Quick Exam Notes NA Science Physics

Singapore Asia Publishers
02 NA QEN Sci Physics ttp.pdf 1 9/21/2015 10:26:27 AM

N(A) Level
SCIENCE
(PHYSICS) K. Low
B.A. Hons., PGDE
Tay W. J.
B.Eng. Hons., PGDE (Sec)
Cheng Chung Yu
B.Eng (Civil), PGDE (Sec), M.Ed.
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00 Copyright_Quick EN NA SciPhysics.indd 1 9/18/2015 4:00:06 PM

PREFACE
Quick Exam Notes N(A) Level Science (Physics) is specially compiled to help students prepare for important
tests and examinations.
Clear Presentation Format

Notes are presented in point form for ease of understanding and systematic learning. Students will be able

to review important concepts and examples quickly.
Useful Illustrations
A variety of diagrams, graphs and tables are included. Students will be able to understand concepts and
processes easily through these helpful visual aids.
The Editorial Team
Quick Exam Notes NA SciPhysics.i1 1 9/21/2015 3:32:54 PM

CONTENTS
Section I: Measurement
CHAPTER 1: Physical Quantities, Units and Measurement 1

1.1 International System of Units (SI Units)
1.2 Scalar and Vector

1.3 Measuring Length
1.4 Measuring Time
Section II: Newtonian Mechanics
CHAPTER 2: Kinematics 10
2.1 Speed and Velocity
2.2 Displacement-Time Graph
2.3 Velocity-Time Graph
2.4 Acceleration Due to Gravity

CHAPTER 3: Dynamics 14
3.1 Definition of Force
3.2 Resultant Force
3.3 Newton’s Laws of Motion
3.4 Friction
3.5 Balanced Forces
3.6 Unbalanced Forces
CHAPTER 4: Mass, Weight and Density 18

4.1 Mass

4.2 Weight
4.3 Density
CHAPTER 5: Turning Effect of Forces 21

5.1 Moment of a Force
5.2 Principle of Moments
5.3 Centre of Gravity (CG) of Regularly-shaped Objects
5.4 Stability
CHAPTER 6: Pressure 25
6.1 Pressure
6.2 Mercury Barometer

CHAPTER 7: Work, Energy and Power 27
7.1 Work
7.2 Energy
7.3 Power
Section III: Thermal Physics
CHAPTER 8: Kinetic Model of Matter 30

8.1 States of Matter
8.2 Kinetic Theory of Matter

8.3 Brownian Motion
CHAPTER 9: Transfer of Thermal Energy 32

9.1 Methods of Heat Transfer
9.2 Conduction
9.3 Convection
9.4 Radiation
9.5 Application of Heat Transfer – A Vacuum Flask
9.6 Experiments to Investigate Absorption and Emission of Radiation by Black and Silvery Surfaces
CHAPTER 10: Thermal Properties of Matter 37

10.1 Internal Energy
10.2 Melting and Solidification
10.3 Boiling and Condensation
10.4 Evaporation

Section IV: Waves
CHAPTER 11: General Wave Properties 42

11.1 Waves
11.2 Wave Properties
11.3 Mechanical Wave Generator
11.4 Reflection and Refraction of Waves
CHAPTER 12: Electromagnetic Spectrum 47

12.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum

12.2 Common Properties of All Electromagnetic Waves
12.3 Examples of Uses of Electromagnetic Waves
CHAPTER 13: Sound 49

13.1 Nature of Sound
13.2 Transmission Medium for Sound
13.3 Audible Range
13.4 Reflection of Sound Waves – Echoes
13.5 Pitch
13.6 Loudness

Section V: Electricity
CHAPTER 14: Current of Electricity 55

14.1 Conventional Current
14.2 Electric Current
14.3 Electromotive Force (e.m.f.)
14.4 Potential Difference (p.d.)
14.5 Resistance
CHAPTER 15: D.C. Circuits 61

15.1 Circuit Symbols

15.2
15.3
15.4
Potential Divider
Thermistor
Light-dependent Resistor
CHAPTER 16: Practical Electricity 63

16.1 Practical Usage of Electricity
16.2 Electrical Power
16.3 Electric Energy
16.4 Calculating Electrical Consumption
16.5 Electrical Plug Wiring
16.6 Safe Use of Electricity
16.7 Dangers of Electricity
APPENDIX: PHYSICS FORMULA LIST 69

CHAPTER 1
Physical Quantities, Units and
Measurement
1.1 International System of Units (SI Units)

• All other physical quantities are derived from the seven basic physical quantities, namely mass, length,
time, electric current and temperature.*
• The other two basic physical quantities are amount of substance (mole) and luminous intensity
(candela).

• The SI units are listed in the table below.
Basic physical quantity SI unit SI unit symbol
Mass kilogram kg
Length metre m
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
* Out of the seven quantities, only these five are covered in the N(A) Level Science (Physics) Syllabus.
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Chapter 1 Physical Quantities, Units and Measurement
Prefixes for SI Units

• In practice, we often express these numbers by standard form or use a prefix to represent these numbers.
Standard form Prefix Symbol
106 mega M
103 kilo k
10−2 centi c
10−3 milli m

10−6 micro µ
1.2 Scalar and Vector

• A scalar quantity has only magnitude but no direction.
• A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.
Scenario to Differentiate Scalar and Vector Quantities
40 km N
Town A Town B
30 km
Town C

• A man cycles from Town A to Town B in 4 hours.

• He continues to cycle from Town B to Town C in 3 hours.
• Total time taken to travel from Town A to Town C is 7 hours.
Scalar Vector
• Total distance travelled = 70 km • Displacement (A to C) = 50 km

• The direction of travel is not important. • Cyclist travelled from Town A to Town C, a bearing of 126.9°.
Total distance 70
___ Displacement 50
___ 1
__
• Average speed = _____________
= = 10 km h–1
• Average velocity = _____________
= = 7 km h−1

Total time taken 7 Total time taken 7 7
• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

∆v v – u
• a = ___
= _____

∆t t
• SI unit is m s−2.
1.3 Measuring Length

• Common instruments for measuring length include measuring tape, metre rule or half-metre rule,
vernier calipers and micrometer screw gauge.
Length (l) to be measured Instrument Accuracy
l>1m measuring tape ± 0.1 cm
10 cm < l < 1 m metre rule / half-metre rule ± 0.1 cm
1 cm < l < 10 cm vernier calipers ± 0.01 cm
l < 2 cm micrometer screw gauge ± 0.001 cm

Parallax Error
• This occurs due to wrong techniques of reading off measurement from measuring instruments.
• To avoid committing such an error, always read off directly vertically above the mark on the measuring
instrument.
Vernier Calipers
• This instrument consists of a main scale and a vernier scale.
• The table below shows the procedures to read off measurements using the vernier calipers.
Diagrams Procedures
1. Check for zero error. Close the calipers fully without any object.

0 cm
0
main scale
vernier scale
10
1
(i) If the zero mark on the vernier scale coincides with the zero mark
on the main scale, there is no zero error.
0 cm 1 (ii) If the zero mark on the vernier scale is to the right of the main
scale, this is a positive zero error, hence it has a positive value.
(In this example, the zero error is 0.12 cm.)
0 2 10
(iii) If the zero mark on the vernier scale is to the left of the main scale,
0 cm 1
this is a negative zero error, hence it has a negative value. (In this
example, the zero error is –0.02 cm. [Count backwards from 10.])
0 8 10
(iv) Record this number as the zero error C.

2. Place the object between the calipers and close the calipers fully. (Be careful not to over-tighten.)
(i) Read off the main scale directly on top of the zero mark of the
vernier scale. Record this number A.
0 2 3 4 5 6
In this case, A = 2.4 cm.
(ii) Look out for the place where the marking on the main scale
coincides with the marking on the vernier scale. Record this
(i) number B (B = 0.0x cm where x is any number from 0 to 9).
In this case, B = 0.08 cm.

2 3
0 10
(ii)
3. The reading is given by: A + B – C (in centimetres).
zero error

Micrometer Screw Gauge

• This instrument consists of a main scale (1 mm per division), sleeve (0.5 mm per division) and thimble
scale (0.01 mm per division).
• The table below shows the procedures to read off measurements using the micrometer screw gauge.
Diagrams Procedures
1. Check for zero error. Close the gauge fully by turning the ratchet until a clicking sound is heard.
datum (i) If the datum line coincides with the zero mark on the thimble scale, there is no zero
0

thimble error.
5 (ii) If the datum line is above the zero mark on the thimble scale, the zero error is
0 positive. (In this example, the zero error is 0.03 mm.)
0
(iii) Ifthe datum line is below the zero mark on the thimble scale, the zero error is
45 negative. (In this example, the zero error is –0.03 mm. Note: Count backwards from 0.)

2. Place the object in the gauge and tighten fully. (Be careful not to over-tighten.) Read the main scale (pay attention to
the sleeve reading) at the edge of the thimble.
main
0 1 2 40 (i) The main scale reading in this case is 2.0 mm and the thimble reading is 37, which
0.5 1.5 35 means 0.37 mm. As such, the reading is 2.0 + 0.37 = 2.37 mm.
sleeve
0 1 40
(ii) The main scale reading in this case is 1.5 mm and the thimble reading is 38, which

0.5 1.5 35 means 0.38 mm. As such, the reading is 1.5 + 0.38 = 1.88 mm.
sleeve
1.4 Measuring Time

• To measure long intervals of time (in hours, minutes and seconds), we use watches and pendulum
clock.
• To measure short intervals of time, we use a digital stopwatch (accuracy up to ± 0.01 s) or a ticker-tape
timer (smallest time division is 0.02 s).
Ticker-tape Timer
• A ticker-tape timer is a machine that makes a dot on paper (or a piece of ticker-tape — long strip of
paper) at fixed intervals of time. This is usually 50 dots per second, which means that the time between
two consecutive dots is 0.02 s.

• When the ticker-tape timer is attached to a moving object, it can be used to measure the speed of an
object.
• The speed of the ticker-tape can be calculated by measuring the length of the tape (L) and counting the
number of intervals (N) between the dots.
Distance ________L
Speed = ________

=

Time 0.02 × N
Period of Oscillation
• Oscillations are repeated, periodic motions of an object.
Singapore Asia Publishers Amplitude

B D
C
• When the bob of a simple pendulum completes the move: C − D − C − B − C, the bob is said to have
completed one oscillation.
• Period is the time taken to complete one oscillation.
• For a simple pendulum experiment, we would usually take the time for 20 oscillations of the pendulum
and repeat the timing to get two readings, t1 and t2.

• We would then take the average of the two readings to find the average time for 20 oscillations.
t1 + t2
tavg = _____
2
This is to reduce the error due to human reaction time (random error).
• To get the period of the pendulum, we have to divide the average time by 20.
tavg
T = ___

20
• By varying the length of the pendulum, l, we find that the period of the pendulum is proportional to
the square root of the length of the pendulum (i.e. the longer the length of the pendulum, the longer
time it takes to complete one oscillation).

• The period of the pendulum is inversely proportional to the gravitational field strength, g (i.e. the lower
g is—e.g. on the moon—the longer the period will be).
• The period of the pendulum does not depend on its mass.

CHAPTER 2
Kinematics
2.1 Speed and Velocity
Speed Velocity
Displacement
Distance • Velocity = ____________

• Speed = ________

Time
Time
• Direction is mentioned when we state the velocity of an

• Direction is not involved when we mention the speed of an
object.
object.
• Velocity is a vector quantity – it consists of both magnitude
• Speed is a scalar quantity – it has only magnitude.
and direction.
• For example, the speed limit sign you see on a highway is
• For example, we say that a car is travelling at a velocity of
an example of an indication of speed.
100 km h–1 from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur / to the North.
Total distance
• Average speed = _____________

Total time taken
• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

∆v v –u
a = ___ _____
∆t = t

where v is the final velocity and u is the initial velocity of an object.
• The SI unit for acceleration is m/s2 or m s–2.
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Chapter 2 Kinematics
2.2 Displacement-Time Graph
Interpreting Displacement from the Graph displacement/m

• From A to B, the displacement of the object
increases from 0 to 20 m.
• It then remains at 20 m from B to C — this means B C
20
that the object is not moving from 10 to 15 s.
• From C to D, the displacement of the object
decreases from 20 m to 0 m. This means that the
object returns to its original (starting) position.

Interpreting Velocity from the Graph 10
• The gradient of the displacement-time graph

represents the velocity.
• AB represents the object moving at a constant D
20
velocity. The velocity of the object is ___
= 2 m s–1. 0
10 A 5 10 15 20 25 time/s
• The object is stationary at BC as the gradient is
zero.
• CD shows the object moving in the opposite
direction as the gradient is negative. However, the
velocity is non-uniform (not the same).

2.3 Velocity-Time Graph

velocity/m s–1
KEY IDEA
10  The gradient of the velocity-

time (v-t) graph represents the
B C acceleration (a) of the moving
5 object.
 Area under the v-t graph
D represents the distance travelled.
0 time/s
A 5 10 12 15

Interpreting Acceleration from the Graph
• AB shows the object accelerating uniformly from 0 to 5 m s–1 in 10 seconds. Its acceleration is
5–0
_____

10
= 0.5 m s–2. (This means that the velocity increases by 0.5 m s–1 every second.)
• BC shows the object moving at a constant velocity of 5 m s–1 for 2 seconds.

• CD shows the object decelerating (slowing down) uniformly from 5 to 0 m s–1 in 3 seconds.
Interpreting Displacement from the Graph
• To calculate the total displacement of the object, we can calculate the area under the graph.
• Displacement of object = Area under graph
1 1
= ( __ × 10 × 5) + (2 × 5) + ( __ × 3 × 5)
2 2
= 25 + 10 + 7.5
= 42.5 m

2.4 Acceleration Due to Gravity

When an object falls due to gravity, the presence of air resistance would affect its acceleration.
Without considering air
Considering air resistance (terminal velocity)
resistance (vacuum)
• All objects will experience the • On earth, air resistance is present and opposes the motion of a body (slowing the
same constant acceleration of object down like friction).
10 m s−2 (estimated) towards • Air resistance experienced by objects will increase when:
the centre of the earth. - they fall at higher speed;
• The acceleration of the object - their surface areas are increased;
will not be affected by its mass - the density of air increases.
or weight, shape and surface

area.
v−t graph v−t graph
v/m s–1 • As the velocity of an object increases, the

air resistance increases as well until the v/m s–1
Gradient = 10 m s–2 v = terminal velocity
weight of the object (downwards) balances v
the air resistance (upwards). When this t1 = time taken for
happens, the vertical forces are balanced object to reach v
t/s (there is no resultant force) and the object
0 t/s
reaches terminal velocity (i.e. maximum 0 t1
• The velocity of the object uniform velocity).
increases indefinitely. The • Terminal velocity is the maximum uniform velocity a falling object will attain when
object does not reach terminal its weight balances the air resistance.
velocity.

CHAPTER 3
dynamics
3.1 Definition of Force

• A force is a push or pull that is exerted by one object on another. It can cause an object to start moving
or stop moving. The SI unit of force is newton (N).
Examples of Forces
• Weight − the pull of gravitational force on an object

• Friction − contact force between two surfaces that causes objects to slow down
• Magnetic force − the force experienced by an object when placed in a magnetic field
• Electric force − the force experienced by an object when placed in an electric field
3.2 Resultant Force

• The resultant force is the combination of two or more forces, taking into account the magnitudes and
directions of the original forces.
• For forces that point in the same direction, we can either add or subtract to obtain the resultant force.
F3 = 10N
F1 = 20N
F2 = 15N
Resultant force, FR = 20 + 15 – 10 = 25 N to the right.


Chapter 3 Dynamics
3.3 Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton’s First Law states that:
• An object at rest will remain at rest, and an object in motion will remain in motion at a constant velocity,
unless a resultant force acts on it.
Newton’s Second Law states that:
• Resultant force (F) is equal to the mass (m) of an object multiplied by its acceleration (a) in the same
direction as the resultant force.
F=ma
Newton’s Third Law states that:
• For every action (force), there is an equal and opposite reaction.

3.4 Friction
• Friction is a force that opposes the motion of a body and arises due to surface irregularities of objects.
• Friction can have both positive and negative effects in daily life.
• Positive Effects of Friction
- Enables us to walk without slipping
- Allows vehicles to be slowed down using brake pads
• Negative Effects of Friction
- Causes wear and tear of moving parts in machines, motors and engines
- Reduces the efficiency of engine power of cars by up to 20%

Chapter 3 Dynamics
• Some Ways to Reduce Friction

- Use highly-polished smooth surfaces for moving parts
- Use ball bearings to enable rolling instead of sliding over
- Use lubricants
3.5 Balanced Forces

• Forces are said to be balanced when two or more forces acting on an object produce no resultant
forces.
• When forces are balanced, an object will either be at rest or will continue moving at a constant velocity
(i.e. there is no acceleration).

• Examples of a Balanced Force
- Cup resting on a table
- Train moving at constant velocity
- Wooden block resting on a slope
3.6 Unbalanced Forces

• Forces are said to be unbalanced when two or more forces acting on an object produce a resultant
force.
• The resultant force can cause the object to either:
- accelerate (if the forward force is more/greater than the backward force); or
- decelerate (if the forward force is lesser than the backward force).

Chapter 3 Dynamics
Example:
5 kg 25 N
5N
Resultant force = 25 – 5 = 20 N to the right

F 20
Acceleration = __
m = ___
= 4 m s–2 (to the right)
5

CHAPTER 4
mass, weight and density
4.1 Mass
• Mass is the measure of the amount of matter in an object.
• The magnitude of the mass of a body depends on the size and the number of atoms.
• Mass is a basic property of matter.
• An object will have a fixed mass regardless of the gravitational field strength, speed or shape

of the object.
• The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).
• Mass is a scalar quantity.
• Mass can be measured by:
- sliding mass balance (prone to error);
- electronic balance (more accurate and easier to use).
Inertia
• It is defined as the reluctance of a body to start moving or its reluctance to stop once it is in motion.
• The larger the mass of a body, the greater its inertia.
Gravitational Field Strength
• It is defined as the gravitational force acting on per unit mass of an object.
• On Earth, the gravitational field strength is 10 N kg−1.

Chapter 4 Mass, Weight and Density
• On Earth, an object having a mass of 1 kg will experience a gravitational force of 10 N.

• The same 1 kg mass will experience a gravitational pull of 1.6 N on the moon. Thus the moon’s
gravitational field strength is 1.6 N kg−1.
4.2 Weight
• Weight is defined as the gravitational force acting on an object.
• It can be calculated using the formula W = mg, where g is the acceleration due to gravity. On Earth, the
acceleration due to gravity is approximately 10 ms−2.
• Weight will change depending on the gravitational field strength of the location the object is at.
(E.g. The weight of an object is lesser on the moon compared to Earth, as the moon has a weaker

gravitational field strength.)
• The SI unit of weight is newton (N).
• Weight is a vector quantity.
• Weight can be measured by:
- spring balance;
- compression balance.
Mass Weight
• Amount of matter in an object • Force of gravity acting on an object

• Depends on the size of the object • Depends on the gravitational field strength where the object is at
• SI unit: kg • SI unit: N

Chapter 4 Mass, Weight and Density
4.3 Density
• The density (ρ) of an object is defined as its mass (m) per unit volume (V).
m
ρ = __
V
• The SI unit for density is kilogram per cubic metre (kg m−3).
• When we say that object A is denser than object B, it does not mean exactly that object A is heavier than
object B.
• When we compare the density of objects, we are actually comparing objects with the same volume but
having different masses.
• A denser object is the one with the same volume but greater mass.

• For an object to float on a liquid, the overall density of the object must be less than that of the liquid.
(i.e. the object must be less dense than the liquid).
E.g. An oil tanker is able to float on water despite being made of steel, as its shape allows air to be
trapped, thus making its overall density less than that of water.

CHAPTER 5
turning effect of forces
5.1 Moment of a Force

• The moment of a force is its turning effect about a pivot or hinge.
• It is a vector quantity that has both magnitude and direction (clockwise or anticlockwise).
• Moment of a force = F × d, where F is the force applied and d is the perpendicular distance from the
line of action of the force to the pivot.

• The SI unit for moment is newton metre (Nm).
• The magnitude of the turning moment will depend on both the size of the force as well as the
perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force.
• The force F in Figure 1 will generate an anticlockwise moment about the pivot, O.
• The force F in Figure 2 will generate a clockwise moment about the pivot, O.
Line of action
of the force
F
d
Pivot, O
d
F
Pivot, O
Line of action
of the force
Figure 1 Figure 2

Chapter 5 Turning Effect of Forces
5.2 Principle of Moments

• The principle of moments states that for an object in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments
about a pivot must be equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same pivot.
• Example:
A uniform metre rule is pivoted at the 50 cm mark. A force of 5 N is applied at the 90 cm mark.
What force must be applied at the 30 cm mark to balance the metre rule?
30 cm 50 cm 90 cm

20 cm 40 cm
F 5N
(Anticlockwise moment) (Clockwise moment)
Solution: For the ruler to be balanced,

sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments
FCW × dCW = FACW × dACW
5 N × 0.4 m = F × 0.2 m
5 N × 0.4 m
F = ___________

0.2 m
= 10 N
 A 10 N force must be applied at the 30 cm mark.

5.3 Centre of Gravity (CG) of Regularly-shaped Objects

• For a two-dimensional object with a regular shape and uniform density, its center of gravity will be at
the geometrical centre of the object.
• For example, a uniform metre rule has its CG at the 50 cm mark and a uniform half metre rule will have
its CG at the 25 cm mark.
• The CG of an object is defined as the point through which the entire weight of the object seems to act
and the position of CG will remain the same for all orientations.
• CG can lie outside the regularly-shaped object.
5.4 Stability

An object will be stable as long as the CG of the object (Weight, W) lies within the point of contact (C)
of the object.
Stable equilibrium Unstable equilibrium Neutral equilibrium
W W
W W W W
C C
R R R R R R
• CG is within the base when • CG is out of the base when • Position remains the same when
displaced. displaced. displaced.
• Object returns to its original position • Object topples over when released. • Object stays in the same position
when released. when released.

Factors that affect the stability of an object are:

• the base area of the object;
• the height of CG above its base.
To improve the stability of an object, we can:
• broaden the base area of the object;
• add weights to the base of the object such that the CG becomes lower.

CHAPTER 6
Pressure
6.1 Pressure
• Pressure (p) is defined as the force (F) acting per unit area (A).
F
p = __
A
• The SI unit is pascal (Pa) or newton per square metre (N m−2).
Example:

A construction worker wants to put a bag of tiles on the floor of a building. Based on the loading plan,
the floor can take 5000 Pa of pressure. Each bag of tiles has a mass of 480 kg and occupies an area of
1.2 m2 on the floor. Find out if the floor can support it.
Solution:
We need to find the weight of the tiles first (as weight is a force).
W = mg = (480)(10)
= 4800 N
F 4800 N
p = __
= _______

A 1.2 m2
= 4000 Pa
Since the pressure exerted by the tiles is only 4000 Pa, the floor is able to support it.

Chapter 6 Pressure
6.2 Mercury Barometer

• A mercury barometer is a device that measures the atmospheric pressure.
• It consists of a thick-walled glass tube sealed at one side and is about one metre in length.
vacuum
barometer
reading
mercury
reservoir

A mercury barometer
• The glass tube filled with mercury is inverted with its opening end dipped into a mercury reservoir.
• The tip of the glass tube is a vacuum space that allows the mercury level in the tube to rise and drop.
• At sea level, the mercury barometer will show a reading of 760 mm (i.e. the height of the mercury column
is 760 mm).
• We usually indicate the barometer reading as 760 mm Hg or 76 cm Hg.
• Using the formula for liquid pressure (p = hρg), we find that the atmospheric pressure is approximately
1.013 × 105 Pa.

CHAPTER 7
Work, Energy and Power
7.1 Work
• Work (W) is defined as the product of force (F) and the distance moved (s) in the direction of the
force.
W=F×s
• The SI unit for work is joule (J).

• Work is done only if the applied force on the object is able to move it over a certain distance along the
direction of the force.
• A person pushing against a strong wall does no work because the wall does not move.
• One joule is defined as the work done by a force of one newton to move an object by a distance of one
metre.
7.2 Energy
• Energy is needed for a body to do work.
• Energy has the same SI unit as work done, which is joule (J).
• There are a few types of energy: kinetic energy (EK), potential energy (EP) and thermal energy.
Kinetic Energy (EK)
• Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving object.
• A stationary object does not have kinetic energy.

Chapter 7 Work, Energy and Power
1
• Kinetic energy (EK) = __
mv2
2
where m = mass (kg) and v = velocity (ms−1) of the object.
• The greater the speed of the object, the greater the value of its kinetic energy.
Potential Energy (EP)
• Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body depending on its position or condition.
• When a rubber band is stretched, it will possess elastic potential energy.
• A battery possesses chemical potential energy. When the battery is in use, chemical potential energy
is converted to electrical energy.
• When an object is raised above the ground (by position), there will be an increase in its gravitational

potential energy.
• The work done by an object of certain mass (m), raised to a certain height (h), is equal to:
Gravitational potential energy (EP) = mgh
Thermal Energy
• Thermal energy refers to the amount of heat possessed by an object.
• In volcanic areas, underground water is being heated by molten lava. The heated water becomes steam
and can be used to turn turbines to generate electrical energy.
Principle of Conservation of Energy
• The Principle of Conservation of Energy states that energy possessed by a body can neither be created nor
destroyed; it can only be converted from one form to another. There is no change in its total energy.

Chapter 7 Work, Energy and Power
Efficiency
• According to the Principle of Conservation of Energy, total energy input should be equal to total energy
output.
• This means that the conversion of energy is 100% efficient.
• In real life, we can never achieve 100% efficient use of energy.
• Some of the energy will be lost as noise, heat, sound, light, etc.
• Efficiency of energy conversion is defined as:
Useful energy output
Efficiency = ___________________

× 100%
Total energy input

7.3 Power
• Power is defined as the rate of work done or energy converted.
• Alternatively, power (P) can also be defined as energy converted (E) or work done (W)
per unit time (t).
E W
P = __
t = ___
t
• The SI unit is watt (W) or joule per second (J s−1)
• Therefore, E = W = Pt.

CHAPTER 8
Kinetic Model of Matter
8.1 States of Matter

• There are three states of matter, namely solid, liquid and gas.
• Their physical properties are shown in the table below.
Solid Liquid Gas

• Fixed shape and volume • Fixed volume but no fixed shape • No fixed shape or volume
• Incompressible • High density • Low density
• A large force needed to change • Incompressible • Highly compressible
shape
• Usually hard and rigid
• High density

Chapter 8 Kinetic Model of Matter
8.2 Kinetic Theory of Matter
Solid Liquid Gas
• Particles are closely packed and • Particles are clustered together. • Gas molecules are spaced far
arranged in an orderly manner. • The spaces between particles are apart as the forces between the
• Closely packed particles result in wider as compared to that of solids molecules are almost negligible.
solids having high densities. and they are free to move around in • They will occupy any space
• Particles only vibrate about a fixed the boundary of the container. available and thus they have low
position. • This results in liquids having no densities.
• Particles are bonded together by fixed shape. • This explains why gas has no fixed
large forces, which results in solids shape or volume.
having fixed shape and volume. • Gas molecules travel at very high

speed and move in constant
random motion.
8.3 Brownian Motion

• It is the irregular and random movement of smoke particles due to the bombardment of air molecules
from all directions.
• At a higher temperature, these particles are observed to be moving at greater speed (i.e. more kinetic
energy) and changing direction more frequently as they bump into other particles more frequently.

CHAPTER 9
Transfer of Thermal Energy
9.1 Methods of Heat Transfer

• There are three ways in which heat can be transferred: conduction, convection and radiation.
Thermal energy is transferred from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.
9.2 Conduction

• Conduction occurs mostly in solids, for example, in metals like iron and copper.
• Conduction is the process of heat transfer that occurs between atoms or particles that are vibrating
about their fixed positions.
• For example, when one end of a metal rod is heated, the particles at the heated end gain energy and
start to vibrate faster. They then collide with the less energetic neighbouring particles, causing them to
vibrate faster.
• Through the vibrations of the particles, heat energy is transferred from the hotter end of the rod to the
colder end until an equilibrium temperature is attained.
Good and Poor Conductors of Heat
• Whether a material is a good conductor or poor conductor of heat depends on the thermal conductivity
of that material.
• A material with a high value of thermal conductivity will be a better conductor of heat.
• For example, metals are better conductors of heat compared to wood and air because metals have higher
thermal conductivity.

Chapter 9 Transfer of Thermal Energy
• Solids like metals are good conductors of electricity as well as heat because they have free electrons
that move relatively easily in the metal itself.
• These free electrons move at very high speed, and being energised, they carry kinetic energy and will
collide with neighbouring atoms or molecules, transferring the energy.
• This explains why metals are better conductors of heat compared to non-metals.
Applications of Conduction
• Wearing fluffy winter clothes traps a layer of air and reduces the amount of heat loss to the cold
environment as air is a poor conductor of heat
• Using metals such as aluminium and stainless steel as cooking utensils and saucepans, as they heat up
easily

• Using insulating materials such as wood for handles of saucepans and cooking utensils, as they are
poor conductors of heat and would not heat up easily
9.3 Convection
• Convection occurs in fluids such as air or water.
• When a glass of liquid, such as water, is heated from the bottom, the layer of water closer to the heat
source expands and hence becomes less dense compared to the water layer above it.
• The warmer, less dense water layer will rise, while the cooler, denser water at the top will sink and
become heated. This process repeats itself and sets up a convection current in the liquid.
• The process of heat transfer from one region to another through the movement of heated particles is
known as convection.
• Convection cannot occur in solids because the particles are in fixed positions and are unable to move
freely.

Applications of Convection
• The heating coil of an electric kettle is placed at the bottom, instead of the top, to allow convection
currents to be set up in the kettle.
• Air conditioners are always fixed close to the ceiling as cold air is denser and sinks.
9.4 Radiation
• Conduction and convection require a medium to conduct heat and cannot occur in a vacuum.
• The only way that heat can be transferred through a vacuum is by radiation.
• Radiation is the process whereby thermal energy is transmitted in the form of infrared radiation, which

is a type of electromagnetic wave.
• One example of heat transfer through radiation is the heat from the sun which travels through a vacuum
(space) before arriving at the Earth’s surface.
• Factors that affect the rate of emitting and absorbing radiation are the colour and texture of surface,
surface temperature and surface area.
• A dull and dark coloured object is a better emitter and absorber of radiation compared to a shiny and
bright coloured object.
Applications of Radiation
• On a hot day, we should try to wear clothes of brighter colours, instead of dull and dark colours, as
bright colours are poor absorbers of radiation.
• The cooling fins at the back of the refrigerator are painted black as black is a good emitter of radiation
and will allow more heat loss by radiation.

9.5 Application of Heat Transfer – A Vacuum Flask

• A vacuum flask is able to reduce heat loss (to the surroundings) due to the following factors.
- Heat loss by conduction and convection is reduced due to the vacuum between the double glass walls
(recall that conduction and convection cannot take place in a vacuum).
- Heat loss by radiation is also reduced as the shiny inner surface of the vacuum flask is a good reflector
and poor emitter of radiation.

9.6 Experiments to Investigate Absorption and Emission of Radiation by Black and

Silvery Surfaces
Experiment to investigate the
Absorption of radiation by a black (dull) Emission of radiation by a black (dull)

and silvery surface and silvery surface
Apparatus Needed Apparatus Needed
• 2 temperature sensors • 2 temperature sensors
• data logger • data logger
• 100 W bulb • 2 identical tins (one painted black and one with silvery
• aluminium foil surface)

• boiling water maintained at 100°C
Procedure Procedure
1. Place the 2 sensors at equal distance away from the 1. Place the temperature sensors into the 2 tins.
100 W bulb. 2. Pour the same amount of boiling water into the 2 tins.
2. Connect the 2 sensors to the data logger where a graph 3. Start the data logger.
of temperature against time will be plotted. 4. Stop the data logger after 5 minutes.
3. One sensor is wrapped with blackened aluminium foil 5. A graph of temperature against time is plotted for each
while the other is wrapped with normal silver aluminium tin.
foil.
4. Switch on the sensors and the light bulb.
5. After 5 minutes, switch off the light bulb.
Conclusion Conclusion
• The blackened sensor shows a higher temperature • The graph shows that the temperature of water in the
recorded. blackened tin drops faster compared to the water in the
• Therefore, black (dull) surfaces are better absorbers of silvery tin.
radiation. • Black surfaces are better emitters of radiation.

CHAPTER 10
Thermal Properties of Matter
10.1 Internal Energy

• Heat (Q) is defined as the thermal energy that is transferred from a hotter region to a cooler region.
• The SI unit for heat is joule (J).
• When heat is supplied to an object, it will be converted to kinetic and potential energy of the atoms /
molecules. The sum of this kinetic and potential energy of the atoms/molecules is known as the internal

energy of the object.
• Therefore, heat is a measure of the total internal energy of a body.
• An increase in temperature of a body will cause an increase in kinetic energy of the atoms / molecules
and hence will lead to an increase in the internal energy of the object.
10.2 Melting and Solidification

Melting
• Melting is a change of state from solid to liquid when heat is applied to a body, without a change in
temperature.
• The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which it changes from the solid to the liquid state.
A pure substance has a distinctive melting point.
• During melting, heat is used to break the bonds between the molecules of the solid.

Chapter 10 Thermal Properties of Matter
• Melting will occur once these intermolecular bonds are broken and they move away from their previously
fixed positions.
• There is no change in temperature of the body during melting even though heat is continuously being
supplied to the body. The kinetic energy of the body remains constant as the temperature is constant.
• Applying pressure on ice will cause its melting point to drop.
Example: Melting of ice
Temperature/ºC D
30 water (liquid)
15

B melting
Time/min
0 ice & water C
–15 A
ice (solid)
• The graph above shows how the temperature of ice changes with time as it is heated.
• From A to B, the temperature of ice (solid) increases from –15°C to 0°C.
• From B to C, there is no change in temperature as energy supplied is used to break the intermolecular
bonds in ice. At this stage, it contains a mixture of ice and water at 0°C.
• From C to D, temperature starts to increase as now all the ice has melted. Energy is now used to increase
the temperature of water (liquid) only.
Solidification/Freezing
• It is the process whereby a liquid changes its state to become a solid when heat is removed from a
body, without a change in temperature.

• A pure substance will freeze at a temperature equal to its melting point.

• When a body undergoes solidification, heat is released as intermolecular bonds are formed. There is no
change in kinetic energy as the temperature is constant.
• Heat that is given off during the formation of these bonds without change in temperature is known as
latent heat of fusion.
• Temperature of the body will only start to drop again when it has completely solidified.
• Adding impurities such as antifreeze solution or salt into water will lower the freezing point of ice
(which means water will not freeze at 0°C, but at an even lower temperature).
Example: Cooling curve of naphthalene
Temperature/ºC

liquid
90 W
80 solidification Y freezing point (or melting point)

X of naphthalene, 79ºC
solid
Z
Time/min
0
• From W to X, liquid naphthalene cools from 90°C to 79°C.

• Between X and Y, there is a mixture of liquid and solid naphthalene as naphthalene solidifies. Energy,
in the form of heat, is lost to the surroundings. Temperature remains constant between X and Y.
• From Y to Z, all the naphthalene has solidified and continues to cool further.

10.3 Boiling and Condensation

Boiling
• Boiling occurs when a liquid changes its state to become a gas at a constant temperature.
• When a liquid boils, heat is used to separate the molecules (breaking bonds between molecules), pushing
back the surrounding atmosphere, and enabling molecules to move further apart and occupy a large
volume of space.
• When heat is being absorbed into the body without causing a change in temperature, it is known as the
latent heat of vaporisation.
• Adding impurities such as salt and antifreeze solution into water will increase the boiling point of
water.

• When the pressure is increased (such as in a pressure cooker), the boiling point of water will also be
increased.
• When water is boiled at reduced pressure (such as at a high altitude), the boiling point of water will
be reduced. This is because less energy is required to push back the surrounding atmosphere as the
atmospheric pressure is lower at a high altitude.
Condensation
• During condensation, heat is released and as a result, gas will change its state back to liquid.

10.4 Evaporation
• Even though both boiling and evaporation involve a change of state, from liquid to gaseous state, they
are not the same. The table below lists the differences.
Boiling Evaporation
• Occurs at a fixed temperature • Takes place at any temperature

• Takes place throughout the liquid • Takes place at the surface of the liquid
• Temperature remains constant • Temperature is reduced as latent heat is taken away
• Bubbles are formed • Bubbles are not formed

Factors that Affect the Rate of Evaporation
Factor Its effect on evaporation
1. Temperature The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of evaporation.
2. Humidity The higher the humidity of the surrounding air, the slower the rate of evaporation.
3. Surface area The larger the surface area of the liquid, the faster the rate of evaporation.
4. Air movement Air movement (e.g. wind) will remove the layer of saturated vapour and hence increase the rate of evaporation.
5. Pressure Reducing pressure increases the rate of evaporation.
6. Nature of liquid The lower the boiling point of a liquid, the higher the rate of evaporation.

CHAPTER 11
General Wave Properties
11.1 Waves
• Waves carry energy with them and spread disturbances (such as during an earthquake where seismic
waves are produced, carrying with them huge amounts of energy which are destructive).
• Some examples of waves are sound waves, light waves and electromagnetic waves (such as gamma
rays, X-rays and microwaves).

• The source of a wave is a vibration or oscillation.
• An example is the swinging of a rope in an up and down motion causing the rope to move in a wave-
like motion.
• The rope is a medium through which the wave moves or propagates.
• A stone dropped into a pool of still water will cause ripples or circular waves to propagate outwards
from the centre of disturbance.
• The water molecules will only move up and down while the water waves spread outwards.
• Wave motion allows energy to be transferred from one point to another without any physical transfer
of the medium itself.

Chapter 11 General Wave Properties
Types of Waves
• Generally, waves can be classified into two main types: transverse wave and longitudinal wave.
Transverse wave Longitudinal wave
• Wave travels in a direction perpendicular to the direction • Wave travels in a direction parallel to the direction
of vibration of the particles. of vibration of the particles.
• Waves will display regions of crests (maximum • Waves will display regions of compressions and
displacement) and troughs (minimum displacement). rarefactions (expansion).
11.2 Wave Properties
Singapore Asia Publishers A

crest wavelength,  crest
amplitude +A
Distance /m
rest position
amplitude –A
–A
trough
• The above diagram shows a transverse wave, such as that of a rope that is moving up and down.

Property Explanation/Description
1. Crests Highest points of a transverse wave only.
2. Troughs Lowest points of a transverse wave only.
3. Amplitude, A Maximum displacement of wave from the rest position. It has the SI unit of metre (m).
Two points are in phase when the two points on the wave are moving in the same direction with the
4. Phase same speed and having same displacement from the rest position. E.g. Any two crests or two troughs
are in phase.
It is the shortest distance between two consecutive crests or troughs or any two points which are in
5. Wavelength, λ phase, such as from the crest of one wave to the crest of the subsequent wave. It has the SI unit of

metre (m).
6. Period, T It is the time taken for the wave to produce one complete wavelength. It has the SI unit of second (s).
It is the number of complete waves passing through a point in one second. It has the unit of hertz (Hz).
7. Frequency, f Mathematically, frequency (f ) and period (T ) are related by:
1
f = __

T
It is the distance travelled by a wave in one second.
It has the SI unit of metre per second (m s−1).
8. Speed, v
Mathematically,
v = fλ
9. Wavefront It is an imaginary line that joins all points that are in phase.

11.3 Mechanical Wave Generator

• A ripple tank is an instrument that is used to generate waves in the laboratory in a mechanical way.
• A dipper is dipped at regular intervals into the water which causes disturbance to the water surface.
• Two types of waves can be generated, namely plane waves (by using a straight dipper made of wood
or plastic) and circular waves (by using a spherical dipper made of wood or plastic).
• Wave patterns are observed as regions of bright and dark lines under the illumination of light.
Lamp
Motion
Motor
Circular wavefronts
Water

Shallow,
Dipper transparent
water tray
White
screen
Waves Moving from Deep Water to Shallow Water

• When waves move from deep to shallow water, the speed is reduced.
• The frequency of the waves stays the same as it is dependent on the frequency of the vibrating
source.
• With velocity reduced and frequency staying the same, this results in the wavelength being reduced by
v = fλ.
• If waves are incident at an angle to the shallow water, the direction of propagation would change as
well. (Water moving from deep to shallow water will bend towards the normal.)

11.4 Reflection and Refraction of Waves

Reflection of Waves
• When an incident wave moves towards a horizontal barrier at an angle α (angle between the normal
and the incident wave), it will be reflected in the same angle.
Refraction of Waves
• Refraction of waves occurs when water waves travel from deep water to shallow water and
vice versa.
• The direction of the incident wave will not be the same as the direction of the refracted wave.
Deep water Shallow water
Singapore Asia Publishers Direction

of waves Direction
of waves

• Water waves are refracted when travelling from deep to shallow water. As they slow down, the
wavefronts become closer together, causing them to change direction as well.

CHAPTER 12
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
12.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Electromagnetic spectrum is a continuous spectrum that ranges from gamma rays ( shortest wavelength
but highest frequency) to radio waves (longest wavelength and lowest frequency).
• The various components of the electromagnetic spectrum listed in increasing wavelengths are: gamma
rays (γ), X-rays, ultraviolet (UV), visible light, infrared (IR), microwaves and radio waves.

wavelength
10–12 m 10–9 m 10–6 m 10–3 m 1m 103 m
gamma rays radio waves

visible light
X-rays microwaves
ultraviolet infrared
12.2 Common Properties of All Electromagnetic Waves

• They are all transverse waves.
• They travel at the same speed (speed of light, c = 3 × 108 m s−1) in vacuum and slow down in other mediums.

Chapter 12 Electromagnetic Spectrum
• They do not require a medium to travel in (i.e. they can travel in a vacuum).
• They obey the laws of reflection and refraction.
• They carry with them energies which are transferred from one point to another.
• They can be emitted and absorbed by matter.
• Wave equation, v = fλ, is applicable to all electromagnetic waves.
• Frequency of waves does not change regardless of any change in medium.
• They carry no electric charges.
12.3 Examples of Uses of Electromagnetic Waves

Types of waves Uses
gamma-rays Used in cancer treatment
X-rays Obtain images of bones through radiography
Ultraviolet Sterilises medical equipment
Visible light Used in optical fibres in telecommunications
Infrared Used in infrared remote controller
Microwaves Used in microwave ovens for cooking food and radar communications
Radio waves Radio and television signals

CHAPTER 13
SOUND
13.1 Nature of Sound

• Sound is a form of energy that is transferred from one point to another in the form of longitudinal
waves.
• The wave motion of sound resembles that of a slinky spring showing regions of compressions and
rarefactions.

• Vibrating objects will generate sound waves in a medium.
• The medium may be a solid, liquid or gas.
• When a sound wave travels through air, it causes a change in air pressure.
• Regions of compression have a slightly higher air pressure compared to the surrounding air
pressure.
• Regions of rarefaction have a slightly lower air pressure compared to the surrounding air pressure.
13.2 Transmission Medium for Sound

• Sound waves require a medium in order to be transmitted from one place to another. Sound cannot be
transmitted through a vacuum.

Chapter 13 Sound
• Any medium with vibrating particles can transmit sound.

• The more closely packed the particles, the faster the speed of transmission of sound.
• This explains why sound travels fastest in solids (e.g. iron) followed by liquid (e.g. water) and slowest
in gas (e.g. air).
• Some Factors Affecting __
Speed of Sound (v)
- Temperature, T: vα√T . When the temperature increases, the speed of sound increases.
- Humidity: The speed of sound increases when humidity rises.
13.3 Audible Range

• Generally, the audible range for a human being is between 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.
• However, the ability of our ear drums to detect sound decreases as we age when the lower limit of
audibility increases and upper limit of audibility decreases.
• Human beings are unable to detect sounds that are lower than 20 Hz (infrasound) and higher than
20 000 Hz (ultrasound).
• Examples of Ultrasound
- Oscillating quartz crystals
- Sounds produced by bats (for echolocation)

Chapter 13 Sound
Application of Ultrasound
Application How it works
Medical diagnosis • Images of internal parts of the body can be obtained. This is widely used in monitoring the
development of a foetus.
• Ultrasound pulses are sent into the body by a transmitter and echoes reflected from the body are
captured.
• By matching the time interval with the distance travelled by the echoes, the depth of the reflecting
surface can be known and be put into a picture.
13.4 Reflection of Sound Waves – Echoes

• When sound waves are reflected off a smooth and hard surface, echoes can be heard.
• Multiple reflections can occur when a sound is reflected off the walls and the ceiling in an enclosed
building (e.g. enclosed school hall), resulting in multiple echoes being heard.
• Reverberation is the phenomenon when our ear detects prolonged sound due to the merging of many
echoes.
• Too much reverberation causes musical sound to appear less distinct and too little reverberation causes
the sound to appear weak.
• The reflection of sound can be used to measure distances.
• Sound pulses can be sent by a ship as a signal to the bottom of the sea to determine its depth by noting
down the time taken for the echoes to travel to and from the receiver and the sea bed. (By knowing the
speed of sound in seawater, the depth of the sea can be calculated.)

Chapter 13 Sound
• Sound pulses can also be used to detect the position of shoals of fish.
• Echolocation is also used by bats to find their way around in the dark and to locate prey.
• To determine the distance between an observer and a cliff/wall using an echo method, we can apply
the following formula:
d
st
d = __

2

where s = speed of sound in air;
d = distance between the observer and the cliff/wall;
t = time taken for sound to travel from the observer to the wall and back to the observer.
NOTE: As the sound travels to the wall and back, we need to divide the distance by 2, in order to find the distance to the wall.

Chapter 13 Sound
• We can use the same formula to measure the speed of sound between an observer and a wall.
• The formula can be modified based on the distance travelled by the sound.
• To determine the speed of sound between two observers in an open field, one person can fire a pistol
and the other person can determine the time taken (t) between the flare from the pistol and the sound
of the gunshot. In this case, when calculating the speed of sound, there is no need to divide the distance
by 2 (since this is not an echo method).
d
d = st

Chapter 13 Sound
13.5 Pitch
• A sound is said to have a high pitch if it has a high frequency.
• The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch of a sound.
• When we say that the pitch of a sound is increased by one octave, the pitch of sound is doubled.
For example, the pitch of a sound with frequency 1000 Hz is said to have increased by one octave when
its frequency is being increased to 2000 Hz.
• Therefore, the pitch of a sound is directly proportional to its frequency (f ) and inversely proportional
to its period (T).
• A sound wave can be visualised using a microphone connected to a cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO).

• The CRO converts the sound energy into electrical energy into a form that we can observe.
13.6 Loudness
• Loudness is related to the amplitude of a sound wave.
• The higher the amplitude of a sound, the louder it is.

CHAPTER 14
Current OF electricity
14.1 Conventional Current

• An electric current is the flow of electric charges.
• Conventional current is defined as the flow of positive charges.
• However, in an electric circuit, it is the negatively charged electrons that are moving.
• Thus the electrons flow in the opposite direction of the conventional current.

14.2 Electric Current
• It is the measure of the rate of flow of electric charge (Q).
• The formula relating current (I), charge (Q) and time (t) is:
Q
I = __
t
• The SI unit for charge (Q) is coulomb (C).
• The SI unit for current (I) is ampere (A).
• A current of one ampere is the rate of flow of charge of one coulomb per second.
• An ammeter is an electronic device used to measure electric current and it must be connected in series
to the electric circuit.
• Current flows into the positive end of the ammeter and leaves by the negative end.
• An ideal ammeter must have a much lower resistance value compared to the load so that little energy
is wasted as the current passes through the ammeter.

Chapter 14 Current of Electricity
cell
current, I I
flow of electrons
ammeter A I
I load I
14.3 Electromotive Force (e.m.f.)

• The e.m.f. (E) between two points in a circuit is defined as the amount of energy converted from a non-
electrical form to an electrical form (W) when one coulomb of positive charge (Q) passes through the
cell.
• Some examples of e.m.f. are electric cells, generators and thermocouples.
• Relating E, W and Q,
W
E = ___

Q
where W has the unit of joule (J);
Q has the unit of coulomb (C).
• The SI unit for e.m.f. is volt (V).
• If two electrical sources are arranged in series (e.g. 2 × 1.5 V batteries in series), we add up the e.m.f.
to find the total e.m.f.

14.4 Potential Difference (p.d.)

• The p.d. (V) between two points in a circuit is defined as the energy converted from an electrical form to
a non-electrical form (W) when one coulomb of positive charge (Q) passes through the cell.
• Relating V, W and Q,
W
V = ___

Q
where W has the unit of joule (J);
Q has the unit of coulomb (C).
• The SI unit for p.d. (V) is the same as e.m.f. (E), that is, volt (V).
• A voltmeter is an electrical device used to measure the e.m.f. or p.d. across two points in an electric circuit.

• A voltmeter must always be connected in parallel to the load (e.g. a resistor) whose p.d. is to be measured.
• An ideal voltmeter must have a much larger resistance value than the load to avoid it drawing a large
current from the circuit it is connected to.
cell
current, I I
load
negligible current I I
due to much V
larger resistance voltmeter

14.5 Resistance
• We can think of resistance as the friction generated as an object moves.
• It is a property of a material that resists the flow of electrons.
• The higher the resistance of a material, the smaller the size of electric current that can pass through it.
• Resistance (R) is related to the potential difference (V) and the current (I) flowing through it by the
following formula.
V
R = __ I
• The SI unit for resistance (R) is ohm (Ω).
Resistor

• It is a conductor that provides a known value of resistance in a circuit.
• It is used mainly to control the size of current flowing in a circuit.
• There are two types of resistors, fixed resistor and variable resistor.
Fixed resistor Variable resistor
• Resistor has variable resistance values.

• Resistor has fixed value of resistance.
• Another term for a variable resistor is rheostat.
Electric symbol
• The resistance of a load can be determined by connecting an ammeter in series and a voltmeter across
the load.

• After determining the value of potential difference (V) and the value of current (I) flowing through it,
we can apply the formula to determine the resistance (R) of the load.
Factors Affecting Resistance

• The resistance of a conductor depends on three factors:
- resistivity, ρ (which is a property of the material);
- length, l;
- cross sectional area of the conductor, A.
• Resistance of a conductor is related to ρ, l and A by the following formula.
ρl
R = __
A

• The following are the effects of a conductor on resistance by changing one factor at a time (other factors
remain unchanged).
Changing the length of wire • Increasing the length of the conductor will increase its resistance.
• Increasing the cross-sectional area of the wire (i.e. having a thicker

Changing the cross-sectional area of the wire
wire) will decrease the resistance of the conductor.

Series and Parallel Circuits
Series circuit Parallel circuit
• Electrical components such as resistors are connected • Electrical components such as resistors are connected
by wire one after another. parallel to one another.
I1 V I4 I
I1 I2 I3
I
V1 R 1 V2 R2 V3 R3
R1 I2 R2 I3 R3
I

I
V1 V2 V3
• Current is split out to the three branches of circuit
• The current flowing through each resistor, R1, R2 and R3 leading to one resistor.
is the same. • Total current in will equal total current out.
• This means that current value, I = I1 + I2 + I3
I1 = I2 = I3 = I4 • The potential difference is the same across all resistors
• Potential difference (sum), in parallel.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 That is, V = V1 = V2 = V3.
• Therefore, in a series circuit, the total resistance, • Therefore, in a parallel circuit, the total resistance,
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
• The total resistance value in the circuit is always the ___ = ___
+ ___
+ ___
or RT = ( ___ + ___
+ ___
)–1
RT R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
largest, compared to any resistor in the circuit. • The total resistance value is always smaller than the
smallest resistor value.

CHAPTER 15
D. C. circuits
15.1 Circuit Symbols
Cell Switch
Battery (more than 1 cell) Lamb/Bulb

or
Power Source (d.c.) Resistor (fixed)
Power Source (a.c.) Resistor (variable)/Rheostat

or
Ammeter A Fuse
Thermistor (Resistor whose

Voltmeter V resistance varies with
temperature)
Light-dependent Resistor Light-emitting diode (L.E.D.)

Chapter 15 D. C. Circuits
15.2 Potential Divider

• If we have two resistors connected in series, we can find the potential difference across R1 by applying
the following formula.
R1
V1 = _______
R1 + V
R2
V R1 V1
R2 V2

15.3 Thermistor
• A thermistor’s resistance decreases as the temperature increases.
• It can be used as a temperature sensor in the control of air conditioning units or in fire alarms.
15.4 Light-dependent Resistor

• The resistance of a light-dependent resistor (LDR) decreases when the intensity of light falling on the
LDR increases.

CHAPTER 16
practical electricity
16.1 Practical Usage of Electricity

• Heating elements are used in electric iron, electric stove and electric kettle.
• Heat is generated when an electric current flows through the heating element.
Heating • A thermostat is used to control the temperature of the heating element.
• These heating elements are usually made up of nichrome wire bundled around an insulating material
such as silica and fire-clay.
Singapore Asia Publishers Filament lamp (Incandescent)
• Tungsten is the material used in the filament of the lamp.

• It has high resistivity, very high melting point (at 3400°C)
and the filament is made very thin to increase the
Fluorescent lamp
• It is three times as efficient as a filament

lamp. (i.e. A greater percentage of the
electrical energy is converted to light
resistance. energy. Less energy is wasted as heat.)
• When electric current flows through the filament, it heats • It also has a longer lamp life (3000
up to 2500°C. hours) compared to the filament lamp
Lighting
• The higher the temperature of the filament, the greater (1000 hours).
the amount of electrical energy that will be converted to • The shadows cast by fluorescent lamps
light energy. are soft shadows and hence, they are
Disadvantages suitable for use in schools and offices.
• Only 10% of the electrical energy is converted to light.
90% is wasted as heat.
• Filament lamps cast sharp shadows, hence they are not
desirable for use in schools.

Chapter 16 Practical Electricity
16.2 Electrical Power

• Power (P) can be defined as work done (W) per unit time or energy converted (E) per unit time (t).
W E
P = ___
t or P = __
t
• The SI unit for power is watt (W) and the SI unit for time is second (s).
• The SI unit for work done and energy converted are both in joule (J).
• Relating power (P) to current (I) and voltage (V):
P = IV
• The few convenient units of power are as follows.
- 1 kilowatt (kW) = 103 W

- 1 megawatt (MW) = 106 W
16.3 Electric Energy

• As derived above, work done and energy have the same unit, joule.
• Therefore, the formula for electric energy will be:
E = IVt or E = Pt
• To calculate the conversion of electric energy to heat energy, we will need to bring in resistance (R).
• From V = RI, we have varied forms of the energy equation.
– E = I2Rt
V2
– E = ___
R t
• Like power, we have a few common units for energy.
– 1 kilojoule (kJ) = 103 J
– 1 megajoule (MJ) = 106 J
• To get power, we just have to divide the energy equation by time (t).

16.4 Calculating Electrical Consumption

• Electricity usage is based on the number of kilowatt-hours (kWh) a household uses.
• 1 kilowatt-hour is the energy usage of an electrical device at a rate of 1000 W per hour.
• The price of per kilowatt-hour of electricity depends on the fluctuation of oil prices.
• For example, when an 800 W microwave is used for 30 minutes, the amount of electrical energy used:
E = Pt = (0.8 kW) (0.5 hrs) = 0.4 kWh.
16.5 Electrical Plug Wiring

Live (brown)
Singapore Asia Publishers Earth
FUSE
(green/yellow)
Neutral
(blue)
Cord grip
• The wiring of a 3-pin plug used in homes is shown above.

• The live wire is brown and is connected to the fuse, while the neutral and earth wires are blue and
green/yellow respectively.
• The earth wire is a low resistance wire connected to the metal casing of electrical appliances.

• Should the live wire break and touch the metal casing, the earth wire diverts the current to earth and
prevents the user from getting an electric shock if he touches the metal casing.
• You may notice that some electrical appliances only have a 2-pin plug instead of 3-pins. These appliances
have double insulation and do not require an earth wire.
• The double insulation is so-called because:
– the electrical cables are insulated from the internal components of the appliance;
– the external casing is insulated from the internal metal parts and wires (i.e. the external casing is
made of an insulator such as plastic).
• The symbol for double insulation is below.

16.6 Safe Use of Electricity
switch fuse
LIVE (± 230V)
electrical appliance
earth
NEUTRAL (0V)

Fuse
• The fuse is a safety device that is made of a thin wire with a low melting point.
• If the current exceeds the fuse rating (e.g. 5A) the fuse melts and the circuit is broken.
• The fuse chosen for the appliance should have a rating slightly higher than the usual current drawn by
the appliance.
• The fuse is connected on the live wire so that when there is excessive current flowing in the circuit
such that the fuse melts, the electrical appliance will be isolated from the live wire (i.e. it is no longer
connected to the live wire). This makes it safe for repairs to be carried out.
Switch

• The switch is also connected to the live wire.
• This allows the appliance to be disconnected from the live wire when the appliance is switched off.
(Otherwise, the appliance will still be charged “live”, even when the switch is off.)
Circuit Breaker
• A circuit breaker is a safety device that breaks the circuit when the current becomes too large (due to
a current surge) or when there are leakages to the earth wire.
• As there is usually no current flowing in the earth wire, a current flowing in the earth wire would
indicate a fault in the circuit (e.g. live wire breaks and touches metal casing). In such a situation, the
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) trips and cuts the power supply to the house/appliance.

16.7 Dangers of Electricity

• There are three main reasons why electricity can be dangerous.
• Over time, due to wear and tear, the rubber insulation of wires may get twisted and turned, and the
Damaged insulating cable may be damaged, exposing the live wire, which is very dangerous.
insulation • It can cause electric shocks leading to serious injury and even death, if someone accidentally touches
the bare wires.
• When there is too large a current flowing in a circuit, such as the result of a short circuit or due to
Overheating
improper cable being used, cables/wires can get overheated.
of cables
• This may cause the insulation of the wires to melt, which may in turn cause a short circuit and start a fire.
Wet/damp • Water can conduct electricity and can become a conducting path for a large current to flow through.

conditions • A person can be electrocuted to death due to the large current.

APPENDIX: PHYSICS FORMULA LIST
CHAPTER 2: Kinematics CHAPTER 6: Pressure

• d = s × t F
• p = __

v–u A
• a = _____
t

CHAPTER 7: Work, Energy and Power

CHAPTER 3: Dynamics • Work done (W) = Force (F) × Distance moved (s) in
• F = ma the direction of the force
1
CHAPTER 4: Mass, Weight and Density • Ek = __
mv2
2
• W = mg • Ep = mgh
m
• ρ = __
V Work done (W)
• Power (P) = _____________

Time taken (t)
CHAPTER 5: Turning Effect of Forces
• Sum of clockwise moments = Sum of anticlockwise
moments
or
• FCW dCW = FACW dACW

CHAPTER 11: General Wave Properties
1
• f = __
T
• v = f λ
CHAPTER 14: Current of Electricity

Q
• I = __
t
V
• R = __ I

CHAPTER 15: D. C. Circuits
For a potentiometer
RA
• VA = _______

V
RA + RB Total
CHAPTER 16: Practical Electricity

• P = IV
• E = Pt or E = IVt

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The Editorial Team

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CHAPTER 1: Physical Quantities, Units and Measurement 1

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Section II: Newtonian Mechanics

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CHAPTER 4: Mass, Weight and Density 18

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CHAPTER 5: Turning Effect of Forces 21

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Section III: Thermal Physics

CHAPTER 8: Kinetic Model of Matter 30

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CHAPTER 9: Transfer of Thermal Energy 32

CHAPTER 10: Thermal Properties of Matter 37

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CHAPTER 11: General Wave Properties 42

CHAPTER 12: Electromagnetic Spectrum 47

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CHAPTER 13: Sound 49

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CHAPTER 14: Current of Electricity 55

CHAPTER 15: D.C. Circuits 61

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CHAPTER 16: Practical Electricity 63

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1.1 International System of Units (SI Units)

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Basic physical quantity SI unit SI unit symbol

Electric current ampere A

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Prefixes for SI Units

Standard form Prefix Symbol

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1.2 Scalar and Vector

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• A man cycles from Town A to Town B in 4 hours.

• Total distance travelled = 70 km • Displacement (A to C) = 50 km

• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

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1.3 Measuring Length

Length (l) to be measured Instrument Accuracy

l>1m measuring tape ± 0.1 cm

10 cm < l < 1 m metre rule / half-metre rule ± 0.1 cm

1 cm < l < 10 cm vernier calipers ± 0.01 cm

l < 2 cm micrometer screw gauge ± 0.001 cm

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3. The reading is given by: A + B – C (in centimetres).

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