–19 × (45 × 10–3)2
= 1.13544 × 10–22
√ 3.24 × 10–22
= √ 0.350
= 0.592 m
Grade 12 123
Unit 6: Magnetism
This section should 6.4 Magnetic force on current-carrying conductors

fill approximately (long, straight, circular loop)
3 periods of
teaching time.
• Derive the expression F = I(l × B).
magnetic field.
• Determine the magnitude and direction of torque acting on a current loop.
• Define magnetic dipole moment.
• Describe the working mechanism of a direct current motor.
• Describe and illustrate the magnetic field produced by an electric current
along a straight conductor.
• Calculate the magnetic field strength of a straight current carrying wire.
• Analyse and predict using the right hand rule the direction of the
magnetic field produced when electric current flows through a long
straight conductor.
• State Biot−Savart law.
• Apply and use Biot−Savart law to determine the expression for magnetic
field strength of a current element.

The force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field
SA Students should discuss Students’ Book page 247–248 with a partner and make a summary of
the main points.
The magnitude and direction of torque acting on current loop and magnetic dipole moment
SA Worked example 6.7 to be attempted with a partner without given solution. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, summarise Students’ Book pages 250–252 in a form of your choice.
CA Worked example 6.9 to be attempted with a partner without given solution. Feed back ideas.
Magnetic force between two wires and Biot−Savart law
SA With a partner, write down the definition of an ampere. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, make a poster to summarise Students’ Book pages 253–254.
124 Grade 12
Unit 6: Magnetism

Students should discuss Students’ Book page 247–248 with a partner and make a The variation of
summary of the main points. magnetic field due
to current carrying
conductor.
Teaching notes Students should
Students have carried out an activity similar to Activity 6.5 in earlier grades but it produce a field
is worth repeating here. Allow time for the groups to discuss the questions posed pattern that is
concentric circles.
and repeat the activity with a different current through the wire.
They should be able
Activity 6.6 is an opportunity for students to explore the transverse force, which to explain that they
they will need to understand before they tackle the torque on a current loop and used the compasses
magnetic dipole moments. to draw the field
lines and see how
concentric circles
Activity 6.6: Answer are different from
the field around a
The effect of the transverse force. bar magnet.
Students should observe that the wire moves one way with the current flowing in
one direction and the opposite way when the current is reversed.
N S
Now discuss the magnitude and direction of torque acting on a current loop.
Students should tackle Worked example 6.7 in the usual way. When the solution
has been discussed, students should summarise the information in the Students’
Book about magnetic dipole moments and the working mechanism of a direct
current motor (they have met a direct current motor in earlier grades). Give credit
to students who select an appropriate form for their summary – again, we are
developing communication skills here. Worked example 6.9 is an opportunity for
students to consolidate their learning.
The definition of an ampere has been met in earlier grades and is the current
needed to produce a force between two wires of 2 × 10−7 N. Students should be
asked to summarise the information about the magnetic force between two wires
and the Biot−Savart law in the form of a poster.
The review questions for this section should be tackled in pairs as usual.
Activities
• The variation of magnetic field due to a current-carrying conductor
• The effect of the transverse force
Resources
http://www.physics247.com/physics-homework-help/magnetic-fields-forces.php
http://www.walter-fendt.de/ph14e/lorentzforce.htm
Where next?
The next section considers Ampere’s law and its applications.
Grade 12 125
Unit 6: Magnetism

1. a)
F (N) B (T) I (A) l (m) sin θ
? 0.5 × 10–3 1.25 0.075 0.766
Use
F = BIl sin θ
= 0.5 × 10–3 × 1.25 × 0.075 ×0.766
= 3.59 × 10–5 N
b)
F (N) m (kg) a (m/s2)
3.59 × 10–5 0.01 ?
Use F = ma
F =a
M
–5
a = 3.59 × 10
0.01
= 3.59 × 10–3 m/s2

2.
T (N m) I (A) A (m2) B (T) sin θ
? 45 8 × 10–4 60 × 10–3 0.707
Use T = IABsin θ
= 4.5 × 8 × 10–4 × 60 × 10–3 × 0.707
= 1.53 × 10–4 N m
3. a)
μ (A m2) N I (A) A (m2)
? 500 1.5 0.5 × 10–4
Use μ = NIA
= 500 × 1.5 × 0.5 × 10–4
= 0.0375 A m2
b)
T (N m) μ (A m2) B sin θ
? 0.0375 25 × 10–3 0.966
Use T = μBsin θ
= 0.0375 × 25 × 10–3 × 0.966
= 9.06 × 10–4 N m
126 Grade 12
Unit 6: Magnetism
4. The principle of the direct current motor is the forced movement of a current-
carrying loop in a magnetic field. The torque on a current-carrying loop will
cause it to rotate. If it is free to move then the loop will rotate continuously.
You can find the direction of the force
using the right hand rule again: the thumb
points in the direction of conventional
current, the index finger in the direction
of the magnetic field and the middle I
+
finger in the direction of the force. A _
direct current motor will have a coil with I
many turns but the diagram simplifies
the situation and just shows a single
rectangular loop.
Figure 6.16 A direct current motor
5.
B (T) μ0 (T m/A) I (A) r (m)
? 4π × 10–7 1 0.15
μI
Use B = 0
2πr
–7
= 4π × 10 × 1
2π × 0.15
–7
= 2 × 10
0.15
= 1.33 × 10–6 T
6.
F (N) μ0 (T m/A) I1 (A) I2 (A) l (m) r (m)
? 4π × 10 –7 1 1 1 1
μ0I1I2l
Use F =
2πr
–7
= 4π × 10 × 1 × 1 × 1
2π × 1
–7
= 4π × 10
2π
= 2 × 10–7 N
Note that this is the way in which the ampere is defined!
7.
dB (T) μ0 (T m/A) I (A) dl (m) nr r (m)
? 4π × 10–7 1.5 0.1 1 0.1
μ0Id l× nr
Use dB =
4πr2
–7
= 4π × 10 × 1.5 ×2 0.1 × 1
4π × 0.1
–7
= 1 × 10 × 1.52 × 0.1 × 1
0.1
–8
= 1.5 × 10
0.01
= 1.5 × 10–6 T
Grade 12 127
Unit 6: Magnetism
This section should 6.5 Ampere’s law and its application

fill approximately
2 periods of
• Describe and illustrate the magnetic field produced in a solenoid and
predict its direction using the right hand rule.

Ampere’s law and a solenoid
SA With a partner, write down Ampere’s law. Feed back ideas.
CA Write a report on the activity with a partner.
The force of attraction between a solenoid and a bar magnet
SA Worked example 6.11 to be tackled with a partner without given solution. Feed back ideas.

Ampere’s law relates magnetic fields to the electric currents. Students need to
Making a solenoid
be able to state Ampere’s law and so you should begin by asking them to write it
Students should down with a partner.
finish up with a
diagram of the
magnetic field for a Teaching notes
solenoid as shown
below.
Students should be questioned about the theory covered in Students’ Book pages
256–258 to check understanding before they attempt Activity 6.7 in a small group.
They should write a report on the activity in collaboration with a partner. Again,
we are developing both spoken and written communication skills here.
Worked example 6.11 should be tackled with a partner without the given solution
Their results for the as before. Students should then attempt activity 6.8 in a small group. They are
second part of the asked to design, carry out and report on an investigation. Give credit for clarity of
activity will depend thought and expression.
on the shape of
wire they used. Activity 6.8: Answer
Investigating the force of attraction between a solenoid and a bar magnet for
different values of current through the solenoid.
As current and magnetic field are directly proportional for a solenoid, students
should discuss that increasing current increases force of attraction. They will need
a solenoid and a bar magnet. They will need to determine the force of attraction
for different currents perhaps by using Newton’s second law on the bar magnet.
They may display results graphically but should record them in tabular form first.
Students should be given credit for a clear report that communicates their method
to the reader.
128 Grade 12
Unit 6: Magnetism
The review questions for this section should be tackled with a partner.
Activities
• Making a solenoid
• Investigate the force of attraction between a solenoid and a bar magnet for
different values of current through the solenoid
Resources
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/amplaw.html
http://physnet2.pa.msu.edu/home/modules/pdf_modules/m138.pdf
Where next?
The next topic discusses the Earth’s magnetism.

1. Ampere’s law states that in any closed loop path, the sum of the length elements
times the magnetic field in the direction of the length element is equal to the
permeability of free space times the electric current enclosed in the loop.
ΣB||Δl = μ0I
ΣBΔlcos θ = μ0Ι
2.
B (T) μ0 (T m/A) I (A) r (m) R (m)
? 4π × 10–7 3 0.005 0.020
μ0Ir
Use B =
2πR2
–7
= 4π × 10 × 3 × 0.005
2π × (0.02)2
–7
= 2 × 10 × 3 × 0.005
(0.02)2
–9
= 3 × 10–2
4 × 10
= 7.5 × 10–6 T
3.
B (T) μ0 (T m/A) n I (A)
? 4π × 10–7 500 1.5
Use B = μ0 n I
= 4π × 10–7 × 500 × 1.5
= 9.42 × 10–4 T
Grade 12 129
Unit 6: Magnetism
4.
B (T) μ0 (T m/A) n I (A) r (m)
? 4π × 10–7 500 2 0.03
μ nI
Use B = 0
2πr
= 4π × 10–7 × 500 × 2
2π × 0.03
= 6.67 × 10–3 T
This section should 6.6 Earth’s magnetism

fill approximately
2 periods of
• Determine the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field at a
location.
• Resolve the horizontal and vertical components of the Earth’s magnetic
field.
• Describe how a tangent galvanometer works.

Horizontal and vertical components of the Earth’s magnetic field
SA With a partner, write a list of evidence that the Earth has a magnetic field.
MA With a partner, summarise Students’ Book pages 261–262.
CA With a partner, write down the main thing you have learnt in this lesson. Feed back ideas.
Tangent galvonometer
SA With a partner, explain what a tangent galvanometer does in a few sentences. Feed back
ideas.
Starting off
Ask students to work with a partner to write a list of evidence that the Earth has a
magnetic field (e.g. compass needles).
Teaching notes
Students should work with a partner to make a summary of Students’ Book pages
233−235. They need to understand how a tangent galvanometer works for
Activity 6.9, so question students as they work to check understanding.
130 Grade 12
Unit 6: Magnetism
Ask students to work with a partner to explain, in a few sentences, how a tangent Activity 6.9: Answer
galvanometer works. To do this successfully, they need to understand the theory
fully. Students should tackle Activity 6.9 in small groups. Using a tangent
galvonometer to
Students should tackle the review questions for this section and the end of unit determine the
questions with a partner. strength of the
Earth’s magnetic
field at your
Activities location.
• Using a tangent galvanometer to determine the strength of the Earth’s This optional
magnetic field at your location activity is
suggested if you
can get access
to a tangent
Resources galvonometer.
http://www.phy6.org/earthmag/dynamos2.htm Alternatively,
students could
http://sos.noaa.gov/datasets/Land/earths_magnetism.html do some research
about the Magnetic
Observatory in
Answers to review questions Addis Ababa.
1. A tangent galvonometer could be used to determine the horizontal component
of the Earth’s magnetic field.
2.
Be (T) Bc tan θ
? ? 2.747
Bc
Use B =
tan θ
Need to find Bc
Bc (T) μ0 (T m/A) n I (A) R (m)
? 4π × 10–7 1000 5 0.1
μ nI
Use B = 0
2R
= 4π × 10–7 × 1000 × 5
0.2
= 0.0314
= 0.0314
2.747
= 0.01 T

1. Put glycerine (or any other trsansparent oil) containing iron filings in a cleaer
bottle. Suspend a bar magnet in the liquiud. The iron filings would ‘map’ the
field of the bar magnet.
Grade 12 131
Unit 6: Magnetism
2.
Φ (Wb) B (T) sin θ A (m2)
? 30 × 10–3 0.707 15 × 10–4
Use Φ = BAsin θ
= 30 × 10–3 × 15 × 10–4 × 0.707
= 3.182 × 10–5 Wb
3. The term magnetism describes how the atoms of materials respond to a
magnetic field.
4. Paramagnetic materials have unpaired electrons that will tend to align
themselves in the same direction as the applied magnetic field so they
reinforce the field. When the field is removed, this alignment disappears.
Ferromagnetic materials, like paramagnetic materials, have unpaired electrons
but in this case the electrons align with the field and parallel to each other.
This means that, even when the applied field is removed, the electrons in the
material maintain a parallel orientation.
5. The dynamo theory says that circulating electric currents in the molten core of
the Earth produce the magnetic field. The rotation of the Earth plays a part in
generating the currents which are presumed to be the source of the magnetic
field.
6.
F (N) q (C) v (m/s) B (T) sin θ
8 × 10–17 1.6 × 10–19 ? 5 × 10–5 0.643
F = qvBsin θ
F
v =
qBsin θ
= 8 × 10–17
1.6 × 10–19 × 5 × 10–5 × 0.643
–17
= 8 × 10 –24
5.144 × 10
= 1.55 × 107 m/s
7. J.J. Thompson used balanced electric and magnetic fields to measure the
charge to mass ratio for an electron. His apparatus is shown in Figure 6.9.
cylindrical + magnetic field

anode into page
cathode
FE
FM
filament
electron
evacuated
− V + beam −
tube
Figure 6.9 Measuring the change to mass ratio of an election
In this case θ = 90°. We know that in such circumstances
E
v=
B
132 Grade 12
Unit 6: Magnetism
We can find another expression for v by using the fact that the electron beam is
accelerated by the potential difference between the cathode and the anode. We
know that the kinetic energy of the electrons is given by
1
mv2 = qV
2
where v is the velocity of an electrons, m is the mass of an electron, q is the
charge on an electron and V is the accelerating potential difference.
We can rearrange this equation to
2qV
v= m
√
If we equate this to the expression for v involving E and B, and square both
sides, we get
E2 2qV
=
B2 m
We can rearrange this to get
q E2
=
m 2VB2
8. A mass spectrometer is a machine that allows chemicals to be separated
according to their mass. A simplified diagram of a mass spectrometer is
shown in Figure 6.10.
ACCELERATION
IONISATION
electromagnet
repeller
(+ve)
DEFLECTION
vaporised
sample
to
vacuum detector
pump
amplifier
DETECTION
Figure 6.10 A mass spectrometer

9. For 12C
q (C) m (kg) V (V) B (T) r (m)
1.6 × 10–19 1.66 × 10–27 × 12 600 45 × 10–3 ?
= 1.992 × 10–26
q 2V
Use = 2 2
m Br
r = 2Vm
√ qB2
= (2 × 600 × 1.992 × 10–26)
√ 1.6 × 10–19 × (45 × 10–3)2
= 2.3904 × 10–23
√ 3.24 × 10–22
= √ 0.0738
= 0.272 m
Grade 12 133
Unit 6: Magnetism
For 13C
q (C) m (kg) V (V) B (T) r (m)
1.6 × 10–19 1.66 × 10–27 × 13 600 45 × 10–3 ?
= 2.158 × 10–26
r = 2Vm
√ qB2
= (2 × 600 × 2.158 × 10–26)
√ 1.6 × 10–19 × (45 × 10–3)2
= 2.5896 × 10–23
√ 3.24 × 10–22
= √ 0.0799
= 0.283 m
For 14C
q (C) m (kg) V (V) B (T) r (m)
1.6 × 10–19 1.66 × 10–27 × 14 600 45 × 10–3 ?
= 2.324 × 10–26
r = 2Vm
√ qB2
= (2 × 600 × 2.324 × 10–26)
√ 1.6 × 10–19 × (45 × 10–3)2
= 2.7888 × 10–23
√ 3.24 × 10–22
= √ 0.0861
= 0.293 m
10. Use a ring stand and a clamp to hold a piece of cardboard horizontally. Thread
connecting wire through a hole in the cardboard, then connect the wire to a
battery, a variable resistor (so that you can vary the current later) and a switch.
Place several compasses on the cardboard around the wire.
clamp stand
134 Grade 12
Unit 6: Magnetism
11. a)
F (N) B (T) I (A) l (m) sin θ
0.01 1.8 × 10–5 ? 0.2 0.9397
Use
F = BIlsin θ
F
I =
Blsin θ
0.01
=
1.8 × 10–5 × 0.2 × 0.9397
0.01
=
3.383 × 10–6
= 2955 A
b)
T (Nm) I (A) A (m2) B (T) sin θ
? 2955 24 × 10–4 1.8 × 10–5 0.9397
Use
T = IABsinθ
= 2955 × 24 × 10–4 × 1.8 × 10–5 × 0.9397
= 1.1996 × 10–4 N m
c)
μ (Am2) N I (A) A (m2)
? 1000 2955 24 × 10–4
Use
µ = NIA
= 1000 × 2955 × 24 × 10–4
= 7092 A m2
12. The principle of the direct current motor is the forced movement of a current-
carrying loop in a magnetic field. The torque on a current-carrying loop will
cause it to rotate. If it is free to move then the loop will rotate continuously.
You can find the direction of the force using a right-hand rule: the thumb
points in the direction of conventional current, the index finger in the
direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger in the direction of the
force. A direct current motor will have a coil with many turns rather than a
single loop.
Grade 12 135
Unit 6: Magnetism
13.
B (T) μ0 (T m/A) I (A) r (m)
1.5 × 10–6 4π × 10–7 1 ?
Use
μ0 I
B =
2πr
μ I
r = 0
2πB
4π × 10–7 × 1
=
2π × 1.5 × 10–6
2 × 10–7
=
1.5 × 10–6
= 0.133 m
14. If two identical parallel wires each carry current, as shown in Figure 6.18, then
each will exert a force F on the other.
Electric current I1 I2
r
B I
F F
B
Magnetic
field
Figure 6.18 Magnetic force between two wires

15.
dB (T) μ0 (T m/A) I (A) dl (m) nr r (m)
? 4π × 10–7 5 0.2 1 0.15
μ0Id l × nr
Use dB =
4πr2
–7
= 4π × 10 × 5 × 20.2 × 1
4π × 0.15
1 × 10 –7 × 5 × 0.2
=
0.0225
1 × 10 –7
=
0.0225
= 4.44 × 10–6 T
136 Grade 12
Unit 6: Magnetism
16. Ampere’s law states that in any closed loop path, the sum of the length
elements times the magnetic field in the direction of the length elements is
equal to the permeability of free space times the electric current enclosed in
the loop.
ΣB||Δl = μ0I
ΣBΔlcos θ = μ0Ι
17.
B (T) μο (T m/A) I (A) r (m) R (m)
5 × 10–6 4π × 10–7 1.5 ? 0.01
Use
μ0 Ir
B=
2πR2
B × 2πR2
=r
μ0 I
5 × 10–6 × 2π × 1 × 10–4
=r
2π × 10–7 × 1.5
5 × 10–6 × 1 × 10–4
=r
2 × 10–7 × 1.5
5 × 10–10
r= = 1.67 × 10–3 m
3 × 10–7
18. A long straight coil of wire, called a solenoid, can be used to generate a
magnetic field that is similar to that of a bar magnet. Such coils have many
practical applications. The field can be strengthened by adding an iron core.
Such cores are typically used in electromagnets. You can use Ampere’s law to
find the magnetic field B for a solenoid. Consider the solenoid shown in
Figure 6.22.
Detail of bottom of B Ampere's law path
rectangle inside solenoid
I I
Figure 6.22
If we take a rectangular path so that the length of the side parallel to the
solenoid field is length l (shown shaded in Figure 6.22), the contribution to the
field from this path is Bl inside the coil where B is the magnetic field strength.
The field can be considered to be perpendicular to the sides of the path so
these give negligible contribution.
Using Ampere’s law we get, for a solenoid of N turns,
Bl = µ0NI
µ NI
B= 0
l
B = µ0nI
where n is number of turns per unit length.
Grade 12 137
Unit 6: Magnetism
We can find the direction of the magnetic field in a solenoid using the right
hand rule, as for a current-carrying wire.
19.
B (T) μ0 (T m/A) n I
9 × 10–4 4π × 10–7 350 ?
Use B = μ0 nI
B
I =
μ0 n
9 × 10–4
=
4π × 10–7 × 350
9 × 10–4
=
4.396 × 10–4
= 2.05 A
20.
B (T) μ0 (T m/A) N I (A) r (m)
? 4π × 10–7 200 2 0.03
Use
μ0 nI
B =
2πr
4π × 10–7 × 200 × 2
=
2π × 0.03
2 × 10–7 × 200 × 2
=
0.03
8 × 10–5
=
0.03
= 2.67 × 10–3 T

21. Less than 30 000 nT to over 60 000 nT
22. The tangent galvanometer (TG) is an instrument for measuring the strength of
an electrical current in terms of the magnetic field it produces. A TG consists
of a circular coil of insulated copper wire wound on a circular non-magnetic
frame. The frame is mounted vertically on a horizontal base provided with
levelling screws on the base. The coil can be rotated on a vertical axis passing
through its centre. A compass box is mounted horizontally at the centre of
a circular scale. The compass box is circular in shape. It consists of a tiny,
powerful magnetic needle pivoted at the centre of the coil. The magnetic
needle is free to rotate in the horizontal plane. The circular scale is divided
into four quadrants. Each quadrant is graduated from 0° to 90°. A long thin
aluminium pointer is attached to the needle at its centre and at right angle
to it. To avoid errors due to parallax a plane mirror is mounted below the
compass needle.
138 Grade 12
Unit 6: Magnetism
Current flowing through a coil of wire generates a magnetic field at the centre
of a coil, and this field deflects a magnetic compass needle. The instrument
derives its name from the fact that the current is proportional to the tangent of
the angle of the needle’s deflection. When current is passed through the TG a
magnetic field is created at its centre. This field is given by
μ NI
Bc = 0
2R
where N is the number of turns of wire in the coil, I is the current through it
and R is the radius of the coil.
If the TG is set such that the plane of the coil is along the magnetic meridian
i.e. Bc is perpendicular to the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic
field, the needle rests along the resultant as shown in the figure.

Figure 6.25 A tangent galvanometer
Because a compass aligns itself with the lines of force of the magnetic field
within which it is placed, a compass can be used to find the angle θ between
Be and B. If the compass is first aligned with the magnetic field of the Earth
and current is supplied to the coils, then the compass needle will undergo an
angular deflection aligning itself with the vector sum of the Earth’s field and
the field due to the coils. This angular deflection is θ.
The horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field can be expressed as
Bc
Be =
tan θ

Grade 12 139
Electromagnetic induction Unit 7
and a.c. circuits

fill approximately
teaching time. • Define magnetic flux.
• Use θB = B·A = BAcos θ to solve related problems.
• Use the terms induced e.m.f, back e.m.f, magnetic flux, flux linkage, eddy
current.
• Describe experiments to investigate the factors which determine the
direction and magnitude of an induced e.m.f.
• Use an expression for the induced e.m.f. in a conductor moving through a
uniform magnetic field by considering the forces on the charges.
• State the laws of electromagnetic induction.
• Use the laws of electromagnetic induction which predict the magnitude
and direction of the induced e.m.f.
ΔØ
• Use ε = –N to solve related problems.
Δt
• Solve problems involving calculations of the induced e.m.f, the induced
current.
• Analyse and describe electromagnetic induction in qualitative terms.
• Apply Lenz’s law to explain, predict and illustrate the direction of the
electric current induced by a changing magnetic field, using the
right-hand rule.
• Describe the effects of eddy currents in large pieces of conducting
materials.
• Define the terms self-inductance, L, mutual inductance, M, and henry, H.
• State the factors that determine the magnitude of self-inductance and
mutual inductance.
• Derive an expression for the inductance of a solenoid (L = n2sµ0A).
• Derive and use the expression for the energy stored in an inductor
(PEB = 1 LI2).
2
• Define magnetic energy density.
• Compare direct current (d.c.) and alternating current (a.c.) in
qualitative terms.
• Derive the expression for the e.m.f. induced in a rotating coil ε =
ωNBAsinωt.
• Draw a schematic diagram for a simple a.c. generator.
• Explain the working mechanism of a generator.
• Draw a schematic diagram of a transformer.
140 Grade 12
Unit 7: Electromagnetic induction and a.c. circuits
V1 N1 I1
• Derive transformer equation = = from Faraday’s law.
V2 N2 I2
• Explain the importance of alternating current in the transmission of
electrical energy.
• Explain what is meant by r.m.s. values.
• Apply the relationship between r.m.s. and peak values for the current and
potential difference for a sinusoidal waveform.
• Identify that the current and voltage are in phase in a resistor in an a.c.
circuit.
• Explain the behaviour of a capacitor in an a.c. circuit.
• Derive the expression for the instantaneous current and voltage in a
resistive and capacitive circuit.
• Identify that the current leads the voltage by π in a capacitor in an
2
a.c. circuit.
• Draw phasor diagrams for resistive and capacitive circuits.
• Define capacitive reactance.
• Use the terms: r.m.s. current, r.m.s. potential difference, peak current,
peak potential difference, half cycle average current, phase difference,
phase lag, phase lead.
• Use the terms: reactance, impedance, power factor with their correct
scientific meaning.
• Define the power factor in an a.c. circuit.
• Identify that the voltage leads the current by π in an inductive circuit.
2
• Explain the behaviour of an inductor in an a.c. circuit.
• Derive the expression for the instantaneous current/voltage in an
inductor in an inductive circuit.
• Define inductive reactance.
• Describe the behaviour of an RL circuit.
• Describe the behaviour of an LC circuit.
• Describe the behaviour of RLC circuits.
• Derive an expression for the impedance of RLC circuits.
• Draw phasor diagrams for RLC circuits.
• Solve problems involving the magnitude and phase of current and applied
p.d. in a.c. circuits which include resistors, capacitors and inductors.
• Show that the average power in an a.c. capacitive circuit is zero.
• Derive the expression for the average power in an a.c. inductive circuit.
• Derive the expression for the average power in an a.c. RLC circuit.
• Distinguish between real, apparent and ideal power of an RLC circuit.
Grade 12 141
This section should 7.1 Phenomena of electromagnetic induction

fill approximately
4 periods of
• Define magnetic flux.
• Use θB = B·A = BAcos θ to solve related problems.
• Use the terms induced e.m.f, back e.m.f, magnetic flux, flux linkage, eddy
current.
• Describe experiments to investigate the factors which determine the
direction and magnitude of an induced e.m.f.
• Use an expression for the induced e.m.f. in a conductor moving through a
uniform magnetic field by considering the forces on the charges.
• Use the laws of electromagnetic induction which predict the magnitude
ΔØ
• Use ε = –N to solve related problems.
Δt
• Solve problems involving calculations of the induced e.m.f, the induced
current.
• Analyse and describe electromagnetic induction in qualitative terms.
electric current induced by a changing magnetic field, using the
right-hand rule.
• Describe the effects of eddy currents in large pieces of conducting
materials.
• Define the terms self-inductance, L, mutual inductance, M, and henry, H.
• State the factors that determine the magnitude of self-inductance and
mutual inductance.
• Derive an expression for the inductance of a solenoid (L = n2sµ0A).
• Derive and use the expression for the energy stored in an inductor
(PEB = 1 LI2).
2
• Define magnetic energy density.

Magnetic flux and induced e.m.f.s
SA With a partner, write down a definition of magnetic flux. Feed back ideas.
CA Feed back from activity.
Demonstrating induced e.m.f.
SA With a partner, write down what causes an induced e.m.f. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 7.2
CA Worked example 7.2 with a partner without given solution. Feed back ideas.
142 Grade 12
Laws of electromagnetic induction

SA With a partner, write down what you can remember about the laws of electromagnetic
induction from earlier grades. Feed back ideas.
CA Worked examples 7.3 and 7.4 with a partner without given solution. Feed back ideas.
Eddy currents and inductances
SA With a partner, summarise Students’ Book pages 273–278 in a form of your choice.
Starting off
Students were introduced to magnetic flux in unit 6. Begin by asking them to
work with a partner to write a definition of magnetic flux. Allow about 5 minutes
for this and then take feed back.
Teaching notes
Move on to discuss induced e.m.f. Students have met this concept in earlier grades.
Activity 7.1 is an opportunity to bring this knowledge back to the front of their minds.

What do you remember about induced emfs?
This activity is intended to stimulate discussion about prior learning. Students
may need some prompts – you could borrow a copy of the Grade 10 Students’ Book
and produce some questions about this topic on cards and distribute them to the
groups to jog memories.
Take feedback from the activity to make sure that all relevant points have been
covered.
Ask students to work with a partner to write down what causes an induced e.m.f.
They may need to read the text in the Students’ Book quite carefully to come
up with an accurate answer. Activity 7.2 is a chance for them to demonstrate
electromagnetic induction and investigate factors that influence the size of the
induced e.m.f., which is valuable knowledge when you consider the laws of
electromagnetic induction.

Demonstrating an induced emf and investigating factors which influence its
magnituede.
It is intended that this activity will help students to understand the laws of
electromagnetic induction more easily. They should find that the magnitude of the
induced emf is influenced by:
• the size of the magnetic field
• the speed at which the wire cuts the field
• the area of the wire influenced by the magnetic field.
Grade 12 143
Students should attempt worked examples with a partner but without the given
solution. You should then ask them for ideas on the solution before revealing the
Towards Lenz’s law given solution. Comparing their solutions with a given solution can be a valuable
This activity learning experience for pupils.
is intended to Students met the laws of electromagnetic induction in earlier grades but we need
reinforce student’s to bring this experience back into their minds. Activity 7.3 is a chance for students
understanding of to see Lenz’s law in action.
Lenz’s law and why
the direction of the The final concepts in this section relate to inductance and eddy currents. There is a
induced e.m.f. is lot of information in the Students’ Book and it is useful if students can work with a
such as to oppose partner to summarise the information in a form of their choice (that means it will
the change that be in the form that should be most useful for revision purposes) before attempting
created it. Activity 7.4 in a small group. When students are working on summaries of
material, walk round the class and ask questions about why they are using the
Activity 7.4: Answer form of summary that they have chosen, how they have selected the information
to be included, etc. This will give you valuable insight into the progress that they
Research applications
are making in their thinking.
of eddy currents
As had been said before in this book, working on review questions with a partner
This activity is an
opportunity for gives students an opportunity to clarify their thinking on the topic through
students to find out discussion.
how eddy currents
are used in everyday
life. Examples are for Activities
cooking, in welding,
• What do you remember about induced e.m.f.s?
and at security
checks in airports. • Demonstrating an induced e.m.f. and investigating factors which influence its
magnitude
• Towards Lenz’s law
• Researching applications of eddy currents
Resources
http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/electromagneticinduction/
index.html
http://www.squidoo.com/Electromagnetic_induction
Where next?
The next section considers a.c. generators and transformers.

1. a) Magnetic flux is represented by field lines in diagrams that show magnetic
fields.
b)
ΦB (Wb) B (T) A (M2) cos θ
? 25 × 10–3 5 × 10–4 0.707
144 Grade 12
Use ΦB = BAcos θ
= 25 × 10–3 × 5 × 10–4 × 0.707
= 8.84 × 10–6 Wb
2. a) The laws of electromagnetic induction are:
Faraday’s law: The magnitude of an induced e.m.f, ε, is proportional to the
rate of charge of flux.
Lenz’s law: the direction of the induced e.m.f is such as to oppose the
charge creating it.
∆Φ
∆t
∆Φ N∆(BA)
For a coil with N turns ε = –N =–
∆t ∆t

b) you could demonstrate an induced e.m.f by connecting a wire to a
galvonometer and moving the wire in a magnetic field produced by two
magnets (or between the poles of a horseshoe magnet).
c) the right-hand rule is used to predict
the direction of the induced e.m.f.

3. a)
Flux linkage
B (T) A (m2) N cos θ
(Wb-turns)
? 10 × 10–3 2.826 × 10–7 25 0.259
Use flux linkage = BANcos θ
= 10 × 10–3 × 2.826 × 10–7 × 25 × 0.259
= 1.8298 × 10–8 Wb-turns
b)
NΔΦ
ε (V) Δt (s)
(Wb-turns)
? 1.8298 × 10–8 0.5
N∆Φ
Use ε = –
∆t
1.8298 × 10–8
=–
0.5
= 3.66 × 10–8 V

Grade 12 145
c)
ε (V) N ∆B/∆t A
? 25 0.6 2.826 × 10–7
N∆(BA)
Use ε = –
∆t
= –25 × 0.6 × 2.826 × 10–7
= 4.24 × 10–6 V
4. a) Eddy currents are currents that are induced when there is a changing
magnetic flux in a solid object.
b) Eddy currents produce a heating effect that is used in welding and many
industrial processes. They are also used in security scanners at airports.
5. a) The factors that determine the magnitude of self- and mutual-inductrance
are:
• magnetic flux
• number of turns on coil (or coils in mutual inducrance)
• current through the coil (decreasing current increases inductrance)
b)
B (T) A (m2) Φ (BA) N I (A) L (H)
50 × 10–3 10 × 10–4 5 × 10–5 500 2 ?
ΦN
Use L =
I
5 × 10–5 × 500
=
2
= 0.0125 H
c)
∆I
ε (V) L (H) (A/s)
∆t
? 60 × 10–3 1.5
∆I
Use ε =
∆t
= –60 × 10–3 × 1.5
= 0.09 V
6)
L (H) μ0 (T m/A) n A (m2)
? 4π × 10–7 250 2.5 × 10–4
Use L = μ0n2A
= 4π × 10–7 × 2502 × 2.5 × 10–4
= 1.9625 × 10–5 H
146 Grade 12
b)
PEB (J) L (H) I (A)
? 1.9625 × 10–5 2.5
1 2
Use PEB = LI
2
1
= × 1.9625 × 10–5 × 2.52
2
= 6.13 × 10–5 J
energy
7. a) Magnetic energy density ηB =
volume
b)
ηB (J/m3) B (T) μ0 (T m/A)
? 0.5 4π × 10–7
B2
Use ηB =
2μ0
0.52
=
2 × 4π × 10–7
0.25
=
2.512 × 10–8
= 9.95 × 106 J/m3

7.2 Alternating current (a.c.) generators and transformers This section should
fill approximately
3 periods of
• Compare direct current (d.c.) and alternating current (a.c.) in
qualitative terms.
• Derive the expression for the e.m.f. induced in a rotating coil ε =
ωNBAsinωt.
• Draw a schematic diagram for a simple a.c. generator.
• Explain the working mechanism of a generator.
• Draw a schematic diagram of a transformer.
V N I
• Derive transformer equation 1 = 1 = 1 from Faraday’s law.
V2 N2 I2
• Explain the importance of alternating current in the transmission of
electrical energy.

Electric generators
SA With a partner, write down the function of an electric generator. Feed back ideas.
CA Worked example 7.10 with a partner without given solution. Feed back ideas.
Grade 12 147
Transformers
SA With a partner, write down the function of a transformer. Feed back ideas.
CA Present findings of research.
The transmission of electrical energy
SA Why is electricity transmitted at high voltages? Discuss with a partner and feed back ideas.

Build a generator. Begin by asking students to work with a partner to write down the function of an
electric generator and feed back ideas.
Student should
predict that the
coil will rotate
according to Lenz’s Teaching notes
law. Students have met the basic concepts behind electric generators in earlier studies.
Activity 7.5 gives them an opportunity to build and electric generator.
Transformers are an important part of electricity supply systems because of their
ability to step down high voltages to low voltages and vice versa. However, they
are also found on a smaller scale in electric toys. Activity 7.6 is an opportunity for
students to investigate the uses of transformers.

Investigating the uses of transformers.
Transformers are used in the transmission of electricity. They are also used in
electronic products to step down the supply voltage to a level suitable for the
low voltage circuits. Transformers also isolate the end user from contact with the
supply voltage.
The transmission of electrical energy is an important area for students. They
should be asked to discuss why electricity is transmitted at high voltages. Activity
Investigating the 7.7 is an opportunity for students to research the national grid in Ethiopia and
national grid set how it uses a.c. Allow time for students to present the findings of their research.
by the Ethiopian
Electric Power
Corporation (EEPCo) Activities
and a.c.
• Build a generator
Students should use
a variety of sources • Investigate the uses of transformers
to carry out this
• Investigating the national grid set by the Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation
research.
(EEPCo) and a.c.
Resources
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/motorac.html
http://www.explainthatstuff.com/transformers.html
148 Grade 12
Where next?
The next topic considers a.c. circuits. It is a very practical topic and students are
given opportunities to explore the circuits discussed.
Answers to review exercise

1. a) b)

2. A coil in a magnetic field experiences a torque which N
will make it rotate. As it rotates an emf is induced. S –
V
+
In an a.c. generator the coil is attached to two
continuous rings which, in turn, connect in to the
external circuit.
S
3. a) A simple diagram of a transformer is as follows:

the magnetic field iron core
is almost totally
contained in the magnetic field
iron core
Ns
Np V Vs
Vp ~
a current in the the induced voltage in the

primary coil produces a secondary coil is given by
magnetic field, like a solenoid Faraday’s law Vs = –NsA ΔB / Δt

An alternating current is supplied to the primary coil. As this current is
constantly changing, constantly changing magnetic field is set up. This
changing field induces an emf in the secondary coil which varies constantly
At the same rate as the alternating current supplied to the primary. The
magnitude of the induced emf depends on the strength of the magnetic field
(which depends on the number of turns on the primary coil) and the number
of turns on the secondary coil. The ratio of the number of turns on the
primary coil to the number of turns on the secondary coil is the same as the
ratio of the voltage on the primary coil to the voltage on the secondary coil.
Np Vp
=
Ns Vs
This relationship enables transformers to change voltage.
b)
Np Ns Vp (V) Vs (V)
? 160 220 2
V
Np = p × Ns
Vs
Grade 12 149
220
= × Ns
2
= 110 × 160
= 17 600
4. Alternating current is used to transmit electricity because, in order to reduce
power loss, electricity is transmitted at very much higher voltages than
required by the consumer. Transformers are therefore need in the system and
they work on alternating current.
This section should 7.3 Alternating current (a.c.)

fill approximately
10 periods of
• Explain what is meant by r.m.s. values.
• Apply the relationship between r.m.s. and peak values for the current and
potential difference for a sinusoidal waveform.
• Identify that the current and voltage are in phase in a resistor in an a.c.
circuit.
• Derive the expression for the instantaneous current and voltage in a
resistive and capacitive circuit.
• Identify that the current leads the voltage by π in a capacitor in an
2
a.c. circuit.
• Draw phasor diagrams for resistive and capacitive circuits.
• Define capacitive reactance.
scientific meaning.
• Define the power factor in an a.c. circuit.
• Identify that the voltage leads the current by π in an inductive circuit.
2
• Derive the expression for the instantaneous current/voltage in an
inductor in an inductive circuit.
• Define inductive reactance.
• Describe the behaviour of an RL circuit.
• Describe the behaviour of an LC circuit.
• Describe the behaviour of RLC circuits.
• Derive an expression for the impedance of RLC circuits.
• Draw phasor diagrams for RLC circuits.
• Solve problems involving the magnitude and phase of current and applied
p.d. in a.c. circuits which include resistors, capacitors and inductors.
150 Grade 12

Root mean square values and resistive a.c. circuits
SA Why do we need root mean square values? Discuss with a partner and feed back ideas.
CA With a partner, write a summary of what you have learnt in this lesson.
Capacitive a.c. circuits
SA With a partner, write down what a capacitor does in a circuit. Feed back ideas.
Inductive a.c. circuits
SA With a partner, write down what an inductor does in a circuit. Feed back ideas.
Combining resistors and inductors in a circuit
SA Why is there a phase lag between the current and the p.d. in an inductive circuit? Discuss
Applications of inductors in a circuit
SA With a partner, write down two things you learnt in the last lesson.
CA Report on activity 7.12
Combining resistors and capacitors in a circuit
Combining inductors and capacitors in a circuit
SA With a partner, explain the meaning of ‘resonant frequency’. How can you relate this to the
ideas about resonance that you met in unit 2? Feed back ideas.
Combining resistors, capacitors and inductors
SA With a partner, write a definition of ‘damping’ in terms of oscillations. Feed back ideas.
CA With a partner, write a report on the activity.
Grade 12 151
Circuit calculations
MA With a partner, write further examples of a.c. circuit calculations based on the worked
examples in this section. Give your examples to another pair to solve. (You must know the
answers to each question before you hand them on!)
CA Discuss solutions to the problems.
Summarising your learning
SA With a partner, write down five things you have learnt in this section.
MA With a partner, make a spidergram to summarise this section.

Demonstrating that Begin by making sure that students understand what is meant by root mean
current and voltage square values.
are in phase in
a resistive a.c.
current. Teaching notes
This is the first of a This is a long topic and students are given as much opportunity as possible to
series of activities explore the circuits considered for themselves. This should ensure that they
which are designed remember the details more easily – it is always easier to learn by doing rather than
to give students
by passively reading facts. The worked examples should be tackled with a partner
a clear picture of
what is meant by ‘in
without the given solution, and then solutions discussed as described earlier in
phase’ and ‘phase this book.
difference’. The Activity 7.8 presents the simplest form of circuit – that which just involves a
waveforms for the resistor.
current and voltage
should coincide in Move on to discuss capacitors and what they do in circuits. Activity 7.9 gives
this case. students an opportunity to observe the phase difference between the current and
the voltage in a capacitive a.c. circuit.

Demonstrating the phase difference between the current and voltage in a
capacitive a.c. circuit.
Students should obtain a trace like this:
+
0
Time
Now consider inductors. Students explore the phase difference between current
and voltage in an inductive a.c. circuit in Activity 7.10.
152 Grade 12
Activity 7.10: Answer Activity 7.11: Answer

Demonstrating the phase difference between the current and voltage in an Investigating an LR
inductive a.c. circuit. circuit.
Students should obtain a trace like this: The p.d. across the
+ inductor will vary
as shown in the
diagram.
0 V
Time
Having considered the components separately, we now start to combine them. t

Students should consider why there is a phase lag between the current and the p.d. Changing the value
in an inductive circuit. Questions such as this ensure that students engage with of the resistor
the Students’ Book text and should be used wherever possible. Activity 7.11 is an will alter the rate
opportunity for students to investigate an LR circuit. at which the p.d.
across the inductor
So far, students have not considered practical applications of the circuits they have falls.
studied. Activity 7.12 is an opportunity for students to find out how inductive
circuits are used in dimmer switches and, which may be more motivating for
some, in stage lighting. Activity 7.12: Answer
Now combine a resistor and a capacitor. Students should investigate such a circuit Investigating
in Activity 7.13. inductors in stage
lighting.
When we combine an inductor and a capacitor in a circuit, there will be a
frequency at which there is no impedance, known as the resonant frequency. This Students should
is used in radio tuners. Students are given the opportunity to investigate such a be given credit for
circuit in Activity 7.14. the clarity of their
report.

Investigating an LC circuit.
Investigating an RC
The resonant frequency will depend on the values for L and C. It may differ slightly circuit.
from the theoretical value because of small inaccuracies in the measurements
(a 100 μF capacitor may not be exactly 100 μF, for example). The p.d. across the
capacitor will vary
Students should be given credit for the clarity of their report. as shown in the
diagram.
V
Combining resistors, inductors and capacitors makes a more sophisticated
resonant circuit, where the oscillations are damped by the resistor. Students
should investigate such a circuit in Activity 7.15.
Activity 7.15: Answer t

Changing the value
Investigating an RLC circuit.
of the resistor
Students may find that the resonant frequency they find does not match the will alter the rate
theoretical value exactly for the reason given in Activity 7.14. Changing the value at which the p.d.
of R changes how much the oscillations are damped. Once again, students should across the capacitor
be given credit for the clarity of their report. falls.
Grade 12 153
This topic contains quite a bit of mathematical manipulation. Ask students to

work with a partner to produce questions based on the worked examples given in
the Students’ Book which they can give to another pair to solve (they must first
work out the answers themselves)! This exercise will give valuable consolidation
of the techniques that they have learnt in the topic, before they summarise their
learning.
Activities
• Demonstrating that current and voltage are in phase in a resistive a.c. circuit
• Demonstrating the phase difference between the current and the voltage in a
capacitive a.c. circuit
• Demonstrating the phase difference between the current and the voltage in an
inductive a.c. circuit
• Investigating an LR circuit
• Investigating inductors in stage lighting
• Investigating an RC circuit
• Investigating an LC circuit
• Investigating an RLC circuit
Resources
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_current
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/chpt_1/1.html
Where next?
The final topic in this unit considers power in a.c. circuits.

1. The root mean square value of 1 A is, by definition, the same current as 1 A d.c.
so the same current is flowing through the bulb on each occasion.
2. a)
Vrms (V) Vpeak (V)
12 ?
Use Vrms = Vpeak × 0.707
V
Vpeak = rms
0.707

= 16.97 V
b)
Vpeak (V) Vavg (V)
16.97 ?
154 Grade 12
Use Vavg = 0.637 Vpeak

= 0.637 × 16.97
= 10.8 V
3. a)
1
Xc = f (Hz) C (F)
2πFC(Ω)
? 50 100 × 10–6
1
Use Xc =
2πFC
1
=
2 × 3.14 × 50 × 100 × 10–6
1
=
0.0314
= 31.85 Ω
b)
Xc (Ω) f (Hz) C (F)
? 1000 100 × 10–6
1
Use Xc =
2πFC
1
=
2 × 3.14 × 1000 × 100 × 10–6
1
=
0.628
= 1.59 Ω
c) R
eactance is inversely proportional to frequency so at higher frequency
reactance will be lower.
4. a)
XL (Ω) f (Hz) L (H)
? 50 0.8r
Use XL = 2πfL
= 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 0.8
= 251.2 Ω
b)
Z (Ω) R (Ω) XL (Ω)
? 100 251.2
Use Z = √R2 + XL2
= √1002 + (251.2)2
= √10 000 + 63101.44
= √73101.44
Z = 270.4 Ω
Grade 12 155
c)
I (A) V (V) Z (Ω)
? 12 270.4
V
Use I =
Z
12
=
270.4
= 0.04 A
d) i)
XL (Ω) R (Ω) tan θ
251.2 100 ?
XL
Use tan θ = = 2.512
R
θ = 68.3°
ii) The p.d. leads the current
iii) p.d.
68.3˚
I

e) Power factor = cos θ
= cos 68.3
= 0.3697
5. Circuit becomes 0.8 H 100 Ω 100 μF

12 V 50 Hz
fresonant (Hz) L (H) C (F)

? 0.8 100 × 10–6
1
Use fresonant =
2π√LC
1
=
2π√0.8 × 100 × 10–6
1
=
2π√8 × 10–5
1
=
2π × 8.94 × 10–3
1
=
0.056
= 17.86 Hz
156 Grade 12
7.4 Power in a.c. circuits This section should

fill approximately
1 period of
• Show that the average power in an a.c. capacitive circuit is zero.
• Derive the expression for the average power in an a.c. inductive circuit.
• Derive the expression for the average power in an a.c. RLC circuit.
• Distinguish between real, apparent and ideal power of an RLC circuit.

Power in a.c. circuits
SA Why does the principle of conservation of energy mean that, at any time t, the rate at which
energy is supplied by the supply p.d. must equal the sum of the rate at which it is stored in
the capacitive and inductive elements and dissipated by the resistive elements? Discuss with
a partner and feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, produce a summary of this section in a form of your choice.
End-of-unit questions to be tackled with a partner.
Starting off
Ask students to discuss the following question with a partner and feed back ideas.
Why does the principle of conservation of energy mean that, at any time t, the
rate at which energy is supplied by the supply p.d. must equal the sum of the rate
at which it is stored in the capacitive and inductive elements and dissipated by the
resistive elements?
Teaching notes
This section contains quite a bit of information. Students should be asked to work
with a partner to summarise the text in the Students’ Book in a form of their
choice. In this way, they will have to engage with the text and select the important
points. As they work, walk round the class and question students about what
they are doing to make sure that they are understanding the content and staying
focused on the task.
Activities
• Summarise the content of the section in a form of your choice
Resources
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_power
http://www.sayedsaad.com/fundmental/666_Power%20in%20AC%20
Circuits.%20.htm
Grade 12 157
Where next?
This is the final section in this unit.

1.
W (J) Vrms (V) Irms (A) cos θ
? 50 ? ?
To find Irms we need to find the impedance of the circuit.
Z (Ω) R (Ω) Xc (Ω) XL (Ω)
1
? 5 2π × 50 × 80 × 10–3
2π × 50 × 200 × 10–3
Use Z = √R2 + (XL – Xc)2
= √25 + (25 – 0.159)2
= √25 + 623.1
= √648.1
= 25.5 Ω
V
I =
Z
50
=
25.5
= 1.96 A
XL – Xc
To find the phase angle we use tan θ =
R
= 25.12 – 0.1596
5
= 4.9922
θ = 78.7°
Average power = Vrms Irms cos θ
= 50 × 1.96 × cos 78.7
= 19.2 J
2. a)
1
cos θ XL (2πfL) (Ω) Xc ( 2πfC ) (Ω) R (Ω)
1
? 2 × π × 50 × 160 × 10-3 10
2 × π × 50 × 50 × 10–3
XL = 50.24 Ω
Xc = 0.064 Ω
158 Grade 12
XL – Xc
Use tan θ =
R
= 50.24 – 0.064
10
= 5.0176
θ = 78.7°
Power factor = cos θ = 0.196
b) Find current through circuit
Impedance Z = √R2 + (XL – Xc)2
= √100 + (50.24 – 0.064)2
= √100 + 2518
= √2618
= 51.2 Ω
V
I =
Z
50
=
51.2
= 0.977 A
Apparent power = (Irms)2 Z
= 48.9 J
1
c) For ideal power need 2πfL =
2πfC
1
C =
(2πf)2 L
1
=
(2 × 3.14 × 50)2 × 160 × 10–3
1
=
15 775.36
= 6.34 × 10–5 F

1.
ΦB (Wb) B (T) A (m2) cos θ
? 5 × 10–3 10 × 10–4 0.643
Use ΦB = BAcos θ
= 5 × 10–3 × 10 × 10–4 × 0.643
= 3.125 × 10–6
2. a) Faraday’s law states that the magnitude of an induced e.m.f, ε, is
proportional to the rate of change of flux.
b) Take a piece of copper tube and drop a) a magnet and b) a piece of non-
magnetic metal of the same size as the magnet through the copper tube. If
you compare the time taken for the magnet and the piece of metal to fall
Grade 12 159
through the tube you will find that the magnet fell more slowly because
it was slowed by the magnetic field induced in the copper tube. If it had
not been slowed, then its final kinetic energy would have been greater
than the potential energy it had at the start, which is contrary to the law of
conservation of energy. The direction of the induced emf must have been
such as to oppose the motion of the magnet which induced it, which is
Lenz’s law.
3.
ε (V) Δ(BA) Δt
? 0.6 5
∆(BA)
Use ε =
∆t
0.6
=
5
= 0.12 V
4. If a metallic object such as a key is in a person’s pocket, then eddy currents are
induced in the key which are then detected by the scanning equipment.
5.
∆I (A/s)
ε (V) L (H)
∆t
? 100 × 10–3 3.5
∆I
Use ε = –L
∆t
= 100 × 10–3 × 3.5
= 0.35 V
6. a)
L (H) μ0 (T m/A) n A (m2)
? 4π × 10–7 500 3 × 10–4
Use L = μ0 n2A
= 4π × 10–7 × (500)2 × 3 × 10–4
= 9.42 × 10–5 H
b)
PEB (J) L (H) I (A)
? 9.42 × 10–5 3.5
1 2
Use PEB = LI
2
= 0.5 × 9.42 × 10–5 × (3.5)2
= 5.77 × 10–4 J
160 Grade 12
7.
ηB (J/m3) B (T) μ0 (T m/A)
? 0.25 4π × 10–7
B2
Use ηB =
2μ0
(0.25)2
=
8π × 10–7
0.0625
=
2.512 × 10–8
= 2.49 × 106 J/m3
8. Vrms gives equivalent d.c. p.d.
Irms gives equivalent d.c. current.
9. a) An alternating current is supplied to the primary coil. As this current is
constantly changing, a constantly changing magnetic field is set up. This
changing field induces an emf in the secondary coil which varies constantly
at the same rate as the alternating current supplied to the primary. The
magnitude of the induced emf depends on the strength of the magnetic
field (which depends on the number of turns on the primary coil) and the
number of turns on the secondary coil. The ratio of the number of turns
on the primary coil to the number of turns on the secondary coil is the
same as the ratio of the voltage on the primary coil to the voltage on the
secondary coil.
Np Vp
=
Ns Vs
This relationship enables transformers to change voltage.
b)
Np Ns Vp (V) Vs (V)
? 320 220 10
Np Vp
Use =
Ns Vs
Vp
Np = × Ns
Vs
220
= 10 × 320
= 7040
10. Alternating current is used to transmit electricity because, in order to reduce
power loss, electricity is transmitted at very much higher voltages than
required by the consumer. Transformers are therefore needed in the system
and they work in alternating current.
11. a) Consider the circuit shown in the diagram.

Grade 12 161
The capacitor will draw current to oppose any change of voltage across
itself. For capacitor,
Q = CV
where Q is the charge on the capacitor, C is the capacitance and V is the
p.d. across the capacitor.
Also
∆Q
I =
∆t
In this circuit the charging current changes constantly as the voltage across
C changes. The value of C is constant so we can combine the two equations
to give
∆V
I = C
∆t
When we use the alternating voltage source, the voltage is a sine wave of
some frequency, f. Mathematically, we write
Vc = Vp sin(2πft) = Vp sin(ωt)
where Vc is the p.d. across the capacitor, Vp is the peak value of the p.d.,
and ω = 2πf.
To find the current, we need to find the derivative of Vp sub(ωt) with
respect to t.
The current across a capacitor in an a.c. circuit is given by
I = CVpωcos(ωt) = ωCVpcos(ωt)
b) The equation tells us that the current resulting from applied a.c. voltage
π
(which is a sine wave) is shifted in phase by 2 as shown in the diagram.
The applied a.c. voltage is shone in green and the resulting current is
shown in blue. There is a phase difference between the current and the
applied voltage. There is a phase lead between the current and the applied
π
voltage of 2 .

I V

12. The frequency. At high frequency the reactance of a capacitor will be lower
than that of an inductor.
13. The resistor acts as a ‘damper’ on the oscillations.
14.
f (Hz) L (H) C (F)
99.7 × 106 1.4 × 10–6 ?
1
f =
2π√LC
1
f2 = 2
4π LC
1
C = 2 2
4π f L
1
=
4π2 × (99.7 × 106)2 × 1.4 × 10–6
162 Grade 12
1
=
39.4384 × 1.4 × 10–6 × 9.94 × 1015
1
=
5.49 × 1011
= 1.82 × 10–12 F
= 1.82 pF
15. a)
150 µF
0.8 mH 100Ω
12 V
50 Hz
fresonant (Hz) L (H) C (F)

? 20 × 10–3 100 × 10–9
1
Use fresonant =
2π√LC
1
=
2π√0.8 × 10–3
× 150 ×10–9
1
=
6.28 × 1.1 × 10–5
= 14.5 Hz
Vpeak
b) Vrms = √ 2
Vpeak = Vrms × √2
= 12 × 1.41
= 17 V
Impedance Z at resonance (XL = XC)
=R
= 100 Ω
Vp
Ip =
R
17
=
100
= 0.17 A
c) XL = 2 π f L
= 2 × π × 14500 × 0.8 × 10–3
= 447 Ω
P.d. across indicator = Ip × XL
= 0.17 × 73
= 12.4 V
Grade 12 163
16.
W (J) Vrms (V) Irms (A) cos θ
? 12 ? ?
Z (Ω) R (Ω) XC (Ω) XL (Ω)
1
? 100 2 × 50 × π × 150 × 10–10 2 × π × 50 × 0.8
XC = 21.23 Ω
XL = 251.2 Ω
Use Z = √R2 + (XL – XC)2
= √10 000 + 52 886
= √62 886
= 251 Ω
Vrms
Irms =
Z
12
=
251
= 0.05 A
XL – XC
Phase angle tan θ =
R
= 2.3
θ = 66.5°
Average power = Vrms Irms cos θ
= 12 × 0.05 × cos 66.5
= 0.24 J
17. a)
1
cos θ XL (2πfL) (Ω) Xc ( 2πfC ) (Ω) R (Ω)
1
? 2 × π × 50 × 0.6 250
2 × π × 50 × 500 × 10–6
XL = 188.4 Ω
XC = 6.37 Ω
XL – XC
tan θ =
R
188.4 – 6.37
=
250
= 0.728
θ = 36°
power factor = cos 36°
= 0.809
164 Grade 12
b) Find current through circuit

Impedance Z = √R2 + (XL – XC)2
= √2502 + (188.4 – 6.37)2
= √62 500 + 33 135
= √95 635
= 309 Ω
Vrms
Irms =
Z
24
=
309
= 0.08 A
Apparent power = (Irms)2 Z
= (0.08)2 × 309
= 1.98 J
1
c) For ideal power need 2πfL = 2πfC
1
C =
(2πf)2 L
1
=
(2 × 3.14 × 50)2 × 0.6
1
=
59 157.6
= 1.69 × 10–5 F
Grade 12 165
Atomic physics Unit 8

fill approximately
By the end of this unit students should be able to:
20 periods of
teaching time. • Identify that black bodies absorb all electromagnetic radiation.
• Describe the photoelectric effect and its characteristics.
• Show understanding that matter has wave nature.
• Use the de Broglie equation λ = h to find the wavelength of a matter
p
particle.
• State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
• Use the uncertainly principle to relate the uncertainties in position and
momentum.
• Find the uncertainty in position from the uncertainty in momentum.
• Describe Rutherford’s model of the atom.
• Describe Bohr’s model of the atom.
• Show understanding that electrons can only exist at specific energy
states, and will not be found with energies between those level.s
• Compute the change in energy of an atom using the relation ΔE = Ef − Ei.
• Represent diagrammatically the structure of simple atoms.
• Use the relationship A = Z + N to explain what is meant by the term
isotope.
• Compare the charge and mass of the electron with the charge and mass of
the proton.
• Identify nuclear force is a very strong force that holds particles in a
nucleus together.
• State some important properties of the strong force.
• Show radius and mass number are related mathematically
R = (1.2 × 10−15 m)A1/3.
• State the approximate size of an atom.
• State nuclear properties.
• Explain how nuclear stability is determined by binding energy per
nucleon.
• Define the term binding energy.
• Compare graphs of stable and unstable nuclei.
• Interpret graphs of binding energy per nucleon versus mass number.
• Associate radioactivity with nuclear instability.
• Define the term nuclear fission.
166 Grade 12
Unit 8: Atomic physics
• Define the term nuclear fusion.

• Distinguish between fission and fusion.
• Show understanding that radioactivity emission occurs randomly over
space.
• Identify that the decay process is independent of conditions outside the
nucleus.
• Identify the nature of the three types of emissions from radioactive
substances.
• Distinguish between the three kinds of emissions in terms of their nature,
relative ionising effect, relative penetrating power.
• Describe the need for safety measures in handling and using radio
isotopes.
• Describe experiments to compare the range of alpha, beta and gamma
radiation in various media.
• Predict the effect of magnetic and electric fields on the motion of alpha,
beta and gamma rays.
• Name the common detectors for α-particles, β-particles and γ−rays.
• Associate the release of energy in a nuclear reaction with a change in
mass.
• Apply quantitatively the laws of conservation of mass and energy, using
Einstein’s mass−energy equation.
• Represent and interpret nuclear reactions of the form
14C → 14N + 0 e (beta particle).
6 7 −1
• Represent nuclear reactions in the form of equations.

• Define the term half-life.
• Work through simple problems on half-life.
• Use graphs of random decay to show that such processes have a constant
half-life.
• State the uses of radioactive isotopes.
• Discuss problems posed by nuclear waste.
Grade 12 167
This section should 8.1 The dual nature of matter and radiation
fill approximately
6 periods of
• Identify that black bodies absorb all electromagnetic radiation.
• Describe the photoelectric effect and its characteristics.
• Show understanding that matter has wave nature.
• Use the de Broglie equation λ = h to find the wavelength of a matter
p
particle.
• State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
• Use the uncertainly principle to relate the uncertainties in position and
momentum.
• Find the uncertainty in position from the uncertainty in momentum.

Black bodies
SA With a partner, write down as many types of radiation on the electromagnetic spectrum as
you can. Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, research black bodies and present your findings in the form of a poster.
CA Discuss the problem posed in Worked example 8.1 with a partner without given solution.
Feed back ideas.
The photoelectric effect
SA Why do you think photoelectrons are given this name? Discuss with a partner and feed back
ideas.
CA Worked example 8.2 to be tackled with a partner without given solution. Feed back ideas.
Energy of photoelectrons
SA Why is 1 eV equivalent to 1.6 × 10−19 J? Discuss with a partner and feed back ideas.
CA With a partner, write a report on the activity.
Work function
SA Think about this on page 315 of Students’ Book with a partner. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, summarise Students’ Book page 316.
CA With a partner, write down one thing you have learnt in this lesson. Feed back ideas.
The wave nature of matter
CA Feedback on activity.
168 Grade 12
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

SA With a partner, write down what you understand by ‘uncertainty’. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, summarise Students’ Book pages 319–320.
Starting off
Begin by asking students to work with a partner to write down as many types of
radiation on the electromagnetic spectrum as they can. They have learnt about
the spectrum in earlier studies but it needs to be brought back to the front of their
minds.

Students should work in small groups to do some research on black bodies Demonstrating
and present their findings in the form of a poster. Give credit for clarity of the photoelectric
communication in the poster. Worked examples should be given to students to effect.
tackle with a partner, without the given solution. As noted before in this book, this The gold leaf will
gives you a chance to assess understanding and provides students with a valuable fall back towards
learning experience. the stem when
Photoelectrons are so-called because they are emitted as a result of (ultraviolet) ultraviolet light is
shone on the zinc.
light falling on the metal. Activity 8.1 is an opportunity for students to
The ultraviolet light
demonstrate the photoelectric effect. causes electrons
The relationship between energy in joules and energy in electronvolts is an to be emitted from
important one for students to grasp. The box on page 315 of the Students’ Book the zinc.
explains the equivalence. Activity 8.2 gives students an opportunity to investigate
the energy of the photoelectrons. Students should work with a partner to write a
report on the activity. This gives them a chance to consolidate their learning by
discussing it.

Investigating the energy of the photoelectrons.
photocurrent
Students should obtain a graph like this.
stopping potential 0 p.d. between plates
The ‘Think about this…’ on page 315 of the Students’ Book is designed to lead
into the discussion of the work function of a metal. Students need to be able to Activity 8.3: Answer
remember and apply the Einstein photoelectric equation. The wave and
The wave nature of matter is a concept which some students may find difficult particle nature
to grasp. If you start by describing experiments that give evidence for matter of photons and
electrons particles:
behaving with wave properties it helps students to get hold of the concept.
photoelectric
Activity 8.3 is an opportunity for students to consolidate this by thinking of
effect; wave:
experiments that give evidence for wave nature and particle nature of matter. diffractional light.
Grade 12 169
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle should be studied carefully so that students

do not get bogged down in the theory. Students should work with a partner to
summarise the information in the Students’ Book. As they work, walk round the
class and question students to check understanding.
The review questions for this section should be tackled with a partner to enable
students to discuss their understanding of the concepts.
Activities
• Demonstrating the photoelectric effect
• Investigating the energy of photoelectrons
• The wave and particle nature of photons and electrons
Resources
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality
http://www.tutorvista.com/topic/nature-matter
Where next?
The next section discusses models of the atom before moving on to discuss
nuclear stability and radioactivity.

1. A black body is a body that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation.
2.
E (J) h (Js) c (m/s) λ (m)
? 6.63 × 10–34 3 × 108 200 × 10–9
hc
Use E =
λ
6.63 × 10–34 × 3 × 108
=
200 × 10–9
= 9.95 × 10–19 J
3.
photon energy (ev) ϕ (eV) KEmax (eV)
? 2.93 1.92
1
Use hf = ϕ + ( mv2)max
2
= 2.93 + 1.92
= 4.85 eV
4.85 eV = 4.85 × 1.6 × 10–19 J
= 7.76 × 10–19 J
170 Grade 12
hc
E = hf =
hc λ
λ =
E
–34 8
= 6.63 × 10 × 3 × 10
7.76 × 10–19
= 2.56 × 10–7 m
= 256 nm
4. a) 5000 V is 5000 J/C
An electron has charge 1.6 × 10–19 C
so its KE will be 5000 × 1.6 × 10–19 J = 8×10–16 J
KE (J) m (kg) v (m/s)
8 × 10–16 9.11 × 10–31 ?
1 2
Use KE = mv
2
v = 2 × KE
√ m
–16
= 2 × 8 × 10–31
√ 9.11 × 10
= √1.76 × 1015

= 4.2 × 107 m/s
b)
p (kg m/s) m (kg) v (m/s)
? 9.11 × 10–31 4.2 × 107
Use p = mv
= 9.11 × 10–31 × 4.2 × 107
= 3.83 × 10–23 kg m/s
c)
λ (m) h (J s) p (kg m/s)
? 6.63 × 10–34 3.83 × 10–23
h
Use λ =
p
6.63 × 10–34
=
3.83 × 10–23
= 1.73 × 10–11 m
5. Hesenberg’s uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to know both the
exact position and the exact velocity (and therefore momentum) of a particle.
6.
∆p (kg m/s) h (J s) λ (m)
? 6.63 × 10–34 1.73 × 10–11
h
Use ∆p =
λ
Grade 12 171
–34
= 6.63 × 10
1.73 × 10–11
= 3.83 × 10–23 kg m/s
∆x (kg m/s) h (Js) ∆p (kg m/s)
? 6.63 × 10–34 3.83 × 10–23
Use ∆x ∆p ≥ h
∆x ≥ h
∆p
–34
≥ 6.63 × 10–23
3.83 × 10
≥ 1.73 × 10–11 m
This section should 8.2 Atoms and nuclei

fill approximately
14 periods of
• Describe Rutherford’s model of the atom.
• Describe Bohr’s model of the atom.
• Show understanding that electrons can only exist at specific energy
states, and will not be found with energies between those level.s
• Compute the change in energy of an atom using the relation ΔE = Ef − Ei.
• Represent diagrammatically the structure of simple atoms.
• Use the relationship A = Z + N to explain what is meant by the term isotope.
• Compare the charge and mass of the electron with the charge and mass of
the proton.
• Identify nuclear force is a very strong force that holds particles in a
nucleus together.
• State some important properties of the strong force.
• Show radius and mass number are related mathematically
R = (1.2 × 10−15 m)A1/3.
• State the approximate size of an atom.
• State nuclear properties.
• Explain how nuclear stability is determined by binding energy per nucleon.
• Define the term binding energy.
• Compare graphs of stable and unstable nuclei.
• Interpret graphs of binding energy per nucleon versus mass number.
• Associate radioactivity with nuclear instability.
• Define the term nuclear fission.
• Define the term nuclear fusion.
• Distinguish between fission and fusion.
172 Grade 12
• Show understanding that radioactivity emission occurs randomly over space.

• Identify that the decay process is independent of conditions outside the
nucleus.
• Identify the nature of the three types of emissions from radioactive
substances.
• Distinguish between the three kinds of emissions in terms of their nature,
relative ionising effect, relative penetrating power.
• Describe the need for safety measures in handling and using radio isotopes.
• Describe experiments to compare the range of alpha, beta and gamma
radiation in various media.
• Predict the effect of magnetic and electric fields on the motion of alpha,
beta and gamma rays.
• Name the common detectors for α-particles, β-particles and γ−rays.
• Associate the release of energy in a nuclear reaction with a change in mass.
• Apply quantitatively the laws of conservation of mass and energy, using
Einstein’s mass−energy equation.
• Represent and interpret nuclear reactions of the form
14C → 14N + 0 e (beta particle).
6 7 −1

• Define the term half-life.
• Use graphs of random decay to show that such processes have a constant
half-life.
• State the uses of radioactive isotopes.
• Discuss problems posed by nuclear waste.

Rutherford’s model of the atom
SA With a partner, write down anything you know about the structure of atoms. Feed back
ideas.
MA With a partner, summarise Rutherford’s model of the atom and the evidence for the model.
CA Why was the fact that some particles were deflected at large angles surprising if Thomson’s
model had been correct? Discuss with a partner and feed back ideas.
Bohr’s model of the atom
SA How does Bohr’s model allow line spectra to be explained? Discuss with a partner and feed
back ideas.
Grade 12 173
The model of the atom we use now

SA Why does Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle lead to ‘probability clouds’ of electrons? Discuss
CA Why can we say that a nitrogen nucleus has 7 protons and a carbon nucleus has 6 protons?
Isotopes
SA With a partner, write down a definition of an isotope. Feed back ideas.
CA In a small group, research isotopes of iron. How many protons and how many neutrons are
there in each isotope?
The strong nuclear force
SA Why do particles have to be extremely close together before the strong nuclear force is felt?
MA With a partner, make a poster to summarise the information given about the strong nuclear
force.
Nuclear properties and stability
SA With a partner, write a definition of N and Z. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, prepare a presentation on nuclear stability.
CA Presentations on nuclear stability.
Types of nuclear radiation
SA How does nuclear instability lead to nuclear radiation? Discuss with a partner and feed back
ideas.
MA Think about this ... on page 306 of Students’ Book in small group.
CA Activity 8.7 in a small group.
Penetrating power of alpha, beta and gamma radiation
SA With a partner, discuss the reasons for the safety precautions when using radioactive
sources. Feed back ideas.
The relationship between mass and energy
SA What is an atomic mass unit? Discuss with a partner and feed back ideas.
MA Why will any nuclear reaction that increases the binding energy per nucleon give out energy?
Representing and interpreting nuclear reactions
SA With a partner, write down a list of the types of equation that you have met so far across all
your subjects. What do they all have in common? Feed back ideas.
MA Worked examples 8.9 and 8.10 to be tackled with a partner without given solution. Feed back
ideas.
CA With a partner, write a summary of what you have learnt in this lesson. Feed back ideas.
174 Grade 12
Radioactive half-life
SA Why do we say that radioactive decay is a random process? Discuss with a partner and feed
back ideas.
MA With a partner, summarise the information on radioactive half-life in a form of your choice.
CA Worked examples 8.11, 8.12, 8.13 and 8.14 to be tackled with a partner without given
solution. Feed back ideas.
Uses of radioactive isotopes
SA With a partner, write a definition of radioactive isotopes. Feed back ideas.
CA Presentation of results of activity.
Nuclear power
SA How does Einstein’s mass−energy equation suggest that nuclear reactions might be useful in
power generation? Discuss with a partner and feed back ideas.
CA Presentation from activity.
The problems posed by nuclear waste
SA With a partner, write down five things you would like to know about nuclear waste. Feed
back ideas.
MA With a partner, write an argument for building a new nuclear power station Ethiopia and then
write an argument against the same building project. Which side of the argument do you think
is strongest?
End-of-unit questions to be tackled with a partner.
Starting off
Begin by asking students to work with a partner to write down anything they
already know about the structure of the atom. They may have experience from
chemistry to bring in here. It is important that students realize that knowledge is
not compartmentalised into subject areas and that they are encouraged to bring
knowledge from other subjects to physics classes.

Students should summarise the information about Rutherford’s model of the To demonstrate a
atom. If Thomson’s model of the atom had been correct then the particles would simple absorption
not have been deflected as much since Thomson said that negative charge was spectrum.
spread throughout the main part of the atom. Students should
Bohr’s model, with its energy levels, allows line spectra to be explained since the find that the
lines appear at particular energy levels. Activity 8.4 is an opportunity for students solution absorbs at
to demonstrate a simple absorption spectrum. both ends of the
spectrum.
Students should discuss why Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle leads to
‘probability clouds’. The answer is that, according to the principle, we cannot know
precisely where an electron is at any time, just an approximation, or a probability
that it is in a given area, hence the probability clouds. Activity 8.5 may be revision
Grade 12 175
for students if they have come across dot and cross diagrams in chemistry, but it is
still useful reinforcement.
Representing
Students need to be aware that we can say how many protons a nucleus has if
the structure of
a simple atom
we know its atomic number and that an uncharged atom of a given element will
diagrammatically. always have the same number of protons as electrons. Isotopes of an element have
the same number of protons and electrons but different number of neutrons, so
× they have the same atomic number but different mass numbers. Activity 8.6 is an
× × opportunity for students to consolidate their understanding of isotopes.
Iron has several isotopes: 54Fe, 56Fe (stable), 57Fe and 58Fe. There was an isotope
× 60Fe which had a long half life but is now extinct. Each iron isotope has 26 protons
× and electrons, but 54Fe has 28 neutrons, 56Fe has 30, 57Fe has 31 and 58Fe has 32.
× Move on to discuss the four basic forces of nature (gravity, electromagnetic, weak
nuclear force and strong nuclear force). The strong force only has a short range,
which is why particies have to be very close together before it is felt. Students
Activity 8.6: Answer should summarise the information about the strong nuclear force. As they work,
Isotopes of chlorine
question them to check understanding.
35 Cl 37Cl
a) 17 N is the mass number of the nucleon and Z is the atomic number. Students should
17
35
work in pairs to prepare a presentation about nuclear stability. It is important that
b) 17
Cl has 18 neutrons they understand this concept as it is the basic reason why nuclear decay occurs as
37 Cl has 20 neutrons
17 nuclei try to become more stable.
The ‘Think about this…’ on page 332 of the Students’ Book is designed to get
students thinking about and applying their knowledge of nuclear radiations.
Gamma radiation is the least damaging and so it is the one that is most often used
in medicine. Activity 8.7 is an opportunity for students to apply their knowledge
to make predictions about how nuclear radiation will behave.

Predict the effect of magnetic and electric fields on the motion of alpha, beta and
gammas rays
Radiation Effect of magnetic field Effect of electric field

alpha Charged +2 so deflected Charged + so deflected towards – plate
beta Charged –1 so deflected Charged – so deflected toward + plate
but not as much as α
gamma No charge – no deflection No charge – no deflection
Activity 8.8 is a simple simulation of nuclear reactions.

Simulating nuclear reactions.
Students should find that increasing speed of bombarding particles will increase number
ejected. Also, heavier bombarding particles will result in more particles being ejected.
Students will reinforce their knowledge of nuclear radiation if they discuss the reasons
for the safety precautions listed on page 332. Basically, the precautions ensure that
students are exposed to as little radiation as possible. Activity 8.9 is an opportunity for
students to explore the penetrating power of various types of radiation, before they
research common detectors for the types of radiation in Activity 8.10.
176 Grade 12
Activity 8.9: Answer Activity 8.10: Answer

Penetrating power of alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Research the
common detectors
Students should observe that the count decreases with low density absorber for
for α-particles,
alpha source, that more density required to decrease the count for beta source, and
β-particles, γ−rays.
that lead is needed to decrease county for gamma source
A Geiger-Muller
The relationship between mass and energy is the basis of nuclear power. Students tube will detect
need to understand the definition of an atomic mass unit which is given on page all radiations but
334 of the Students’ Book, and also understand that, as nuclei become more stable students will find
(binding energy increases) energy is emitted. other examples at
Students have met many sorts of equations over their school career, from simple http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/particle_
numerical equations, to algebraic equations, to chemical equations, and now
detector. Credit
nuclear equations. All of them are balanced (the left hand side balances the right should be given
hand side in some way). Students need to be clear about this need for balance in for clarity of
order to tackle nuclear equations successfully. presentation and
Radioactive half-life is a key concept for students. They should be aware of the suitability of format.
definition: the time taken for the activity of a sample to fall to half its initial value,
and how half-life is related to the activity and the number of atoms in the sample. Activity 8.11: Answer
Students should also know how to plot activity graphs and use them to calculate
Uses of radioisotopes
half lives. Radioactive decay is a random process because we cannot say precisely
in dating
how many atoms will decay at a given time, just the probability of decay. archaeological
Radioactive isotopes are isotopes that are not stable and emit radioactive particles samples.
to become more stable, in a process known as radioactive decay. Radioactive This activity
decay series can be written as a series of nuclear reaction equations. Activity 8.11 is designed to
is an opportunity for students to research how radioactive isotopes are used in prompt students
dating archaeological samples. Allow time for students to present this research. to investigate
radiocarbon dating.
Move on to discuss nuclear power. Activity 8.12 is an opportunity for students to
research nuclear power in Africa. Allow time for the presentation of this research.
Inevitably, students will be aware that nuclear power is not without controversy. The
final lesson in this unit gives students an opportunity to take a balanced approach to Research nuclear
a relevant scientific issue. By this stage in their studies they should be able to do this power.
and be ready to take their place as knowledgeable members of our society. Students should
be given credit for
the clarity of their
Activities presentation.
• Demonstrate a simple absorption spectrum
• Represent the structure of a simple atom diagrammatically
• Isotopes of chlorine
• Predict the effect of magnetic and electric fields on the motion of alpha, beta,
and gamma rays
• Simulating nuclear reactions
• Penetrating power of alpha, beta and gamma radiation
• Research the common detectors for alpha, beta and gamma
• Uses of radioisotopes in dating archaeological samples
• Research nuclear power
Grade 12 177
Resources
http://www.practicalphysics.org/go/Topic_40.html?topic_id=40
http://tap.iop.org/atomic/index.html
Where next?
This is the final unit for this grade. Students should now revise for their final
examinations.

1. a) Rutherford’s model of the atom is a small, central, positively charged
nucleus, surrounded by orbiting electrons.
b) Bohr’s model of the atom is that the electrons can only exist in particular
energy states – energy decreases as they move towards the nucleus.
2. λ = 620 × 10–9 m
c 3 × 108
f= =
λ 620 × 10–9
= 4.84 × 1014 Hz
6.62 × 10–34 × 4.84 × 1014
E1 – E2 = hf =
1.602 × 10–19
= 2.00 eV
λ = 540 × 10–9 m
c 3 × 108
f = =
λ 540 × 10–9
= 5.56 × 1014 Hz
6.62 × 10–34 × 5.56 × 1014
E1 – E2 = hf =
1.602 × 10–19
= 2.298 eV
λ = 290 nm
c
f =
λ
3 × 108
=
290 × 10–9
= 1.03 × 1015 Hz
6.62 × 10–34 × 1.03 × 1015
E1 – E2 = hf =
1.602 × 10–19
= 4.26 eV 0
Energy changes are Diagram is 620 nm 540 nm 290 nm
620 nm 2.00 eV 2.00 eV

2.298 eV
540 nm 2.298 eV
290 nm 5.26 eV
Values are 2.00 eV, 2.298 eV, 4.26 eV 4.26 eV
Values are 3.2 × 10–19 J, 3.7 × 10–19 J, 6.9 × 10–19 J
178 Grade 12
3 ×
× ×
×
×

×
4. An isotope of an element is a nuclide of a given element that has the same
number of protons as another nuclide of the element (so its atomic number is
the same) but a different number of neutrons (so its mass number is different).
For example 126 C, 136 C and 146 C.
1
5. The charge and mass of an electron are that of a proton.
1836
6. a) The strong nuclear force is a very strong force that holds the particles in a
nucleus together.
b) The strong force is the same between any two nucleons and acts over a very
short range.
7. a) The radius and the mass number are related by the equation
1
r = (1.2 × 10–15)A3 m
b) The radii of atoms vary from 35 × 10–12 m for hydrogen to 175 × 10–12 m
for americium.
8. Nuclear properties are:
• For the most common isotope of lighter nuclei, N is approximately equal to Z.
• As we get past Z = 20, N becomes considerably greater than Z.
• Bismuth is the heaviest stable nucleus. Heavier nuclei are all unstable. Nuclei
from Z = 84 to Z = 92 are natural and all their isotopes are radioactive.
• Nuclei heavier than Z = 92 are all artificial.
9. As nuclei get heavier than helium, their net binding energy per nucleon (found
by calculating the difference in mass between the nucleus and the sum of the
masses of the constituent nucleons) grows more slowly and reaches its peak at
iron, as shown.
9
16
O 235
U
12
C 56
Fe
8 238
U
4
He
Average binding energy per nucleon (MeV)
6
7
Li
5 6
Li
3 H
3
He
3
2
H
1
1
H
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
Number of nucleons in nucleus
Grade 12 179
As nucleons are added, the total binding energy increases but so does the
total disruptive energy of the electrostatic forces and, once nuclei are heavier
than iron, the increase in disruptive energy has more effect than the increase
in binding energy. To reduce the disruptive energy, the weak interaction
allows more neutrons to be added so that the number of neutrons exceeds the
number of protons. However, at some stage the only way for the nucleus to
become more stable will be to emit particles by radioactivity.
10. a) Radioactivity is a mechanism by which a nucleus can become more stable
by emitting particles.
b) Nuclear fission is the nucleus becoming more stable by splitting into two or
more parts and emitting particles. An atom of one type, the parent nuclide,
transforms into an atom of another type, called the daughter nuclide,
together with some form of radiation. This process occurs randomly over
space and is independent of conditions outside the nucleus.
Nuclear fusion is the process by which two nuclei are fused together to form
a new nuclide. This process requires high temperature and pressure. It occurs
naturally in stars but research into artificial nuclear fusion is ongoing.
11. a) The three types of emissions from radioactive substances are alpha (α)
particles, which are 24 He nuclei, beta (β) particles, which are similar to
electrons but emitted from the nucleus, and gamma rays, which are a form
of electromagnetic radiation.
b)
Radiation Nature Relative Relative Effect of Effect of Common
ionising effect penetrating electric field magnetic field detector
power on radiation on radiation
4
Alpha 2 He nucleus Highly A few Deflects Deflects Geiger–
ionising centimetres Muller tube
in air,
completely
blocked by
paper and
skin
Beta Negative Less ionising Several Deflects in Deflects in Geiger–
charge, mass than alpha metres of air, opposite opposite Muller tube
of electron thin sheet of direction to direction to
aluminium alpha alpha
will absorb
Gammas No mass, Least ionising Never No charge so No charge so Geiger–
electro- radiation completely no deflection no deflection Muller tube
magnetic absorbed but
radiation energy can be
significantly
reduced
by several
centimetres
of lead or
several metres
of concrete
180 Grade 12
c) Because of the ionising effects of the radiation, safety measures are needed
when handling and using radioisotopes.
Radioactive sources that are used in school are usually very weak.
They can only be used in the presence of an authorised teacher.
They are kept in a sealed container except when they are being used in an
experiment or demonstration.
They are immediately returned to the container when the experiment or
demonstration is finished.
When using the radioactive source it should be:
1. Handled with tongs or forceps, never with bare hands.
2. Kept at arm’s length, pointing away from the body.
3. Always kept as far as possible from the eyes.
Hands must be washed after the experiment and definitely before eating.
d) The range of alpha, beta and gamma radiation in various media can be
compared using the equipment shown here.
data-logging computer absorbing material
recording counts
radioactive source
G-M tube
paper aluminium holder for

absorbing material
lead
12. When nuclear fission occurs, the binding energy is released. Einstein’s
equation
E = mc2
relates energy (E), mass (m) and the speed of light (c). When considering
nuclear reactions we often use the form
E = (∆m × 931.5) MeV
where ∆m is the change in mass.
Grade 12 181
13. a) 235 U
92 + 01 n → 137 95 1
55Cs + 37 Rb + 4 0 n
b) 5.8 × 1015 Bq at start

Half-life is 30 years
Activity (Bq) Years
2.9 × 1015 30 years
1.45 × 1015 60 years
7.25 × 1014 90 years
3.625 × 1014 120 years
1.8125 × 1014 150 years
9.0625 × 1013 180 years
4.53125 × 1013 210 years
2.265625 × 1013 240 years
1.1328125 × 1013 270 years
5.6640625 × 1012 300 years
2.83203125 × 1012 330 years
1.416015625 × 1012 360 years
7.080 × 1011 390 years
3.54 × 1011 420 years
1.77 × 1011 450 years
8.85 × 1010 480 years
4.43 × 1010 510 years
2.21 × 1010 540 years
1.11 × 1010 570 years
5.53 × 109 600 years
2.77 × 109 630 years
1.38 × 109 660 years
6.91 × 108 690 years
3.46 × 108 720 years
1.73 × 108 750 years
8.64 × 107 780 years
4.32 × 107 810 years
2.16 × 107 840 years
1.08 × 107 870 years
5.4 × 106 900 years
2.7 × 106 930 years
1.35 × 106 960 years
So about 940 years to decay
c) This length of time presents storage difficulties since the containers need
to be made of material that will not degrade in that time, so they will be
almost permanent fixtures in the environment (albeit probably buried
underground). The area in which they are buried will not be usable for any
other purpose.
14. Uses of radioisotopes include: radiocarbon dating of archaeological sites,
medical treatment and diagnosis, power sources for space travel, nuclear
generation of electricity.
182 Grade 12

1. A black body is a body that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation.
2
E (J) h (J s) c (m/s) λ (m)
? 6.63 × 10–34 3 × 108 290 × 10–9
hc
Use E =
λ
6.63 × 10–34 × 3 × 108
=
290 × 10–9
= 6.86 × 10–19 J
3.
photon energy (eV) ϕ (eV) KEmax (eV)
? 2.36 1.92
1
Use hf = ϕ + ( mv2)max
2
= 2.36 + 1.92
= 4.28 eV
4.28 eV = 4.28 × 1.6 × 10–19 J
= 6.848 × 10–19 J
hc
E = hf =
hc λ
X =
E
= 6.63 × 10–34 × 3 × 108
6.848 × 10–19
= 2.904 × 10–7 m
= 290 nm
4. a) 7500 V is 7500 J/C
An electron has charge 1.5 × 10–19 C
so its KE will be 7500 × 1.6 × 10–19 = 1.2 × 10–15 J
KE (J) m (kg) v (m/s)
1.2 × 10–15 9.11 × 10–31 ?
1
Use KE = mv2
2
v = 2 × KE
√ m
–15
= 2 × 1.2 × 10
√ 9.11 × 10–31
= √2.63 × 1015

= 5.13 × 107 m/s

Grade 12 183
b)
p (kg m/s) m (kg) v (m/s)
? 9.11 × 10–31 5.13 × 107
Use p = mv
= 9.11 × 10–31 × 5.13 × 107
= 4.67 × 10–23 kg m/s
c)
λ (m) h (J s) p (kg m/s)
? 6.63 × 10–34 4.67 × 10–23
h
Use λ =
p
6.63 × 10–34
=
4.67 × 10–23
= 1.42 × 10–11 m
5. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to know both the
exact position and the exact velocity (and therefore momentum) of a particle.
6.
∆p (kg m/s) h (J s) λ (m)
? 6.63 × 10–34 2.5 × 10–11
h
Use ∆p =
λ
–34
= 6.63 × 10
2.5 × 10–11
= 2.65 × 10–23 kg m/s

∆x (kg m/s) h (Js) ∆p (kg m/s)
? 6.63 × 10–34 2.652 × 10–23
Use ∆x ∆p ≥ h
∆x ≥ h
∆p
–34
≥ 6.63 × 10 –23
2.652 × 10
≥ 2.5 × 10–11 m
7. Bohr’s model refines Rutherford’s model by saying that the orbiting electrons
can only exist in particular energy states and that energy decreases as the
electrons move closer to the nucleus.
8. a) λ = 588 × 10–19 m
c 3 × 108
f = =
λ 620 × 10–9
= 5.10 × 1014 Hz
E = hf
= 6.63 × 10–34 × 5.1 × 1014
= 3.38 × 10–19 J
184 Grade 12
b) Below is a sketch of the energy levels of helium. The transition from

–2.4 × 10–19 J to –5.80 × 10–19 J is 3.38 × 10–19 J, which is the energy of the
photon described in part a) with a wavelength of 588 nm.
–1.59
–2.42
–3.00
×10–19 J

–5.80
–7.64

9. a) ×
×
× ×
× ×
××
17p
× 18n
× ×
×
× ×
× ×

b) Isotopes are nuclides with the same atomic number and so same
number of protons in the nucleus, but different numbers of neutrons.
For example 35 37
17Cl has 17 protons and 18 neutrons but 17Cl has 17 protons
and 20 neutrons.
10. The strong nuclear force holds nucleons in a nucleus together. It acts over very
short distances and is the same between ay two nucleons.
11. For the most common isotope of lighter nuclei, N is approximately equal to Z.
As we get past Z = 20, N becomes considerably greater than Z.
Bismuth is te heaviest stable nucleus. Heavier nuclei are all unstable. Nuclei
from Z = 84 to Z = 92 are natural and all their isotopes are radioactive.
Nuclei heavier than Z = 92 are all artificial.
12. Binding energy is the difference in energy between the energy of the bound
nucleus and the energy of the constituent nucleons. The energy is given by
E = ∆m × 931.5 MeV where ∆ the difference in mass between the bound
nucleus and the sum of the masses of its constituent parts.
Binding energy per nucleon reaches its peak value at N =56 (iron). As more
nucleons are added, the total binding energy increases but so does the total
disruptive energy of the electrostatic forces. Once nuclei are heavier than iron,
the increase in disruptive forces has more effect than the increase in binding
energy. To reduce the disruptive energy, the weak interaction allows more
neutrons to be added so that the number of neutrons exceeds the number of
protons. However, at some stage the only way for the nucleus to become more
stable will be to emit particles by radio activity, which is a change in mass, ∆m,
and so releases energy = ∆m × 931.5 MeV.
Grade 12 185
13.
Radiation Nature Relative Relative Effect of Effect of Common
ionising effect penetrating electric field magnetic field detector
power on radiation on radiation
4
Alpha 2 He nucleus Highly A few Deflects Deflects Geiger–
ionising centimetres Muller tube
in air,
completely
blocked by
paper and
skin
Beta Negative Less ionising Several Deflects in Deflects in Geiger–
charge, mass than alpha metres of air, opposite opposite Muller tube
of electron thin sheet of direction to direction to
aluminium alpha alpha
will absorb
Gammas No mass, Least ionising Never No charge so No charge so Geiger–
electro- radiation completely no deflection no deflection Muller tube
magnetic absorbed but
radiation energy can be
significantly
reduced
by several
centimetres
of lead or
several metres
of concrete
56Ra → 84Po + 2He
14. a) 220 216 4
b) Measure the activity of a radon -220 source over time and plot activity
versus time. Use the graph to find how long it takes for the activity of the
source to halve in value.
c) The activity falls from 8 × 1020 to 4 × 1020 in 35 hours and from 4 × 1020
to 2 × 1020 in 30 hours. The half-life is therefore about 32.5 hours.
d)
t½ (h) ln 2 λ
32.5 0.693 ?
Use λ = ln 2
t½
= 0.693
32.5
= 0.02
15. Neutrons produced in the upper atmosphere collide with nitrogen atoms and
convert them into the radioactive isotope carbon -14. Carbon -14 combines
with oxygen and passes into living plants. Carbon -14 is produced at a
constant rate and can only be absorbed by living organisms. By comparing
the activity of carbon -14 emitted by a living organism with that of a similar
organism or specimen that was once alive but is now dead the time elapsed can
be measured.
186 Grade 12
Minimum learning Grade 12
competencies
Area of competency Grade 12
Thermodynamics • Define the scientific terms :isothermal change, adiabatic change, change
of state of a gas, molar gas constant.
• Solve problems related to the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
• Describe the fundamental principles of heat engine.
• Solve problems involving calculations of P, V or T for a gas undergoing
adiabatic changes.
• Show that the molar heat capacity at constant pressure is greater than the
molar heat capacity at constant volume.
• Evaluate Cp – Cv for an ideal gas.
Cp
• Evaluate for an ideal gas.
Cv
Oscillations and waves • Define and use the terms simple harmonic motion (SHM), resonance.
• Give simple examples of vibrating systems.
• Draw and interpret graphs to show how KE and PE of an oscillator vary
with time.
• Use expressions for the frequency and periodic time of oscillations of
objects performing SHM.
• Solve problems on SHM involving periods of vibration and energy
changes.
• Explain the effect of damping on the amplitude of a system that is
vibrating.
• Identify the properties of standing waves for both mechanical and
sound waves.
• Explain the conditions required for standing waves to occur.
• Explain the Doppler effect, and predict in qualitative terms the
frequency change that will occur in a variety of conditions.
• Explain the modes of vibrations of strings and solve problems involving
vibrating strings.
• Explain the way air columns vibrate.
• Solve problems involving vibrating air columns.
Grade 12 187
Grade 12: Physics Minimum Learning Competencies
Electrostatics • Define the terms: electric field strength, electric potential, electric dipole,
electric dipole moment, dielectric, electric flux, dielectric constant.
• Explain Coulomb’s law using the ideas of vectors.
• Map an electric field lines pattern using electric lines of force .
• Define capacitor and capacitance.
• Solve problems related to the capacitances of parallel plate capacitors.
• State Gauss’s law qualitatively.
• Compare the characteristics of electric potential energy with those of
gravitational potential energy.
• Explain the electric field and the electric forces produced by a single
point charge, two point charges and two oppositely charged parallel
plate.
• Describe and explain, in qualitative terms, the electric field that exists
• Apply the formula the electric field strength at a point due to an isolated
point charge.
• Use the formula for the electric potential at a point due to an isolated
point charge.
Steady electric current • Explain the meaning of a coulomb, a volt, an ohm, potential difference,
and circuit properties resistance, e.m.f, kWh.
• Identify the SI units of electric current, current density, resistance,
resistivity, conductivity, temperature coefficient of resistance.
• Distinguish between electrostatic and non-electrostatic fields.
• Differentiate between e.m.f. and p.d of a source.
• Solve electrical circuit problems involving the relationship between
e.m.f, current and résistance for a complete circuit.
• Distinguish between e.m.f. and p.d. of ohmic (linear) and non-ohmic
(non-linear) devices.
• State Kirchhoff ’s laws.
• Solve problems in which meter resistance is involved.
• Describe how a galvanometer can be modified to measure a wide range
of currents and potential differences.
• Calculate shunt and multiplier values for use with a meter to give
different current and voltage ranges.
involving it.
• Explain the principle of a potentiometer and how it can be used for
measurement of e.m.f, p.d, resistance and current.
188 Grade 12
Magnetism • Describe and illustrate the magnetic field produced by an electric current
in a long straight conductor and in a solenoid.
• Predict by applying the right-hand rule, the direction of the magnetic
field produced when electric current flows through a long straight
conductor and through a solenoid.
magnetic field.
magnetic fields.
• Distinguish between the terms: dia-, para-, and ferromagnetic materials.
• Describe the causes of Earth’s magnetism.
• Describe an experiment to obtain the flux pattern around a bar magnet,
straight current-carrying wire, a solenoid carrying a current.
Electromagnetic • Use the terms: induced e.m.f, back e.m.f, magnetic flux, flux linkage,
induction and a.c. circuits eddy current.
• Use the laws of electromagnetic induction that predict the magnitude
magnetic field.
• Use the force on a charged particle in a magnetic field.
• Use the flux density near a long straight wire, at the centre of circular
coil, inside and at the end of a long solenoid .
magnetic fields.
• Describe in words, or by sketch, the general shape and relative intensities
of magnetic field strength around a long straight current-carrying wire,
a long solenoid.
electric current induced by a changing magnetic field, using the right-
hand rule.
• Explain Ampere’s law.
• Use an expression for the induced e.m.f. in a conductor moving through
a uniform magnetic field by considering the forces on the charges.
• Solve problems involving calculations of the induced e.m.f, induced
current.
• Compare direct current (d.c.) and alternating current (a.c.) in qualitative
terms.
• Define the terms: self-inductance, L, mutual inductance, M, and henry.
• Apply the relationship between r.m.s. and peak values for the current
and potential difference for a sinusoidal waveform.
Grade 12 189
scientific meaning.
• Solve problems involving the magnitude and phase of current and
applied p.d. in an a.c. circuits that include resistors, capacitors and
inductors .
• Draw phasor diagrams for R, L and C circuits.
• Explain what are meant by r.m.s. values.
Wave optics • Describe an experiment to illustrate interference of waves .
• Draw diagrams to illustrate reflection and refraction of waves.
• Explain diffraction at a single slit.
• Explain beats.
• Solve problems involving interference and diffraction of waves.
• Explain the principle of Young’s double slit experiment.
Atomic physics • Describe Rutherford’s model of the atom.
• State the nature, charge and properties of alpha, beta and gamma
radiation.
• State the law of radioactive decay and explain the meaning of a half-life.
• Write equations to illustrate alpha and beta decay.
• State how many protons and neutrons their are in a nuclide for which
you are given the symbol.
• Interpret equations representing nuclear reactions indicating the nature
of energy released.
• Identify the relationship between mass and energy.
• Explain what is meant by the photoelectric effect.
• Describe an experiment to demonstrate the emission of photoelectrons.
• State how the rate of emissions of photoelectrons and their energy
depend upon the intensity and frequency of the incident radiation.
• Associate the release of energy in a nuclear reaction with a change in
mass.
• Discus problems posed by radioactive waste.
• Distinguish between fission and fission.
190 Grade 12
Physics syllabus
General objectives of Grade 12 physics
After completing Grade 12 physics lessons the students will be
able to:
• Understand the laws of thermodynamics, thermodynamical processes, work
and heat in thermodynamic processes, heat engines, reversible and irreversible
processes.
• Develop skills in applying the laws of thermodynamics to describe physical
phenomen.
• Acquire knowledge about waves and oscillations, periodic motion, simple
harmonic motion, standing waves, intensity and loudness and the human ear.
• Understand the concepts of electrical, gravitational and magnetic fields;
electromagnetic radiation; electromagnetic induction, and the interface
between energy and matter, the common applications of electrical and
electronic circuits, and the function and configuration of components used in
the circuits.
• Develop skills in using measuring instruments and common electrical devices,
constructing simple electrical circuits using common tools appropriately and
safely.
• Appreciate the applications of electrical and electronic technologies to the
humanity.
• Acquire knowledge and understanding of the dual nature of matter and
radiation, photoelectric effect, atoms and nuclei, radioactivity, mass defect,
nuclear fission and fusion
Grade 12 191
Unit 1: Thermodynamics (15 periods)
Unit outcomes: sstudents will be able to:
• Acquire knowledge and understanding in the laws of thermodynamics,
reversible and irreversible processes and heat engines.
• Understand that the work done by a heat engine that is working in cycle is the
difference between the heat flow into the engine at high temperature and the
heat flow at a lower temperature.
• Identify that the internal energy of an object includes the energy of random
motion of the object’s atoms and molecules.
• Solve problems involving heat flow, work and efficiency in a heat engine and
know that all real engines lose some heat to their surroundings.
• Know that heat flow and work are two forms of energy transfer between
systems.
• Understand ideal – gas processes and represent them on a P.V. diagram,
adiabatic processes, the properties of a macroscopic system in terms of the
microscopic behaviour of molecules.
Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able to: 1. Thermodynamics Start with a few basic thermodynamics concepts, namely
• Define the scientific 1.1. Thermal how temperature is measured, what temperature scales are
terms: isothermal, equilibrium and what is meant by heat. Then begin the discussion of the
isobaric, isochoric, and definition relationship between heat and temperature.
adiabatic processes. of temperature Make an emphasis on the fact that physicists do not say an
• Calculate work and (zeroth law of object has heat. Heat refers solely to the flow of energy due
heat for ideal gas thermodynamics) to temperature differences. Heat transfers thermal energy that
processes. (1 period) is internal to objects, related to the random motion of the
1.2. Work, heat atoms making up the objects. Heat is like work: It changes
• State the second law
and the first law of the energy of an object or system. It does not make sense to
of thermodynamics.
thermodynamics say “how much work a system has”, nor does it make sense to
• Describe ways of say “how much heat the system has”. Just as work is done by
(4 periods)
changing the internal a system or on a system, heat as thermal energy can enter a
energy of a gas. system or leave a system.
• Apply • Let the students in group design a process that will
thermodynamics decrease the pressure in the gas cylinder without changing
laws to solve simple the volume; a process that will increase the volume in the
numerical problems. gas cylinder without changing the temperature. let them
• Solve problems show the processes on a p-V diagram.
involving calculations Illustrate rapid cooling of gas upon expansion by making dry
of pressure, ice with carbon dioxide fire extinguisher. dry ice collects on
temperature or several layers of cloth held over end of nozzle.
volume for a gas
Use light bicycle pump with metal case to inflate tyre or
undergoing adiabatic
football. Rapid rise in metal case temperature is due more to
changes.
compression work converted to heat than to piston friction.
• Solve problems confirm by comparing case temperature after say, 20 strokes,
involving calculations in 30 seconds 20 strokes in 60 seconds.
of P, V or T for a gas
undergoing adiabatic
changes.
192 Grade 12
Grade 12: Physics syllabus

Students will be able 1.3 Kinetic theory of Experiments
to: gasses 1. The Java applet from http://jersey.uoregon.edu/vlab/
• Show that the molar (3 periods) Piston/index.html will help you to do a series of virtual
heat capacity at 1.4 Second law of experiments;
constant pressure thermodynamics, You will control the action of a piston in a pressure
is greater than the efficiency, and chamber which is filled with an ideal gas. The gas is
molar heat capacity entropy defined by four states: temperature; volume or density;
at constant volume. (4 periods) pressure and molecular weight. There are three possible
• Evaluate Cp – Cv and • Reversible and experiments to do. In the third experiment, labelled ideal
Cp irreversible processes gas law, you can select from the red, blue or yellow gas
for an ideal gas. 1.5 Heat engines and containers. Each gas in those containers has a different
Cv
refrigerators molecular weight and hence each will respond differently
• Use the expression under changing pressure conditions.
(3 periods)
for the pressure of
Demonstration(s)
an ideal gas in terms
of its density and 1. Java applets like the one available from
mean square speed http://lectureonline.cl.msu.edu/mp/kap10/cd283.htm
of molecules to solve Helps students to understand the effect of temperature and
problems. volume on the number of collisions of the gas molecules
• Solve problems to with the walls. In the applet, there is a provision to
determine P, V, T change the temperature and volume with the sliders on the
or r.m.s. speed of left side. The time for which the simulation runs can also
gas molecules for be adjusted. The applet counts all collisions and displays
an ideal gas, given the result after the run. By varying temperature and volume
relevant data. and keeping track of the number of collisions, students can
grasp of what the main result of kinetic theory will be.
• State the first law of
thermodynamics. Project work(s)
• Discover that the 1. Heat capacity determination can be proposed by a home-
second law of made calorimeter and a thermometer. The heat capacity of
thermodynamics a body is determined with the help of a calorimeter and a
places sharp thermometer. A simple calorimeter consists of a polished
constraints on the metallic cylinder placed into another metallic cylinder on
maximum possible corks (for thermal insulation) The inner cylinder is filled
efficiency of with water or some other liquid of known specific heat.
heat engines and A body of mass m, and specific heat capacity c, heated to
refrigerators. a certain temperature Ti is immersed in the calorimeter
of mass m1, and specific heat capacity c1, in which the
• Distinguish
temperature is measured. Suppose that the temperature
between reversible
of the liquid of mass m2, and specific heat capacity c2,
and irreversible
in the calorimeter is T 0 before the body is immersed in
processes.
it, and when the temperatures of the liquid and the body
• Describe the are equal, the temperature becomes Tf. From the law of
fundamental conservation of energy and assuming the heat given away
principles of by the hot object Q, the heat taken away by water and
heat engines and the calorimeter the calorimeter to be respectively and
refrigerators. respectively show that the specific heat capacity of the
• Solve problems body is
involving heat flow, c1m1(Tf − T 0) + c2m2(Tf − T 0)
work and efficiency c=
m(T − Tf)
in a heat engine.
(c1m1 + c2m2)(Tf − T 0)
=
m(T − Tf)
Grade 12 193

Students will be able Give examples of irreversible processes such as:
to: Stirring blends your coffee and sugar, it never unmixes them.
• Identify that all A plant in a sealed jar dies and decomposes to carbon and
real engines lose various gasses; the gases and carbon never spontaneously
some heat to their assemble themselves into a flower. They each show a clear
surroundings. direction of time, a distinct difference between past and
• Investigate the future.
physical principles Experiment
that all heat engines Cooling curve: The relationships between temperatures of a
and all refrigerators body (like hot water or liquid in calorimeter) with time. Find
must obey. the slope of curve at four different temperatures of hot body
and hence deduce Newton’s law of cooling.
Project work(s)
Students may investigate and report on the working principles
of different types of practical thermometers such as clinical
thermometer, oven thermometers, boiler thermometers and
temperature gauge in a car.
Contrast between mechanics and thermodynamics.
Using the engine as the basis of much of the discussion, focus
on two topics. One topic is the first law of thermodynamics,
the relationship between the energy supplied to an engine
and how much work it does. The other topic is the role of
gases in the functioning of an engine. Many engines use a
gas to function; applying some basic principles of how gases
behave proves very useful in understanding the functioning of
engines.
In analysing the processes in an engine cycle, In addition
to the first law of thermodynamics, the ideal gas law is very
useful. Here, briefly review this law, and show how it is used
in analysing heat engines.
194 Grade 12
Assessment
The teacher should assess each student’s work continuously over the whole unit
and compare it with the following description, based on the competencies, to
determine whether the student has achieved the minimum required level.
Students at minimum requirement level

A student working at the minimum requirement level will be able to: define
the terms system, surrounding, state thermal equilibrium, internal energy,
reversible process, irreversible process; state the zeroth law of thermodynamics,
the first law of thermodynamics and the second law of thermodynamics
qualitatively and quantitatively; solve problems related to the first and second
laws of thermodynamics; describe the working mechanisms of heat engines and
refrigerators; solve problems involving thermodynamic processes; describe ways
of changing the internal energy of a gas; describe the fundamental principles
of heat engine; solve problems involving calculations of P, V or T for a gas
undergoing adiabatic changes; use the expression for the pressure of an ideal gas
in terms of its density and mean square speed of molecules to solve problems;
solve problems to determine P, V, T or r.m.s. speed of gas molecules for an ideal
gas, given relevant data; show that the molar heat capacity at constant pressure is
greater than the molar heat capacity at constant volume;
Cp
evaluate Cp – Cv, and for an ideal gas.
Cv
Students above minimum requirement level
Students working above the minimum requirement level should be praised and
their achievements recognised. They should be encouraged to continue working
hard and not become complacent.
Students below minimum requirement level

Students working below the minimum requirement level will require extra help if
they are to catch up with rest of the class. They should be given extra attention in
class and additional lesson time during breaks or at the end of the day.
Grade 12 195
Unit 2: Oscillations and waves (18 periods)

Unit outcomes: students will be able to:
• Identify the characteristic properties of waves: interference (beats), diffraction,
refraction, Doppler effect.
• Demonstrate an understanding of the properties of mechanical waves and
sound and the principles underlying the production, transmission, interaction,
and reception of mechanical waves and sound.
• Investigate the properties of mechanical waves and sound through
experiments, and compare predicted results with actual results.
• Describe and explain ways in which mechanical waves and sound are
produced in nature, and evaluate the contributions to entertainment, health,
and safety of technologies that make use of mechanical waves and sound.

Students will be able 2. Oscillation and The study of both sound and optics is based on knowledge of
to: waves the nature of waves.
• Describe the 2.1. Periodic motion In lectures emphasis should be on the fact that energy can be
periodic motion of (Basic concepts) transmitted in only two ways – either by transfer of particles
a vibrating object (7 periods) or by waves. Stress that all waves have the same general
in qualitative terms, • SHM and its properties and follow the same laws, i.e. there is only one set
and analyse it in equation of rules of wave behaviour that need be learned.
quantitative terms The teacher can point out the relationship of velocity and
• Oscillation of a
(e.g. the motion displacement by reviewing the role of force in SHM.
spring
of a pendulum, a
• Simple pendulum Focus on the key point that for SHM to occur, the net force
vibrating spring, a
on an object has to be proportional and opposite in sign to
tuning fork). • Angular harmonic
its displacement. Again, use the example of a mass attached
• Derive and use motion
to a spring on a friction-free surface, like an air hockey table.
expressions for • Physical pendulum
Encourage students to be exposed (subjected) to three
the frequency and • Free, forced and trigonometric functions, and three graphs, for the
periodic time of damped oscillation displacement, velocity and acceleration of an object in simple
oscillations of • Resonance harmonic motion. All of these equations use the sine or
objects performing
• Energy in SHM cosine function; these are called sinusoidal functions. Show
simple harmonic
the equations.
motion.
Confirm the relationship between uniform circular motion and
• Describe the effects
SHM qualitatively and quantitatively.
damping, forced
oscillations and Students should realise that waves can be as plain to see as
resonance. the ripples in a pond or as invisible as the electromagnetic
waves emanating from a cellular phone. Mechanical waves,
• Relate the energy of
like those in a pond, require a medium in order to propagate.
an oscillator to its
Electromagnetic waves − including radio waves and light
amplitude.
− require no medium and can travel in the near vacuum
• Explain the energy of space. Electromagnetic waves rely on the interaction of
changes that electric and magnetic fields to propagate through space.
occur when a body
performs simple
harmonic motion.
196 Grade 12

Students will be able 2.2. Wave motion Students should understand that mechanical waves are
to: (4 periods) vibrations in a medium, traveling from place to place without
• Solve problems on • Longitudinal and causing any net movement of the medium. Associate the
simple harmonic transverse waves lesson with “the wave” in a football or baseball stadium. The
motion involving wave travels around the stadium, the result of spectators
• Speed of a
period of vibration standing and then sitting in a rolling succession. As the
longitudinal wave
and energy transfer. fans oscillate up and down, they create what is called a
• Mathematical disturbance or waveform. The location of the disturbance
• Explain and representation of a
graphically illustrate changes as the wave moves through the stadium, but the
traveling wave wave’s medium, the crowd, stays put. A wave in a stadium is
the principle of
• Principle of a useful example, but it is not a true mechanical wave.
superposition, and
superposition of Students should appreciate that in both transverse and
identify examples
waves longitudinal waves, the particles do move, but there is no
of constructive
and destructive 2.3 Sound, loudness net motion of the particles after each cycle. A particle moves
interference. and human ear up and down, or back and forth, but it returns to its initial
(7 periods) position. It oscillates like a mass attached to a spring.
• Analyse the
components of • Reflection of waves. Students should appreciate that a wave’s amplitude is related
resonance and • Standing waves in to the energy it carries. Waves with greater amplitude carry
identify the strings and organ more energy. They can experience this relationship at the
conditions required pipes beach; they may barely notice a small-amplitude wave
for resonance to • Fundamental mode crashing into you, while a large-amplitude wave may knock
occur in vibrating and harmonics, you off your feet!
objects and in beats The teacher should demonstrate a wave in which the particles
various media. • Doppler effect oscillate in simple harmonic motion. An equation that includes
• Identify the the sine function is used to describe a particle’s displacement.
properties of The equation relates the vertical displacement of the particle
standing waves and, to various factors: the horizontal position of the particle,
for both mechanical the elapsed time, and the wave’s amplitude, frequency and
and sound waves, wavelength. When all these factors are known, the vertical
explain the position of a point can be determined at any time t.
conditions required Y = A sin(2πx /λ -2πft)
for standing waves Draw a diagram of a snapshot of a wave that started at the
to occur. left and traveled along a stretched string for 3.00 seconds.
• Analyse, in Ask students to use the equation that describes a traveling
quantitative terms, wave that exactly matches the target wave.
the conditions Students should use wave equation and wave –speed equation
needed for to solve sample problems in their text books.
resonance in air
Given the motion of a particle of a wave plotted against a
columns, and explain
time scale, let students answer the frequency f and the period
how resonance is
T of the wave by looking at the graph and noting the time
used in a variety of
elapsed between two points.
situations.
Experiments and demonstrations are absolutely necessary to
• Analyse resonance
study and understand wave behaviour.
conditions in
air columns in
quantitative terms.
Grade 12 197

Students will be able Experiments
to: 1. Simple harmonic motion of a spring–mass system can
• Identify musical be studied to investigate the motion and properties of a
instruments using spring-mass system undergoing simple harmonic motion
air columns, and to verify the relationship among the variables
and explain how Demonstrations
different notes are
1. A long coil of wire (slinky toy) which can be stretched across
produced.
the room can be used to demonstrate both longitudinal and
• Explain the Doppler transverse waves. Shaking the coil from side to side produces
effect, and predict a transverse wave. Holding the spring taut and releasing
in qualitative terms a group of bunched-up coils produces longitudinal waves.
the frequency Show that wave velocity is independent of how hard or
change that will frequently you shake the coil. A long helical spring, 2–3 cm
occur in a variety of in diameter and 6 m long, will serve as well, and, together
conditions. with the slinky, illustrates effects of change in media. The
• Explain the modes of coil spring is easier to use to demonstrate the formation of
vibrations of strings standing waves.
and solve problems 2. A ripple tank is excellent in showing refraction, diffraction,
involving vibrating and interference effects. A shallow dish on an overhead
strings. projector also works well.
• Explain the way air 3. A mechanical wave machine, if available, is very useful in
columns vibrate demonstrating wave behaviour.
and solve problems
Project work(s)
involving vibrating
air column. 4. “Graph” simple harmonic motion by having student oscillate
can of spray paint in unison with mass on spring, following
motion up and down as closely as possible. Have two other
students move 2–3 m length of paper horizontally at
constant speed past spray paint nozzle moving in vertical
plane. Result is large scale sine wave produced on a paper.
Alternately clamp meter stick to table and set in vibration;
add pen at end to get displacement-time curve on card
moved past pen at constant speed.
Given a graph of a simple harmonic motion function, you
can ask students to calculate the phase constant.
5. Siren disk demonstrations: Rotate disk with variable speed
rotator and use jet of air directed at holes. Different
musical tones are heard from different circles of regularly
spaced holes but noise is heard from circles of randomly
spaced holes. Harmonic sounds are pleasing to ear. Place
disk overhead for large class to observe spacing
6. Induced resonance in tuning fork: Let students in groups
construct two wooden boxes, each with an open side. Fit
identical tuning forks snugly into holes in the tops of
the boxes and position the boxes opposite each other.
Strike one tuning fork and then slowly move the other box
back and forth until it starts to hum “in sympathy” with
the first. Does the induced tone have a higher, lower, or
identical frequency to the inducing (original) tone? Is the
amplitude of the induced sound greater, smaller or the
same as the original? Students should give the correct
answer from their observation.
198 Grade 12
Assessment

A student working at the minimum requirement level will be able to: define the
terms periodic motion, simple harmonic motion, angular harmonic motion,
resonance, fundamental modes, harmonics and beats; state the necessary
condition for the establishment of a standing wave, describe the conditions
for simple harmonic motion to take place; distinguish among free, forced,
and damped oscillations; identify points in simple harmonic motion where
acceleration, kinetic energy and potential energy are maximum/minimum; derive
the mathematical expression for a traveling wave; describe Doppler’s effect; solve
problems involving periodic and wave motion; give simple examples of vibrating
systems; explain the energy changes that occur when a body performs SHM; draw
and interpret graphs showing time variation of KE and PE of an oscillator; solve
problems on SHM involving periods of vibration and energy changes; explain the
damped oscillations; identify the properties of standing waves for both mechanical
and sound waves; explain the conditions required for standing waves to occur;
explain the Doppler effect, and predict, in qualitative terms the frequency change
that will occur in a variety of conditions; explain the modes of vibrations of strings
and solve problems involving vibrating strings; explain the way air columns
vibrate; solve problems involving vibrating air column.


Grade 12 199
Unit 3: Wave optics (10 periods)

• Recognise the limitations of geometric optics.
• Define and explain units and concepts related to the wave nature of light.
• Use laboratory materials in a prescribed manner when conducting lab
investigations.
• Explain the behaviour of light when light waves from coherent sources interact
each other (interference).
• Explain the behaviour of light when it interacts with material obstacles
(diffraction).
• Deduce the wave nature of light.
• Explain experimental observations using the wave nature of light.
• Demonstrate an understanding of the wave model of electromagnetic
radiation, and describe how it explains diffraction patterns, interference and
• Perform experiments relating the wave model of light and technical
applications of electromagnetic radiation to the phenomena of refraction,
diffraction, interference.

Students will be able 3. Wave optics Students have studied ray model of light in lower grades.
to: 3.1. Wave fronts and The importance of another model of light (wave model) can
• State Huygens’s Huygens’s principle be emphasised by the use of scientific and technological
principle. (1 period) applications of the wave nature of light such as polarization,
Polaroid sunglasses, rainbows, polished gemstones, stage
• Describe the 3.2. Reflection and
lighting, television, ultraviolet and ozone layer, medical
phenomenon of refraction of plane
and night vision applications of Infrared cameras, and the
wave interference wave fronts
Greenhouse effect.
as it applies to light (1 period)
in qualitative and Experiments
3.3. Proof of law
quantitative terms, of reflection and 1. Measurement of the wavelength of a monochromatic light
using diagrams and refraction using 2. Measurement of the focal length of a concave mirror.
sketches. Huygens’s principle 3. Verification of Snells law of refraction.
• Identify the (2 periods)
4. Using a spectrometer, measure the angle of the given
interference pattern 3.4. Interference prism and the angle of minimum deviation. Calculate the
produced by the (1 period) refractive index of the material.
diffraction of light
3.5. Young’s double Demonstrations
through narrow slits
slit experiment and
(single and double 1. Demonstration of polarisation using polaroids or other
expression for fringe
slits). suitable method.
width
• State the conditions (2 periods) 2. Use a prism to produce a spectrum from a white light.
necessary for the (Tell about Newton’s original experiment in 1665–6).
3.6. Coherent sources
interference of light Use a photocell (light meter) to scan the different colors.
and sustained
to be shown. Continue into the region beyond the red where nothing is
interference of light
visible. Tell students that it was the experimental discovery
(1 period)
of a non-visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum).
It is the infrared portion of the spectrum that produces the
feeling of warmth when it strikes our bodies.
200 Grade 12

Students will be able 3.7. Diffraction due Waves from a point source:
to: to a single slit 3. Place the water trough on the overhead projector, and
• Explain the principle (2 periods) fill it with about 2–3 cm of water. Use an eyedropper or
of Young’s double syringe held about 5 cm above the surface of the water
slit experiment. to drip drops in the center of the trough at a steady rate,
• Carry out and watch the pattern on the wall or screen. Observe what
calculations happens with fewer drops per second and more drops per
involving Young’s second. Let students sketch the observed wave pattern.
double slit Waves from two point sources
experiment. 4. Fill the two eye droppers with water, and hold them about
• Define and explain a 3 cm apart and about 5 cm above the surface of the
the concepts and water in the trough. Squeeze the droppers so that drops
units related to the fall from both at the same time at a fairly fast rate. Let
wave nature of light students sketch the observed wave pattern.
(e.g. diffraction, Let students in groups see an interference pattern created by
dispersion, wave causing a beam of light to pass through two parallel slits to
interference, illuminate a viewing screen.
reflection,
In this section, the teacher needs to review some of the
refraction).
fundamentals of interference, and discuss the conditions
• Describe and explain necessary for light to make the interference pattern. .Students
the phenomenon of may have already studied the interference of mechanical
wave diffraction as waves; some of the same principles and terminology are used
it applies to light in in discussing both kinds of interference.
quantitative terms,
Explain Young’s double-slit experiment, his experimental
using diagrams.
apparatus used to calculate the wavelength of the light,
• Solve problems clarify the analysis he employed in some detail.
involving
Emphasise the important premise: There is a relationship
interference and
between the locations of the bright fringes and wavelength.
diffraction of waves.
Next, use trigonometry to show how the wavelength of
monochromatic light can be determined from quantities that
Young could measure empirically.
Discuss the 2-slit bright and dark fringes equations. To
explain this equation, consider the relationship between
destructive interference, phase difference and path length.
Homemade single slit: The homemade single slit can be made
by carefully cutting a slit with the razor blade and ruler into
the metallic coating of the mirror. This produces a narrow
slit that is quite adequate for these activities(diffraction and
interference)
Grade 12 201
Assessment

the terms wave front, reflection, refraction. interference, diffraction of wave
fronts; state Huygens’s principle; prove the laws of reflection and refraction;
describe Young’s double slit experiment, diffraction due to a single slit; describe
experiments by which interference and diffraction phenomenon may be
demonstrated; describe an experiment illustrating interference of waves; draw
diagrams to illustrate reflection and refraction of waves; explain diffraction at a
single slit; explain beats; solve problems involving interference and diffraction
of waves; state the conditions necessary for the interference of light to be shown;
carry out calculations involving Young’s double slit experiment.


202 Grade 12
Unit 4: Electrostatics (14 periods)

Unit outcomes: Students will be able to:
• Know how to calculate the electric field resulting from a point charge..
• Understand static electric fields have as their source some arrangement of
electric charges. .
• Know how to apply the concepts of electrical potential energy to solve
problems involving conservation of energy.
• Acquire knowledge and understanding in electrostatic phenomenon.

Students will be able 4. Electrostatics Electrostatics is fundamental to any study of electrical
to: 4.1. Electric charge phenomena. Although students have the qualitative aspects
• Analyse, in and Coulomb’s law of static electricity in previous grades, the interpretation and
quantitative terms,, (5 periods) quantitative material will be new in Grade 12. Experiments
the electric field and Demonstrations are extremely important due to the
• Electric field, E
and the electric abstract nature of the discussions.
• Electric field of a
forces produced by a Experiments
point charge
single point charge, 1. Investigate charging and discharging of a capacitor
two point charges, • Electric field of
continuous charge 2. Investigation of E between parallel plates using a charged
and two oppositely
distribution foil strip.
charged parallel
plate. • A point charge in an 3. Electric field patterns. Plotting equipotential lines on a
electric field sheet of conducting material. Flame probe investigation
• Describe and
of potentials in a parallel plate capacitor and around a
explain, in • A dipole in an
charged sphere.
qualitative terms, electric field
the electric field Demonstrations
• Electric flux
that exists inside 1. Van de Graaff generator can be used for many
• Statement of
and on the surface demonstrations in electrostatics (charging, grounding).
Gauss’s law and its
of a charged application 2. A computer simulation of Millikan oil drop experiment
conductor. is a good example of the use of uniform electric fields
4.2. Electric potential
• Apply quantitatively produced by parallel plates. Note that the average charge
(5 periods)
the concept of of the electron had been known from electrochemistry, but
• Potential difference Millikan showed that each electron has the same charge.
electric potential
energy in a variety • Electric potential 3. Demonstrate charge sharing, emphasising on its
of contexts. due to a point application of energy minimisation and describing the
charge grounding process.
• Compare the
characteristics of • Electric potential 4. Charge a Leyden jar. Use rubber rod to lift out the inner
electric potential due to a dipole and conductor, and then touch the inner can with the outer
energy with those system of charges can to put both at the same potential. Using the rod,
of gravitational • Equipotential reassemble the jar. Test to show it is onece again cahrged.
potential energy. surfaces This test shows the storage of electric energy in the
• Derive the • Electric potential molecules of the plastic insulator.
relationship of a system of two
between electric point charges in an
field strength and electric field
potential.
• Use the formula for
the electric potential
at a point due to
an isolated point
charge.
Grade 12 203

Students will be able 4.3. Capacitors and Take apart a commercial capacitor (can be obtained from
to: dielectrics thrown away electronic gadgets like radio receiver) to show
• Apply the concepts (4 periods) its metal and plastic foils
of electrical • Parallel-plate To explain the nature of electric fields, first review the
energy to solve capacitors and fundamentals of the electrostatic force and state. Coulomb’s
problems involving dielectrics law. Explain how charges establish electric fields around
conservation of • Effect of a dielectric. themselves.
energy. • Use electric field diagrams to illustrate the nature of an
• Molecular theory of
• Explain qualitatively induced charges electric field. An electric field diagram consists of electric
the charge and field lines. Remind students to remember: Even after
discharge of a they calculate the strength of the field, their task is not
capacitor in series finished, because an electric field has both magnitude and
with a resistor. direction. They must specify the field’s direction.
• Explain the Start by calculating the field vector generated by each charge
behaviour of an at the given point to calculate the overall field at a point.
insulator in an Then add the vectors together. The result is the net electric
electric field. field at that point due to all the charges.
• Solve problems Discuss electric potential energy and electric potential.
involving Understanding these topics will be crucial to students
capacitances, understanding of how electric circuits and components work
dielectrics, Explain how electric charges and fields can create electric
energy stored in a potential energy, electric potential, and electric potential
capacitor. differences. Recalling the fundamentals of gravitational
potential energy may help to understand electric potential
energy because the two are analogous
Project work(s)
1. Study and report an industrial process which uses
electrostatics. Note that the principles and laws studied in
electrostatic are applicable in textile, cement and printing
industries.
Appropriate homework and example problems given by the
teacher need to
• Balance qualitative and quantitative reasoning.
• Emphasizing reasoning, de-emphasise formulae and
equations.
• Deal directly with phenomena and observations
The problems should focus students’ attention on
interpretation, on analysis, on reasoning, that is on doing
physics.
204 Grade 12
Assessment

terms electric field, electric dipole, electric flux, electric potential, equipotential
surfaces, capacitors, capacitance, dielectric; explain the molecular theory of
induced charges, the effect of inserting dielectric in the gap between the plates
of capacitors; sketch the electric field lines, equipotential lines for an isolated
point charges and a dipole; solve problems involving Coulomb’s law, electric
field ,electric potential and capacitance; explain coulomb’s law using the ideas
of vectors; map an electric field lines pattern using electric lines of force; solve
problems related to the capacitances of parallel plate capacitors; state Gauss law
qualitatively; compare the characteristics of electric potential energy with those
of gravitational potential energy; explain the electric field and the electric forces
produced by a single point charge, two point charges, and two oppositely charged
parallel plate; describe and explain, in qualitative terms, the electric field that
exists inside and on the surface of a charged conductor; apply the formula the
electric field strength at a point due to an isolated point charge; use the formula
for the electric potential at a point due to an isolated charge.


Grade 12 205

(13 periods)
• Demonstrate an understanding of the components and functions of electrical
circuits that are commonly found at home and in the workplace.
• Construct, analyse, simple electrical circuits, using schematic diagrams,
working with electrical tools and components, and examining small everyday
electrical devices and appliances.
• Investigate how electrical devices play a role in the economy of the local
community and in the improvement of our standard of living.

Students will be able 5. Steady electric Discussions and demonstrations in this unit can be enriched
to: current and circuit using a lot of everyday examples like magnetic and chemical
• Define the terms: properties effects. Experiments recommended in this unit can be
resistance, resistivity, (13 periods) performed by the students themselves.
conductivity, • Electric current. Experiments
current density, drift • Current density 1. I–V characteristics (Ohm’s law) for a given unknown
velocity. (drift velocity, resistance (e.g. 100 cm constantant wire), plotting a graph
• Define the units: mobility) of p.d. versus current. From the slope of the graph and the
coulomb, volt, ohm, • Resistance, length of the wire, calculate the resistance per cm of the
watt, joule. Resistively and wire.
• State Kirchhoff’s conductivity 2. Verification of the laws of combination of resistance.
laws. • Kirchhoff’s Laws and 3. Determination of internal resistance of a cell using
• Solve problems simple calculations potentiometer.
involving network • Measuring 4. Finding an unknown resistance by the use of Wheatstone’s
resistors. instruments bridge and determination of the specific resistance of a
• Analyse, in • The measurement wire.
quantitative terms, of resistance: Demonstrations
circuit problems Wheatstone bridge 1. Compare the e.m.f. of two cells using a potentiometer.
involving potential
• Potentiometer and 2. Variation in potential drop with length of slide wire for
difference, current
its uses constant current, hence to determine specific resistance.
and resistance.
• Potential dividers 3. Determine the internal resistance of a cell by
• Solve problems
in which meter potentiometer device.
resistance is Explain Kirchhoff’s two powerful rules that aid in the analysis
involved. of circuits. First discuss his loop rule. Show how to apply
• Describe how a Kirchhoff’s loop rule to some more complicated circuits.
galvanometer can Clarify Kirchhoff’s junction rule by stating it in simple words
be modified to as current in equals current out. Highlight Kirchhoff’s rule
measure a wide is an implication of the principle of conservation of charge,
range of currents and which states that charge is neither created nor destroyed.
potential differences. The amount of charge flowing in equals the amount of charge
• Calculate shunt and flowing out.
multiplier value for The last section on measuring instruments is to train students
use with a meter to in using galvanometer, ammeter, and voltmeter. Conversion
give different current of galvanometer to ammeter and voltmeter can be practiced
and voltage ranges. by the students. Commercial millimeters can also employed in
experiments.
206 Grade 12

Students will be able Demonstration: Resistance analogue.
to: Ball bearings, 1/4” (0.6 cm) diameter or less, moving through
• Identify and maze of nails simulate current flow in wire. Nail spacing and
appropriately ball size determine mean free path. Use different number
use equipment balls to show change in number of charge carriers. Inclined
for measuring board at different angles to show effect of different applied
potential difference, e.m.f.s(drift velocities).
electrical current, Demonstration
and resistance (e.g.
1. Solve simple circuit, then show by measuring currents
use multimeters
and voltages with digital meters that theoretical value are
and a galvanometer
confirmed. Discuss errors in measurement and meter errors
to make various
and their propagation through calculation.
measurements in an
electrical circuit. 2. Given circuit diagram, let students rank the bulbs in the
circuit according to brightness when the switch is open,
• Use an oscilloscope
when the switch is closed. They should also explain their
to show the
reasoning.
characteristics of the
electrical current). 3. Let students’ state whether the bulbs in the given circuits
are arranged in series, parallel, or neither, for each possible
• Explain the principle
combination of switch positions.
of Wheatstone bridge
solve problems The learning difficulties revealed in teaching and learning
involving it. electricity have to be adequately addressed. There appear to
be two key concerns:
• Explain the principle
of potentiometer and (1) Current flow and energy flow have to be clearly
how it can be used differentiated
for measurement of (2) Current and voltage have to be differentiated.
e.m.f, p.d, resistance Project work(s)
and current. 1. Conversion of galvanometer to an ammeter and voltmeter.
• Solve problems 2. Saving on your electric bill fluorescent bulbs deliver the
involving same amount of light using much less power. If one kWh
potentiometer costs 10¢ ,assist students to estimate the amount of money
circuits. they would save each month by replacing all the
75 W incandescent bulbs in their house by 15 W
fluorescent ones.
Grade 12 207
Assessment
The teacher should assess each students work continuously over the whole unit

the terms electric current, current density, resistance, conductivity, resistivity
,drift velocity mobility; describe the principles of potentiometer, wheatestone
bridge; describe how to convert a galvanometer to a voltmeter and an ammeter;
explain the meaning of a coulomb, a volt, an ohm, potential difference, resistance,
e.m.f, kWh; identify the SI units of electric current, current density, resistance,
resistivity, conductivity, temperature coefficient of resistance; distinguish between
electrostatic and non-electrostatic fields; differentiate between e.m.f and p.d. of a
source; solve electrical circuit problems involving the relationship between e.m.f,
current and resistance for a complete circuit; distinguish between e.m.f. and p.d,
ohmic (linear) and non ohmic (non linear) devices; state and apply Kirchhoff ’s
laws; solve problems involving network resistors; solve problems in which meter
resistance is involved; describe how a galvanometer can be modified to measure
a wide range of currents and potential differences; use the formula for the electric
potential at a point due to an isolated charge; calculate shunt and multiplier value
for use with a meter to give different current and voltage ranges; explain the
principle of Wheatstone bridge solve problems involving it; explain the principle
of potentiometer and how it can be used for measurement of e.m.f, p.d, resistance
and current.


208 Grade 12
Unit 6: Magnetism (12 periods)

• Demonstrate an understanding of the concepts, principles and laws related to
electric and magnetic forces and fields, and explain them in qualitative and
quantitative terms.
• Conduct investigations and Analyse and solve problems related to electric and
magnetic field.
• Explain the roles of evidence and theories in the development of scientific
knowledge related to electric, and magnetic fields, and evaluate and describe
the social and economic impact of technological developments related to the
concept of magnetism.
• Determine the magnitude of the force on a moving particle (with charge q) in
a magnetic field is qvB sin(a), where a is the angle between v and B (v and B
are the magnitudes of vectors v and B, respectively.
• Identify and describe examples of domestic and industrial technologies that
were developed on the basis of the scientific understanding of magnetic fields.

Students will be able 6. Magnetism Experiments
to: 6.1 Concepts of 1. The variation of magnetic field due to a current-carrying
• Describe the magnetic field conductor with distance and current can be investigated
properties, (1 period) with a variable direct current source and a compass needle.
including the three- • Magnetic field lines. The deflection, away from the N–S direction of a compass
dimensional nature, needle is proportional to the magnetic field strength of the
• Magnetic flux
of magnetic fields. current carrying wire.
6.2 The Earth and
• Analyse and predict, 2. The combined magnetic field of the Earth and a bar magnet
magnetic fields
by applying the placed with its north pole pointing geographic south can
(1 period)
right-hand rule, be plotted. Students can be asked to determine neutral
the direction of 6.3 Motion of charged points.
the magnetic field particles in magnetic
Describe the images on the screens of traditional televisions
produced when field
and computers are the result of electrons being accelerated
electric current (3 periods)
by an electric field, subsequently being “steered” by magnetic
flows through a long • Thomson’s fields, and then striking the screen to create light of different
straight conductor measurement of e/m colors at specific locations.
and through a 6.4 Magnetic force Stress on the four factors that determine the amount of force
solenoid. on current-carrying exerted by a magnetic field on a moving particle. They are the
• Use the expression conductors (long particle’s charge and speed, the strength of the magnetic field
for the force on a straight, circular and the angle of intersection between the particle’s velocity
current carrying loop) and the magnetic field. The force is greatest when these two
conductor in a (3 periods) vectors are perpendicular, and zero when they are parallel.
magnetic field. 6.5. Ampere’s law and 3. Hang current-bearing wire in field of strong magnet to
• Solve problems its application show the effect of transverse force. Connect flexible wire
on the motion of (2 periods) and switch to lab supply capable of up to 5 A. Arrange wire
charged particles to hang loosely in field and briefly close and open circuit.
in electric and If magnet is weak ,place iron “keeper” across poles to
magnetic fields. increase B. Reverse magnet and/or battery connection to
show effect of direction.
Discuss F = qvBsin θ
Grade 12 209

Students will be able 6.6. Earth’s magnetism 4. Place coil (armature) with ends through looped wires at
to: (2 periods) ends of battery. Place button or rectangular magnet on top
• Describe and • Causes of battery beneath artmature. It may be necessary to give
illustrate the armature initial motion to start and adjustment of end loops
• Horizontal & vertical
magnetic field may be necessary to keep coil from hitting magnet. Coil ends
components
produced by an should be aligned so coil balances well in end loops. (Do not
• Tangent leave connected long because current drain is large).
electric current
galvanometer
in a long straight Project work (s)
conductor and in a 5. Magnetic field of a current-carrying wire: Use a ring stand
solenoid. and clamp to hold a piece of cardboard horizontally.
• Use the expression Thread connecting wire through a hole in the cardboard,
for the force on a then connect the wire to a battery and switch. Place
charged particle in a several small compasses on the cardboard around the wire.
magnetic field. Draw a sketch to show how the compasses are oriented
• State Ampere’s law before the switch is closed. Hold the wire vertically.
and use it in solving Close the switch briefly and observe the behaviour of the
problems. compass needles. Make a sketch that shows magnetic field
lines near the current-carrying wire.
• Distinguish
between the terms: Discuss:
dia-, para- and • How you decided to draw the lines as you did.
ferromagnetic • How the field lines that you drew differ from those of a
materials. bar magnet.
• Describe the • How you took into account the magnetic field of the
causes of Earth’s Earth.
magnetism.
6. Making magnets with a current carrying wire: Wrap a
20 cm piece of insulated wire around a pencil several
times. Remove the pencil and place the wire coil on the
previous cardboard. Connect the coil to a fresh battery
through two holes in the cardboard and place several
compasses around the coil. Before you close the switch,
sketch the coil and compasses in your note book. Close
the switch and observe the orientations of the compass
needles. Examine how the magnetic field is affected when
the shape of the wire is changed.
Demonstrations
1. Force on a conductor and coil in a magnetic field.
Project Work (s)
1. Investigate the effect on the force of attraction between a
solenoid and bar magnet under different strength of current
and when the current through the solenoid is changed.
2. Determination of the horizontal component of the Earth’s
magnetic field Explain to students that magnetic fields
exert forces on moving, electrically charged particles.
This phenomenon makes for a good demonstration in a
physics class.
210 Grade 12
Assessment

terms magnetic field, magnetic field lines, magnetic field strength, magnetic flux,
paramagnetic, diamagnetic and ferromagnetic materials; describe the motion of
a charged particle in a magnetic field; describe Thomson’s experiment of charge
to mass ratio; state Ampere’s law, cause of Earth’s magnetic field; apply Ampere’s
law to solve problems; calculate the magnetic field strength of a straight current
carrying wire, a solenoid, circular loop; describe and illustrate the magnetic
field produced by an electric current in a long straight conductor and in a
solenoid ;predict by applying the right-hand rule, the direction of the magnetic
field produced when electric current flows through a long straight conductor
and through a solenoid; use the expression for the force on a current carrying
conductor in a magnetic field; use the expression for the force on a charged
particle in a magnetic field; state Ampere’s law and use it in solving problems;
solve problems on the motion of charged particles in electric and magnetic fields;
distinguish between the terms: dia-, para-, and ferromagnetic materials; describe
the causes of Earth’s magnetism; describe an experiment to obtain the flux pattern
around a bar magnet, straight carrying wire, a solenoid carrying a current.


Grade 12 211

(18 periods)
• Understand the relationship between the current and the magnetic field,
faraday’s law, Lenz’s law, electromagnetic induction, motional electromagnetic
induction, magnetic flux,.
• Acquire knowledge and understanding in a.c. current, e.m.f, generator,
a.c. capacitor circuit, a.c. inductor circuit.
• Know changing magnetic fields produce electric fields, thereby inducing
currents in nearby conductors.
• Carry out experiments to demonstrate faraday’s law.
• Understand the behaviour of simple circuits containing resistors, inductors
and capacitors.

Students will be able to: 7. Electromagnetic Experiments
• Use the terms: induction and a.c. 1. Variation of voltage and current in a.c. circuits consisting
induced e.m.f, back circuits of only resistors, only inductors and only capacitors
e.m.f, magnetic flux, 7.1. Phenomena (phasor representation), phase lag and phase lead. Can be
flux linkage, eddy of electromagnetic seen using oscilloscope and signal generator.
current. induction 2. To investigate how the number of turns (n), the diameter
• Describe experiments (4 periods) of the coil (d), the frequency (f), and the magnetic
to investigate • Faraday’s law: field strength (B) are related to the induced voltage (V)
the factors which induced e.m.f. and students can use secondary coils (solenoids) of different
determine the current number of turns and diameters inserted into a primary coil
direction and • Lenz’s law, eddy (solenoid) of greatest diameter carrying a variable a.c.
magnitude of an current current. The frequency of the current in the primary coil
induced e.m.f. can be changed using a signal generator and the induced
• Self- and mutual
• State the laws of voltage can be obtained from a reading on oscilloscope
inductance
electromagnetic Demonstrations
• Displacement current
induction. 1. The principle and laws of electromagnetic induction.
7.2. Alternating
• Use the laws of 2. Use oscilloscope to show variation of voltage and current
current (a.c.)
electromagnetic with time, i.e. alternating voltages and currents.
generator and
induction which
transformers 3. The effect of capacitor and resistor, on the time
predict the magnitude
(3 periods) constant of RC circuit, can be studied by observing
and direction of the
7.3 Alternating discharging of a capacitor with time i.e. voltage across
induced e.m.f.
current (a.c.) circuits a discharging capacitor is measured as a function of
• Analyse and describe time for a discharging capacitor connected to resistor.
(10 periods)
electromagnetic The time constant, which is a function of the resistance
induction in • Peak and values
and capacitance in the circuit, will be determined from
qualitative terms. • Reactance and this data, which provides the information necessary to
• Apply Lenz’s law to impedance compute the capacitance.
explain, predict, and • RL and RC circuits. 4. Levitate small magnet over spinning disk. Affix very strong,
illustrate the direction • LC oscillations light-weight, ceramic ring magnet to narrow strip of
of the electric current (qualitative manila folder using double-sided tape. Magnet will levitate
induced by a changing treatment) about 1cm above spinning aluminum disk when held near
magnetic field, using • LCR series circuit, periphery. Show that levitation height depends on linear
the right-hand rule. resonance speed of disk by guiding magnet toward axis of rotation.
Convince students that air currents are not responsible by
using duplicate piece of card without magnet.
212 Grade 12

Students will be able to: 7.4 Power in a.c. 5. LR circuit: Use large inductor in series with high power
• Use an expression for circuit bulb (200 W). Place low power bulb (15 W) in parallel
the induced e.m.f. in (1 period) with inductor. Apply 120 Vd.c. with switch. Closing
a conductor moving switch first light 15 W bulb due to large back e.m.f.
through a uniform in inductor. As steady state is reached, 200 W bulb
magnetic field by serves as detector of increased current. Opening switch
considering the forces produces momentary flash of 15 W bulb from back e.m.f.
on the charges. due to suddenly decaying current
• Solve problems 6. Building motors: Wind a long piece of sturdy insulated
involving calculations wire around a soft drink can several times and then
of the induced e.m.f, remove the can so that you have a wire coil with several
indued current. loops. Wrap the ends of the wire around the loops so
that they do not separate. Leave enough wire at the
• Define the terms:
ends of the coil to be able to bend them into support
self-inductance L,
leads. Remove the insulating material from the leads
mutual inductance M,
of the coil. Obtain a metal wire cloth hanger and cut
and henry, H.
it to form conducting supports for the coil. Stand the
• Use an expression for supports upright by fitting the ends into holes in the
the energy stored by an wooden board. Predict how the coil will behave when
inductor through which the north pole of a bar magnet is placed near the coil
a current is passing. and the switch is closed. Use a strong magnet to check
• Compare direct current your prediction. By using stronger magnets or larger
(d.c.) and alternating currents, it is possible to make motors that can drive
current (a.c.) in machines and perform various tasks. In some motors,
qualitative terms. the coils are held stationary and the magnets spin.
• Use the terms: If some electric motors are available in your classroom,
r.m.s. current, r.m.s. examine them and see if you can recognize the parts
potential difference, that correspond to the parts of your motor.
peak current, peak Project work(s)
potential difference, Assign students to investigate and report on.
half cycle average
• Dimmer switches in stage lighting uses of inductors.
current, phase
difference, phase lag, • Uses of transformers.
phase lead. • National grid set by Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation
• Apply the relationship (EEPCo) and a.c.
between r.m.s. and peak
values for the current
and potential difference
for a sinusoidal
waveform.
• Use the terms:
reactance, impedance,
power factor with
their correct scientific
meaning.
• Explain the importance
of alternating current
in the transmission of
electrical energy.
• Explain what are meant
by r.m.s. values.
Grade 12 213

Students will be able to:
• State the factors
that determine the
magnitude of self-
inductance and mutual
inductance.
• Use an expression for
the energy stored by a
capacitor.
• Solve problems
involving the
magnitude and
phase of current and
applied p.d. in an a.c.
circuits which include
resistors, capacitors
and inductors.
• Explain the behaviour
of a capacitor in an
a.c. circuit.
• Explain the behaviour
of an inductor in an
a.c. circuit.
214 Grade 12
Assessment
The teacher should assess each students work continuously over the whole unit

A student working at the minimum requirement level will be able to: use the
terms: induced e.m.f, back e.m.f, magnetic flux, flux linkage, eddy current; state
the laws of electromagnetic induction; predict the magnitude and direction of the
induced e.m.f. using the laws of electromagnetic induction; use the expression
for the force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field; use the force
on a charged particle in a magnetic field; use the flux density near a long straight
wire, at the centre of circular coil, inside and at the end of a long solenoid;
solve problems on the motion of charged particles in electric and magnetic
fields; describe in words, or by sketch, the general shape and relative intensities
of magnetic field strength around a long straight current carrying wire,a long
solenoid; apply Lenz’s law to explain, predict, and illustrate the direction of the
electric current induced by a changing magnetic field, using the right-hand rule;
explain Ampere’s law; use an expression for the induced e.m.f. in a conductor
moving through a uniform magnetic field by considering the forces on the
charges; solve problems involving calculations of the induced e.m.f, indued
current; compare direct current (d.c.) and alternating current (a.c.) in qualitative
terms; define the terms: self inductance L, mutual inductance M, and henry; use
the terms: r.m.s. current, r.m.s. potential difference, peak current, peak potential
difference, half cycle average current, phase difference, phase lag, phase lead;
apply the relationship between r.m.s. and peak values for the current and potential
difference for a sinusoidal waveform; use the terms: reactance, impedance,
power factor with their correct scientific meaning; solve problems involving the
magnitude and phase of current and applied p.d. in an a.c. circuits which include
resistors, capacitors and inductors; draw phasor diagrams for R, L and C circuits;
explain the behaviour of a capacitor and inductor in an a.c. circuit.


Grade 12 215
Unit 8: Atomic physics (20 periods)

• Acquire knowledge and understandings in the nature of matter and radiation,
structure of atoms and nuclei.
• Develop skills in applying the law of radioactive decay; describing some uses
of radioactivity and safety precautions.
• Discuss the action of nuclear reactor.
• Describe how the introduction of new conceptual models and theories can
influence and change scientific thought and lead to the development of new
technologies.
• Outline the historical development of scientific views and models of matter
and energy, from Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom to present-day theories
of atomic structure construct a concept map of scientific ideas that have been
developed since Bohr’s model.

Students will be able 8. Atomic physics In this unit the work of Rutherford and Bohr that determined
to: 8.1. Dual nature of the model of the atom are being explained and use of
• Describe the matter and radiation these models to explain phenomena like laser light and
photoelectric (6 periods) photoelectric effect are presented.
effect and its 8.1.1. Photoelectric Demonstrations depend primarily on the equipment and
characteristics. effect radioactive sources available.
• Apply quantitatively • Einstein’s The teacher should not allow students to do experiments by
the laws of photoelectric themselves.
conservation of mass equation (particle It might be possible to contact a local hospital regarding the
and energy, using nature of light) use of nuclear medicine for analysis or treatment. If a tour
Einstein’s mass– cannot be arranged, perhaps a specialist can speak to the
• Matter waves – wave
energy equivalence. class.
nature of particles
• State the Experiments
• De Broglie relation
approximate size of
1. Half-life simulation can be performed using free applets
an atom.
available from the internet.
• Compare the charge
2. Simulation of nuclear collisions can be observed using free
and mass of the
applets available from the internet.
electron with the
charge and mass of Demonstrations
the proton. 1. Use either a prism or diffraction grating spectrometer to
• Represent show the difference between continuous and line spectra.
diagrammatically the A simple absorption spectrum can be shown by crushing
structure of simple leaves in alcohol. The chlorophyll solution will absorb at
atoms. both ends of the spectrum.
• Use the relationship 2. If Geiger counter is available decay of radioactive materials
A = Z + N explain can be detected.
what is meant by the Some counters can separate betas from gammas by absorbing
term isotopes. the betas in a metallic cover. Few have windows thin enough
to detect alphas. If you can detect betas and gammas, use
aluminum sheets and lead sheets to show that betas are
stopped by aluminum but lead is required to stop gammas
216 Grade 12

Students will be able 8.2 Atoms and Nuclei To explain why some atoms are stable and others are not, it
to: (4 periods) helps to consider a diagram of stable and unstable nuclides
• Describe the need for • Alpha-particle where Z is plotted against N. Let students observe some
safety measures in scattering important features of this diagram.
handling and using experiment (in 3. Discharge flame and radioactivity: Hold a candle flame
radio-isotopes. relation to its near a charged electroscope and it discharges leaves. Flame
• Identify the nature relevance to the produces ionisation of nearby air. Repeat demonstration
of the three types development of with opposite charge on electroscope. Holding weak
of emissions atomic theory) radioactive source near electroscope may also cause
from radioactive • Rutherford model of discharge.
substances. atom 4. Simulate nuclear reactions produced by high speed
• Describe experiments • Bohr model and particles by using marbles accelerated down sloping
to compare the range energy levels aluminum channel into saucer. Those in saucer are
of alpha, beta and analogous to target nuclei. Include several ball bearings
• Composition and
gamma in various of differing sizes. Show effect of speed by launching
size of nucleus
media. from different height and angles and effect of mass and
• Atomic masses, increased momentum of projectiles by using different ball
• Predict the effect of isotopes and isobars
magnetic and electric bearings. Ball with sufficient momentum can cause ejection
• Radioactivity of one or more marbles from saucer. Discuss analogy to
fields on the motion
(alpha, betha, bombarding nuclei with particles of ever increasing mass:
of alpha and beta
gamma particles proton, deuteron and alpha.
particles and gamma
and their 5. Chain reaction analog: Spring-loaded mouse trap set
rays.
properties) with small silicone ball (super ball) simulates fissionable
• Associate
• Radioactive decay nuclide. Assemble 30–50 of these and place inside acrylic
radioactivity with
law enclosure. ”Trigger” neutron (another silicone ball) dropped
nuclear instability.
• Mass–Energy through hole in centre of enclosure initiates “chain
• Represent and reaction. Some “nuclide” usually remains unaffected. Ping
relation, mass
interpret nuclear pong balls are not as effective as heavier silicone balls.
defect
reactions of the form Beware-spontaneous fissions can occur during set up of
146C → 146N • Binding energy per
nucleon 30–50 traps! Construct acrylic enclosure about
+ 0–1e (beta 60 × 60 × 25cm high.
particle). • Nuclear fission and
fusion Project work(s)
• State the uses of
radio active isotopes. Waves and particles
• Define the term,’ Form a group in a class and let students discuss the wave
half-life’. and particle character of photons and electrons. Discuss an
experiment in which a photon behaves like a particle and an
• Identify that the experiment in which it behaves like a wave.
decay process is
independent of Students can be assigned to investigate and report
conditions outside 1. The fraction of energy generated from nuclear power in
the nucleus’. Africa and the rest of the world.
• Work through simple 2. Peaceful uses of nuclear radiation in Ethiopia and Africa.
problems on half-life. 3. Nuclear facilities in Africa.
• Use graphs of random
decay to show that
such processes have
a constant half- life.
• Associate the release
of energy in a nuclear
reaction with a
change in mass
Grade 12 217

Students will be able
to:
• Discus problems
posed by radioactive
waste.
• Represent nuclear
reactions in the form
of equations.
• Distinguish between
fission and fission.
218 Grade 12
Assessment

terms atomic mass, isotopes, radioactivity, mass defect, binding energy nuclear
fission and fusion; describe the composition and size of a nucleus, the dual nature
of matter, photoelectric effect, alpha particle scattering experiment, Rutherford’s
model of an atom, Bohr model of energy levels; state Einstein’s photoelectric
equation, de Broglie’s equation. Mass–energy relation, radioactive decay law; use
photoelectric equation, de Broglie’s equation, and the radioactive decay law, the
mass–energy relation to solve practical problems; describe Rutherford’s model of
atom; state the nature ,charge, and properties of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation;
state the law of radioactive decay and explain the meaning of a half life; write
equations to illustrate alpha and beta decay; state how many protons and neutrons
their are in a nuclide for which you are given the symbol; interpret equations
representing nuclear reactions indicating the nature of energy released; identify
the relationship between mass and energy; explain what is meant by photo electric
effect; describe an experiment to demonstrate the emission of photo electrons;
state how the rate of emissions of photo electrons and their energy depend upon
the intensity and frequency of the incident radiation; work through simple
problems on half-life; associate the release of energy in a nuclear reaction with a
change in mass; discuss problems posed by radioactive waste; represent nuclear
reactions in the form of equations; distinguish between fission and fission.


Grade 12 219

Physics TG12 Abi-1

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GEMECHU BEYISSA FROM ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

Advisers: Tilahun Tesfaye Deressu (PhD)

Evaluators: Yoseph Mihiret Mengistu

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

© Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education

First edition, 2002 (E.C.)

Pearson Education Limited

Unit 2 Oscillations and waves 38

Unit 3 Wave optics 60

Unit 6 Magnetism 116

Unit 7 Electromagnetic induction and a.c. circuits 140

Unit 8 Atomic physics 166

Some general aims of physics education

General objectives of the Grade 12 physics course

Method Strengths and weaknesses

Schemes of work, lesson plans and records of work

Assessment: tests and examinations

Model lesson plan

Stage (time) Teaching and learning Learning points

Summary and Students work with a Students will learn the

Learning competencies for Unit 1 This unit should

• State Graham’s law of diffusion and use it to solve related problems.

This section should 1.1 Thermal equilibrium and definition of temperature

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

One face Opposite face

Figure 1.1 Wooden block to describe the concepts in this unit.

Students need to understand the phases of matter. A phase diagram is a graph of

Answers to review questions

Pcr critical point

Ptp triple point gaseous phase

• Define molar heat capacity.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

Activity 1.4: Answer

Process Form of first law

The concepts of pressure–volume (p–V) graphs are introduced at this point so

Answers to review questions

Step 2: The work done on the lead by gravity = ∆W = mg∆h = 100 J

1.3 Kinetic theory of gases This section should

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

Brownian motion and diffusion

Answers to review questions

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

How is entropy related to energy and heat?

The counters game

Answers to review questions

This section should 1.5 Heat engines and refrigerators

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

Answers to review questions

Efficiency = 400 = 33.3%

ηmax = 1 – ( 200 ) = 66.67%

isobaric: pressure in the system remains constant

Figure 1.30 A simplified p–V cycle

In this case as there is no change in volume then no work is done on or by

inside the fridge falling. This

Answers to end of unit questions

ii) A to B: the volume increases so work is done by the gas on it surroundings.

Figure 1.37 An idealised Otto cycle (petrol engine)

This unit should Learning competencies for Unit 1

• Explain the modes of vibration of strings and solve problems involving

2.1 Periodic motion (basic concepts) This section should

• Relate the energy of an oscillator to its amplitude.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

Figure 2.1 A mass–spring system

ii) A to B: the volume increases so work is done by the gas on it surroundings.

Damping will decrease the amplitude of the oscillation at the resonant

b) Sketch graphs of displacement Y against time t for the oscillation produced