9700 Scheme of Work (For Examination From 2016)

Scheme of Work
Cambridge International AS & A Level

Biology
9700
For examination from 2016
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Unit 1: Biological molecules .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Unit 2: Cells as the basic units of life ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Unit 3: DNA and the mitotic cell cycle ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Unit 4: Transport and gas exchange ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Unit 5: Disease and protection against disease ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Unit 6: The diversity of life ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 86
Unit 7: Genetics, population genetics and evolutionary processes ....................................................................................................................................................... 100
Unit 8: Molecular biology and gene technology .................................................................................................................................................................................... 121
Unit 9: Respiration ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 140
Unit 10: Mammalian physiology, control and coordination .................................................................................................................................................................... 152
Unit 11: Plant physiology and biochemistry .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 170
Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology (9700) – from 2016 Scheme of Work
Introduction
This staged teaching scheme of work provides ideas about how to construct and deliver a two-year course of study with all of the AS Level syllabus taught in Year 1
and the remainder of the A Level syllabus taught in Year 2. The syllabus has been broken down into teaching units, which incorporate one or more of the syllabus
units, with suggested teaching activities and learning resources to use in the classroom.
Recommended prior knowledge

Learners should have attained at least a grade C in IGCSE or O Level Biology, or the equivalent in another award such as Co-ordinated Science.
Outline
Whole class (W), group work (G), pair (P) and individual activities (I) are indicated, where appropriate, within this scheme of work. Suggestions for homework (H)
and formative assessment (F) are also included. The activities in the scheme of work are only suggestions and there are many other useful activities to be found in
the materials referred to in the learning resource list.
Opportunities for differentiation are indicated as basic and challenging; there is the potential for differentiation by resource, length, grouping, expected level of
outcome, and degree of support by the teacher, throughout the scheme of work. Length of time allocated to a task is another possible area for differentiation.
Where a learning objectives has been divided so that part of that learning objective content is taught at a different time to the rest of the learning objective, these are
identified by (i) or (ii), etc., and the specific part of the learning objective is in bold.
Key concepts
The key concepts on which the syllabus is built are set out below. These key concepts can help teachers think about how to approach each topic in order to
encourage learners to make links between topics and develop a deep overall understanding of the subject. As a teacher, you will refer to these concepts again and
again to help unify the subject and make sense of it. If mastered, learners can use the concepts to solve problems or to understand unfamiliar subject-related
material.
 Cells as the units of life
A cell is the basic unit of life and all organisms are composed of one or more cells. There are two fundamental types of cell: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
 Biochemical processes
Cells are dynamic: biochemistry and molecular biology help to explain how and why cells function as they do.
 DNA, the molecule of heredity
Cells contain the molecule of heredity, DNA. Heredity is based on the inheritance of genes.
 Natural selection
Natural selection is the major mechanism to explain the theory of evolution.
 Organisms in their environment
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All organisms interact with their biotic and abiotic environment.

 Observation and experiment
The different fields of biology are intertwined and cannot be studied in isolation: observation and enquiry, experimentation and fieldwork are fundamental to
biology.
Some of the ideas in this syllabus can take time to be fully understood. By linking them together through the key concepts, learners will have more opportunity for
those ideas to make sense to them and how they connect to other areas of the syllabus. The key concepts themselves will not be directly assessed; rather they are
themes that learners will be able to use to order their thoughts, themes and knowledge to express answers in examinations and interviews for work or the next stage
of their study.
As learners progress through the course, it is important that they do not regard the different topics as being totally self-contained and unconnected, studied in
complete isolation from one another. By keeping the key concepts to the fore at all stages of your teaching, you can strongly encourage learners to regard the
subject as a set of interconnected themes.
Learners should be aware that an ability to see how different strands of the syllabus can be pulled together within one key concept is a high-level transferable skill.
Linking different areas of their knowledge through a common thread of ideas, or ways of understanding and explaining, is enhancing their higher-order thinking
skills. These skills are the building blocks of deeper and broader learning, those that universities look for in their students and which allow learners to answer
examination questions fully and with links from more than one part of the syllabus.
Teachers can introduce key concepts as an integral part of their teaching approach and consolidate them when appropriate. This will help their learners to
appreciate that some themes and theories are revisited and built upon during the course and that, by bringing together very different areas of the syllabus, these
themes are fundamental to our understanding of the subject.
Focussing on these concepts will improve learners’ self-confidence in their ability to progress, as well as enabling them to revise more effectively; learners could
make mind maps across the syllabus on each of the key concepts as a way of revising. By visualising the subject as being formulated from these basic ideas, they
will become better prepared for interviews and future study at university, or be more adaptable to themes currently under research and development in industrial
and academic institutions.
There is also merit in showing learners how, during the course, they will be biologists studying in a number of inter-related fields that can be drawn together by the
key concepts. Examples of these fields - cell biology, biochemistry, physiology, genetics, evolutionary biology, microbiology, epidemiology, immunology,
biotechnology, ecology, population biology and conservation biology - can be discussed and linked to the different areas of the syllabus.
The key concepts are listed under the relevant learning objectives, those in bold are where the coverage of the learning objective makes a significant contribution to
the key concept.
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Practical work
Practical work is an essential part of science. Scientists use evidence gained from prior observations and experiments to build models and theories. Their
predictions are tested with practical work to check that they are consistent with the behaviour of the real world. Learners who are well trained and experienced in
practical skills will be more confident in their own abilities. The skills developed through practical work provide a good foundation for those wishing to pursue
science further, as well as for those entering employment or a non-science career.
Twelve Practical Booklets have been developed for this syllabus, six for Paper 3 and six for Paper 5, and are available on Teacher Support at
http://teachers.cie.org.uk and are referenced within this scheme of work.
The Teaching A Level Science Practical Skills booklet is also available on Teacher Support at http://teachers.cie.org.uk which contains useful information and
suggestions for teaching A Level practical skills.
Suggested teaching order

The learning objectives and activities in this scheme of work are arranged in a suggested teaching order rather than the order that they appear in the syllabus. It
has been written for the staged route, with Units 1 to 5 covering the learning objectives to be studied by all learners in the first year, and which can be assessed by
the AS Level qualification. This is followed by Units 6 to 11 which cover all learning objectives that will be assessed by the full A Level qualification at the end of the
second year of the course.
For classes taking the linear route, where all learners take the full A Level, this allows for the integrated teaching of AS and A Level learning objectives across both
years of the A Level course. The linear route is not covered in this scheme of work.
The units within this scheme of work are:
Suggested time allocation (%)

AS Level A Level
Unit 1. Biological molecules
Water 2.3.d
Carbohydrates 2.2.b, 2.2.a, 2.2.c, 2.1.a(i), 2.1.b, 2.2.d, 2.2.e
Lipids 2.2.f, 2.2.g, 2.1.a(ii)
10
Proteins 2.1.a(iii), 2.3.a, 2.3.b, 2.3.c
Biochemical tests 2.1.a
Nucleic acids 6.1.a, 6.1.b
Enzymes 3.1.a, 3.1.b, 3.1.c, 3.1.d, 3.2.a, 3.2.b, 3.2.c, 3.2.d
Unit 2. Cells as the basic units of life
Cells and microscopy 1.1.d, 1.1.a, 1.1.c
9
Size and magnification calculations 1.1.b, 1.1.e
Plant and animal cells 1.2.b, 1.2.c, 1.2.a
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Bacteria 1.2.d
Prokaryotic versus eukaryotic cell structure 1.2.e
Viruses 1.2.f
Cell membrane structure and function 4.1.a, 4.1.b, 4.1.c
Transport across membranes 4.2.a(v), 4.2.c, 4.2.a(i), 4.2.d, 4.2.b, 4.2.a(ii),
4.2.a(iii), 4.2.f, 4.2.e, 4.2.a(iv)
Unit 3. DNA and the mitotic cell cycle
Chromosome structure 5.1.a
The mitotic cell cycle - overview 5.1.c
7
The mitotic cell cycle – DNA replication 6.1.c, 5.1.d
The mitotic cell cycle – mitosis and cytokinesis 5.1.b, 5.1.e, 5.2.a, 5.2.b
Protein synthesis, introduction to genes and mutation 6.2.a, 6.2.b, 6.2.c, 6.2.d
Unit 4. Transport and gas exchange
Plant anatomy and histology 7.1.a, 7.1.b, 7.1.c
Transport of water and mineral ions 7.2.a, 7.2.c, 7.2.b, 7.2.d, 7.2.e, 7.2.f
Transport of assimilates 7.2.g, 7.2.h, 7.2.i
Structure to function: plants 7.1.d 14
The mammalian circulatory system 8.1.a, 8.1.b, 8.1.c, 8.1.d, 8.1.e
The mammalian heart 8.2.a, 8.2.b, 8.2.c, 8.2.d
The human gas exchange system 9.1.a, 9.1.b, 9.1.c, 9.1.d
Carriage of respiratory gases 8.1.f, 8.1.g, 8.1.h
Unit 5. Disease and protection against disease
Disease and smoking 10.1.a, 9.2.a, 9.2.b
Infectious disease 10.1.b, 10.1.c, 10.1.d, 10.1.e
Antibiotics 10.2.a, 10.2.b, 10.2.c 10
The immune response 11.1.d, 11.1.a, 11.1.b, 11.1.e, 11.1.c, 11.1.f
Antibodies 11.2.a, 11.2.b, 11.2.c
Vaccination 11.2.d, 11.2.e
Unit 6. The diversity of life
Definitions 18.1.a 6
Classification 18.2.a, 18.2.b, 18.2.c, 18.2.d
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Biodiversity 18.1.b
Fieldwork 18.1.c, 18.1.d, 18.1.e, 18.1.f
Conservation, population control and maintaining 18.3.a, 17.3.e, 18.3.b, 18.3.g, 18.3.c, 18.3.d,
biodiversity 18.3.e, 18.3.f, 18.3.h
Unit 7. Genetics, population genetics and evolutionary processes
Understanding terms 16.1.a, 16.1.b, 16.2.a(i)
Meiotic cell division and heredity 16.1.c, 16.1.d, 16.1.e
Genetic crosses 16.2.a(ii), 16.2.b, 16.2.c, 16.2.d
10
Biological variation 17.1.a, 17.1.c, 17.1.b, 16.2.e, 16.2.f, 16.2.g
Natural selection and population genetics 17.1.d, 17.2.a, 17.2.b, 17.2.c, 17.2.d
Evolution and speciation 17.3.a, 17.3.b, 17.3.c, 17.3.d
Artificial selection 17.2.e, 17.2.f
Unit 8. Molecular biology and gene technology
The control of gene expression 16.3.b, 16.3.a, 16.3.c, 19.1.i
Recombinant DNA technology 19.1.a, 19.1.b, 19.1.h, 19.1.e, 19.1.f, 19.1.g, 19.2.c,
19.3.a, 19.3.b, 19.3.c 9
Molecular biology techniques 19.1.c, 19.1.d, 19.2.g
Bioinformatics 19.2.a, 19.2.b
Prevention and treatment of inherited conditions. 19.2.d, 19.2.e, 19.2.f
Unit 9. Respiration
Energy and ATP 12.1.a, 12.1.b
Aerobic respiration and ATP synthesis 12.2.a, 12.2.b, 12.2.c, 12.2.d, 12.2.e, 12.1.c, 12.2.g,
12.2.f, 12.1.e(i), 12.1.d, 12.2.i
7
Anaerobic respiration 12.2.k, 12.2.l
Comparing anaerobic and aerobic respiration 12.2.j
Yeast practical 12.2.h
Respiratory substrates, RQs and respirometers 12.1.f, 12.1.g, 12.2.m, 12.1.h
Unit 10. Mammalian physiology, control and coordination
Communication systems 15.1.a
The nervous system 15.1.b, 15.1.c, 15.1.d, 15.1.e, 15.1.f, 15.1.g, 15.1.h 10
Muscle contraction 15.1.i, 15.1.j, 15.1.k
Homeostasis 14.1.a, 14.1.b, 14.1.c
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Excretion of nitrogenous waste and osmoregulation 14.1.d, 14.1.e, 14.1.f, 14.1.g

Control of blood glucose concentration 14.1.h, 14.1.i, 14.1.j
Detection of biological molecules in blood and urine 14.1.k, 14.1.l
Hormones of the menstrual cycle 15.1.l, 15.1.m
Unit 11. Plant physiology and biochemistry
Photosynthesis overview 13.1.b
The light dependent stage 13.1.c, 13.1.d, 13.1.e, 13.1.f
The light dependent stage - chemiosmosis 12.1.e(ii)
The light independent stage 13.1.a, 13.1.g, 13.1.h 8
The chloroplast 13.3.a
Factors affecting photosynthesis. 13.2.a, 13.2.b, 13.2.c, 13.2.d, 13.2.e, 13.3.b
Control and coordination in plants. 15.2.a, 14.2.a, 14.2.b, 14.2.c, 15.2.b, 15.2.c, 15.2.d,
16.3.d
Suggested teaching order

AS Level
Unit 1, Biological molecules, could be studied either before or after Unit 2, Cells as the basic units of life. Learners with a good chemistry background will cope well
with Unit 1, others will probably find the subject matter in Unit 2 to be more approachable. If Unit 2 is covered first, then learners will need a reminder of previous
knowledge of biological molecules learned in earlier studies or a brief introduction to lipids and proteins. Knowledge and understanding from both of these will be
used and applied in the rest of the course. The role of DNA in the mitotic cell cycle, Unit 3, follows on quite logically from the work done in Units 1 and 2. Unit 5,
Disease and protection against disease is best taught after Unit 4, Transport and gas exchange, as there is a link between mammalian transport and gas exchange
in mammals in Unit 4 and non-infectious disease and cells of the immune system in Unit 5. There is much work that can be done in improving data extraction and
data analysis skills in Unit 5, where there are fewer opportunities to carry out practical work. As this unit is taught at the end of the AS Level course, teachers may
wish to allocate some time to consolidate practical skills gained earlier in the course and prepare learners fully for Paper 3.
A Level
Having studied eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell structure in Unit 2 (AS Level), Unit 6, The diversity of life, is a straightforward introduction to the A Level syllabus.
This covers knowledge and understanding that is useful for Unit 7, Genetics, population genetics and evolutionary processes. Unit 8, Molecular biology and gene
technology, allows learners to use some of the concepts covered in Unit 7. Unit 11 can be taught at any time throughout the course if carrying out practical work is
dependent on seasonal timing: if taught before Units 9 and 10, the idea of control and coordination and chemiosmosis should be covered. Units 9 and 11 are best
taught with a gap in between to avoid confusion for learners when studying the biochemical processes of respiration and photosynthesis.
Teacher support
Teacher Support (http://teachers.cie.org.uk) is a secure online resource bank and community forum for Cambridge teachers, where you can download specimen
and past question papers, mark schemes and other resources. We also offer online and face-to-face training; details of forthcoming training opportunities are
posted online.
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This scheme of work is available as PDF and an editable version in Microsoft Word format; both are available on Teacher Support at http://teachers.cie.org.uk. If
you are unable to use Microsoft Word you can download Open Office free of charge from www.openoffice.org.
Resources
The resources for this syllabus, including textbooks endorsed by Cambridge, can be found at www.cie.org.uk and Teacher Support http://teachers.cie.org.uk.
Endorsed textbooks have been written to be closely aligned to the syllabus they support, and have been through a detailed quality assurance process. As such,
all textbooks endorsed by Cambridge for this syllabus are the ideal resource to be used alongside this scheme of work as they cover each learning objective.
Where other textbooks have shown to be useful for some learning objectives they are referred to by the first author. These include:
nd
King T, Reiss M, Roberts M. Practical Advanced Biology. Nelson Thornes, 2 Edition 2001. ISBN: 9780174483083
Siddiqui S. Comprehensive Practical Biology for A Level. Ferozsons, 1999. ISBN 9690015729
Bio Factsheets. Curriculum Press www.curriculum-press.co.uk
These cover a wide range of topics and are also useful for revision and extension work. Individual factsheets can be obtained, as can a complete CD-ROM.
Biological Nomenclature, published by the Society of Biology (formerly the Institute of Biology).
This publication can be ordered by emailing the Education Department at the Society of Biology https://www.societyofbiology.org. The symbols, signs and
abbreviations used in examination papers follow these recommendations.
CD-ROM
Bioscope. Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 9781845650261
A simulation of a real microscope that includes a large number of botanical and zoological microscope slides at a range of magnifications, accompanied by paper-
based tasks. It can be used for whole class teaching via a whiteboard or data projector, or by individual students on PCs.
Websites
This scheme of work includes website links providing direct access to internet resources. Cambridge International Examinations is not responsible for the
accuracy or content of information contained in these sites. The inclusion of a link to an external website should not be understood to be an endorsement of that
website or the site's owners (or their products/services).
The particular website pages in the learning resource column of this scheme of work were selected when the scheme of work was produced. Other aspects of the
sites were not checked and only the particular resources are recommended.
Websites in this scheme of work, and some other useful websites, include:
http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/ The National Centre for Biotechnology Education: protocols and useful information
http://www.saps.org.uk/ Science and Plants for Schools: protocols
http://www.biology4all.com/resources_library/index.asp Biology 4all: wide range of resources and links to other useful sites
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http://www.s-cool.co.uk/alevel/biology.html S-cool: revision website

http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookTOC.html The Online Biology Book, hosted by Estrella Mountain Community College
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/ Kimball’s Biology Pages (especially useful for teacher reference)
http://www.cellsalive.com/ Cells Alive: covers a range of topics with straightforward animations
http://www.worldofteaching.com/A-ZBiologypowerpoints.html PowerPoint presentations donated by teachers
http://www.ase.org.uk/resources/ Association for Science Education: educational resources
http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-biology Practical Biology: ideas and lesson plans
http://www.nationalstemcentre.org.uk/sciencepracticals The National Stem Centre provides many resources including ideas for practical work
http://www.biology-resources.com For learners to revisit IGCSE topics
http://www.biologyjunction.com/ap_biology_animations.htm Links to websites with animations - many different topics
http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/cfb/index.htm Royal Society of chemistry: Chemistry for biologists
https://www.societyofbiology.org/ The Society of biology
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Unit 1: Biological molecules

Learners will need some background knowledge in chemistry before embarking on this unit. They should understand the terms atom, molecule, electron and ion.
They should also have a basic understanding of covalent and ionic bonding, and of molecular and structural formulae. They should be able to write and understand
simple chemical equations. Some knowledge of energy changes (potential energy and bond energy) would be helpful.
http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/cfb/basicchemistry.htm is a good starting point for learners to revise their knowledge of chemistry.
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/tutorials/chemistry/page1.html this also covers basic chemistry for biologists.
Context
This unit provides essential reference material for learners when studying all future units in their Cambridge International AS and A Level course. Knowledge of how
the structure and properties of biological molecules are related to their functions in cells and in organisms is fundamental to an understanding of many areas of
biology. The molecule of heredity, DNA, is a key concept. Cells can be visualised as structural units requiring biological molecules and as dynamic units carrying
out biochemical processes. Cells carry out biochemical processes, a key concept, and enzymes catalyse biological reactions. A thorough understanding of enzyme
function can be applied to studying processes such as:
 DNA replication and protein synthesis in Unit 3, The role of DNA in the mitotic cell cycle;
 the carriage of carbon dioxide in Unit 4, Transport and gas exchange;
 gene technology in Unit 8, Molecular biology and gene technology;
 respiration in Unit 9, Respiration;
 photosynthesis in Unit 11, Plant physiology and biochemistry.
As part of biotechnology, enzymes are used commercially in a range of applications, with many of these using immobilised enzymes for a more efficient process.
Outline
This unit introduces learners to the biological molecules that are required by cells for both structural purposes and physiological processes. The main groups of
organic biochemicals, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids, are studied. For carbohydrates, lipids and proteins, there is an emphasis on the relationship
between molecular structure, properties and functions in living organisms. Learners study the structure of nucleic acids and discuss DNA as the ideal molecule of
inheritance in preparation for Unit 3, The role of DNA in the mitotic cell cycle. Learning objective 2.3.d introduces the concepts of hydrogen bonding and solubility
and considers the roles of water in living organisms. This unit builds on knowledge of protein structure in describing and explaining enzyme activity. The mode of
action of enzymes and factors that affect enzyme action, including inhibitors, is covered. Learners are introduced to some basic enzyme kinetics. There are many
opportunities to carry out practical work, where learning can be reinforced and individual and class results can be analysed. The last section of the unit considers
the differences between enzymes free in solution and immobilised enzymes.
Teaching time
It is recommended that this unit should take approximately 10% of the complete A Level course.
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Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities Learning resources
2.3.d  Discussion / brainstorm: the importance of water to the life of a cell, including Online
explain how hydrogen bonding occurs hydrogen bonding and as a solvent in biological systems (e.g. blood, phloem http://faculty.fmcc.edu/mcdarby/major
between water molecules and relate sap, cytosol/cytoplasm). (I) (Basic). s101book/chapter_03-chemistry/03-
the properties of water to its roles in  Learners make notes, including the following: Water_Properties.htm
living organisms (limited to solvent o Draw and describe hydrogen bonding between water molecules. (I) http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teache
action, specific heat capacity and (Basic) rs/Resources/cfb/water.htm
latent heat of vapourisation) o Make links between hydrogen bonding and the cohesive nature of water http://www.worldofmolecules.com/sol
molecules. (I) (Basic) vents/water.htm
Key concepts o Explain the link between hydrogen bonding and
Cells as the units of life,  the high specific heat capacity of water Textbooks/Publications
Biochemical processes,  the high latent heat of vapourisation of water. (I) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 30: The biological
Organisms in their environment o Research examples to show the relationship between the properties of importance of water.
water and its roles in organisms. (I) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 78: Chemical bonding
 Discuss the concept of polar / non-polar and the solubility or otherwise of the in biological molecules
biological molecules in this unit. (W) (Basic)
Note
 Ensure learners can use the following terms (see Unit 2):
hydrophilic hydrophobic
polar non-polar
charged / ionic uncharged / non-ionic
water soluble water-insoluble
lipid insoluble lipid soluble
2.2.b  Learners write definitions for macromolecule, monomer and polymer and Online
define the terms monomer, polymer, consolidate. (W) (Basic) http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teache
macromolecule, monosaccharide, o Match the terms with relevant examples (include an introduction of DNA rs/Resources/cfb/carbohydrates.htm
disaccharide and polysaccharide and RNA nucleotides).
o Discuss why lipids do not have monomers. Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts o Construct a simple table (complete bond names later). Bio Factsheet 78: Chemical bonding
Biochemical processes, type of organic monomer polymer name of bond in biological molecules
DNA, the molecule of heredity macromolecule
carbohydrate monosaccharide polysaccharide
protein amino acid polypeptide
nucleic acid DNA nucleotide polynucleotide
RNA nucleotide
lipid - -
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 Further discussion (W) (Basic)

o The macromolecules are based on a skeleton of carbon atoms (‘life is
based on carbon'), which can form strong bonds with other atoms.
o Of the wide range of organic compounds formed, some provide energy for
the cell.
 Introduce the terms condensation and hydrolysis by discussing the synthesis
and breakdown of polymers. (W) (Basic)
 Brainstorm some carbohydrates and agree whether monosaccharide,
disaccharide or polysaccharide (W) (Basic)
o Learners make notes on: monosaccharides, using the terms triose,
pentose and hexose (glucose, galactose and fructose as e.g. of hexoses);
disaccharides (lactose, maltose, sucrose and cellobiose), giving their
constituent monosaccharides). (I) (Basic)
Note
 Useful terms for later:
o pentose - nucleotide and nucleic acid structure in this unit,
o hexose for respiration (Unit 9 ) and photosynthesis (Unit 11).
2.2.a  Provide details of the molecular structure of glucose (see 2.2.b) which, in Online
describe the ring forms of -glucose solution, is mainly in ring form (W) (Basic) http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teache
and glucose o Show learners how to use a logical sequence to build up the ring form of rs/Resources/cfb/carbohydrates.htm
the glucose molecule and number the carbon atoms. Learners practise #2
Key concepts then draw the molecule from memory. (I) (Challenging)
Biochemical processes o Learners complete a range of incomplete diagrams prepared by you, e.g. Past Papers
by adding the -OH and -H groups. (F) Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (a)
o Progress learners to be able to identify and draw a glucose molecule.
(I) (Basic)
 Learners make molecular models of  and  forms of glucose using plastic
sphere / bond models or drinking straw models. (P) (Challenging)
 Explain that knowledge of the  and  forms of glucose will help
understanding of disaccharide and polysaccharide structures and properties.
(W) (Basic)
2.2.c  Outline how a glycosidic bond is formed to produce a disaccharide by a Past Papers
describe the formation of a glycosidic condensation reaction (no details yet of molecular structure). (W) (Basic) Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
bond by condensation, with reference  Learners draw the formation of an , 1-4 glycosidic bond and add the name of
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both to polysaccharides and to the bond to their table from 2.2.b. (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
disaccharides, including sucrose  Work through the formation of a , 1-4 glycosidic bond (to form cellobiose). Bio Factsheet 78: Chemical bonding
(W) (Challenging) in biological molecules
Key concepts  Tell learners that the glucose monomer of sucrose is -glucose and ask them
Biochemical processes to use a molecular diagram of a sucrose molecule to work out the structure of
a fructose molecule (no need to memorise this). (W) (Challenging)
 Learners use the -glucose models previously constructed to form a
glycosidic bond. (P) (I) (Basic)
o Produce a section of a polysaccharide, e.g. from an amylose or cellulose
molecule. (G) (P) (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Maltose is formed in nature from degradation reactions (i.e. breakdown) of
starch, so focus the activity on the concept of a condensation reaction to build
up a macromolecule and the formation of a glycosidic bond. The ‘formation’ of
maltose illustrates the principle of glycosidic bond formation by a
condensation reaction.
2.1.a (i) Only the first part of this learning objective is included here: carry out tests for Practical booklet 2
carry out tests for reducing sugars reducing sugars and non-reducing sugars, and the iodine in potassium iodide
and non-reducing sugars, the iodine solution test for starch to identify the contents of solutions Online
in potassium iodide solution test for  Discuss the tests and explain they are useful to identify biochemicals in a http://www.mrothery.co.uk/bio_web_
starch, the emulsion test for lipids and range of plant and animal material. (W) (Basic) prac/practicals/2Food%20Tests.doc
the biuret test for proteins to identify o Learners should describe the biochemical tests (‘food tests’ is a less http://www.mrothery.co.uk/module1/
the contents of solutions helpful term) and the results obtained, giving conclusions. (W) (Basic) Mod%201%20techniques.htm
 Practical work: carrying out the Benedict's test for reducing sugars. http://www.biotopics.co.uk/nutrition/fo
Key concepts o Explain that a negative test does not mean an absence of carbohydrate. otes.html
Biochemical processes, (I) (Basic)
Observation and experiment o Learners test substances that will give positive results (e.g. Textbooks/Publications
glucose/fructose/ maltose/lactose solution) and negative results (e.g. King p.19-22
sucrose solution, water, protein/starch suspension, vegetable oil). (I) Siddiqui p.56-60
(Basic) Bio Factsheet 173: How to identify
o Learners test natural liquefied biological materials (e.g. fruits, tubers) and foods: Food Tests and
liquefied foods from the diet. (I) (Basic) (Challenging) Chromatography
o Learners test a thin section of fruit placed on a microscope slide (add a
few drops of Benedict’s and heat over a spirit burner – use forceps): use a
microscope to observe colour changes. (P) (I) (Challenging)
V3.1 14
 Discuss the negative result for reducing sugar with sucrose and explain that
hot acid is used to hydrolyse sucrose, but neutralisation is required before
adding Benedict’s. (W) (Basic)
 Practical work carrying out the test for a non-reducing sugar, where learners
use fresh samples of each of the substances that gave ‘negative’ results for
the reducing sugar test. (I) (Basic)
 Practical work to consolidate reducing sugars and non-reducing sugar tests.
o Learners identify which unmarked solution is: glucose; sucrose; a mixture
of both glucose and sucrose. (I) (Basic)
o Extend this (excess of Benedict’s solution) to filtering the precipitates for
comparison and using a colorimeter (if available) to compare filtrates. (P)
(I) (Challenging)
 Practical work to test for starch in a range of different types of starch
(suspensions) and food substances using iodine in potassium iodide solution.
Learners see a range of blue-black colours obtained (owing to the differing
proportions of amylose to amylopectin). (I) (Basic)
 Practical booklet 2 can be carried out after this stage. See the Teacher’s
practical notes regarding the development of certain skills for Paper 3.
Note
 Remind learners to control variables.
 AR (analytical reagent) sucrose is preferred to LR (laboratory reagent)
sucrose (preferred to cane sugar) for the non-reducing sugar test (if cane
sugar is used, explain that it will contain impurities and may give a slight
positive Benedict’s test results).
2.1.b  Practical work: learners practise, and get a visual impression of, diluting a Practical booklet 2
carry out a semi-quantitative coloured liquid, using water, to set concentrations. (I) (Basic)
Benedict’s test on a reducing sugar  Practical work: learners prepare glucose solutions of known concentration and
using dilution, standardising the test then carry out the Benedict's test, recording the time taken for the first
and using the results (colour standards indication of colour change and to obtain colour standards. (I) (Basic)
or time to first colour change) to o Follow-up with a semi-quantitative analysis, comparing time taken and
estimate the concentration colour/colour depth to determine the approximate concentration of an
unknown solution. (I) (Challenging)
Key concepts o Evaluate the test with learners and ask for ideas of other semi-quantitative
Biochemical processes, tests (e.g. allow precipitate to settle, dry and weigh). (W) (Challenging)
Observation and experiment  Practical booklet 2 can be carried out after this stage. See the Teacher’s
V3.1 15
practical notes regarding the development of certain skills for Paper 3.
2.2.d  Explain how a glycosidic bond can be broken by hydrolysis, referring to Online
describe the breakage of glycosidic monomers and monosaccharides. (W) (Basic) http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teache
bonds in polysaccharides and  Learners draw diagrams of the breakage of glycosidic bonds (by hydrolysis) of rs/Resources/cfb/carbohydrates.htm
disaccharides by hydrolysis, with maltose and sucrose. (I) (Challenging) #2
reference to the non-reducing sugar o Add annotations to explain the ideas behind the non-reducing sugar test.
test (I) (Basic)
o Use the models of disaccharides previously constructed to demonstrate
Key concepts the breakage of a glycosidic bond. (P) (I) (Basic)
Biochemical processes, o Extension activity: using molecular diagrams of galactose, lactose and
Observation and experiment cellobiose, learners draw diagrams or construct models to show the
breakdown of lactose and cellobiose. (P) (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Learners should describe the breakage of the glycosidic bond in sucrose
when explaining non-reducing sugar test results (see 2.1.a)
2.2.e  Use the molecular models to show short sections of amylose and amylopectin Online
describe the molecular structure of (or strings of beads on wire) and discuss glycogen structure. (G) (Basic) http://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbioc
polysaccharides including starch  Learners describe the difference between the structures (include bonds hem/MBWeb/mb1/part2/sugar.htm
(amylose and amylopectin), glycogen formed) and highlight the idea of ‘structure to function ‘. http://www.calfnotes.com/pdffiles/CN
and cellulose and relate these o More compact structures for storage linked to the coiling effect (amylose) 102.pdf
structures to their functions in living and branching (amylopectin).
organisms o Branching of amylopectin and glycogen provides large number of ‘ends’ to Textbooks/Publications
attach /detach glucose units. (I) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 39: Carbohydrates:
Key concepts  Demonstrate (molecular model / animation) how a straight chain is produced revision summary
Cells as the units of life, when forming polysaccharides with alternate -glucose residues that rotate by Bio Factsheet 174: The structure and
Biochemical processes 180°.(W) (Basic) function of polysaccharides
 Emphasise the structure to function of cellulose is different to that of the cell
wall. (W) (Basic) Past Papers
 Discuss the role of cellulose, then learners produce explanatory notes with Paper 21, June 2011, Q5
diagrams of how straight parallel chains are useful for structural purposes and Paper 22, Nov 2012, Q1 (d)
how hydrogen bonding (2.3.d) allows parallel cellulose molecules to form
fibrils (links to cell wall structure in Unit 2). (I) (Challenging)
 Learners complete a gap-filling worksheet prepared by you to serve as a
summary of the main learning points for carbohydrates. (F)
V3.1 16
2.2.f  Draw the general formula for a fatty acid. Online

describe the molecular structure of a o Explain that it is a carboxylic acid and outline -COOH as the carboxyl http://www.biotopics.co.uk/as/lipidcon
triglyceride with reference to the group. densation.html
formation of ester bonds and relate the o Explain R is a hydrocarbon chain, and extend this to explain saturated or http://www.chemguide.co.uk/organicp
structure of triglycerides to their unsaturated fatty acids. (W) (Basic) rops/esters/background.html
functions in living organisms  Draw the molecular structure of glycerol and state that a triglyceride is
produced with the attachment of three fatty acids in condensation reactions. Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 42: The structure and
Cells as the units of life, o With prompting, learners work out how ester bonds form and add the function of lipids.
Biochemical processes name of the bond to their table of 2.2.b. (I) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 74: The structure and
 Learners make simple paper cut-out models of triglycerides to illustrate the biological functions of lipids.
absence of polar groups and show the non-polar exposed fatty acids (so not Bio Factsheet 78: Chemical bonding
soluble when in contact with watery liquids). (W) (Basic) in biological molecules
 Learners describe evidence that makes triglycerides good energy stores
(many C-C bonds; highly reduced so energy can be released by oxidation; Past Papers
insoluble in water so can be localised in the organism). (G) (P) (I) Paper 21, June 2011, Q5
(Challenging) Paper 22, June 2011, Q5 (a)(b)(i)
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
2.2.g  Learners label a printed diagram showing the structure of a phospholipid Textbooks/Publications
describe the structure of a molecule and discuss how the presence of polar groups relates to Bio Factsheet 152: Phospholipids
phospholipid and relate the structure of phospholipid behaviour when in contact with watery liquids. (W) (Basic)
phospholipids to their functions in living  Discuss the function of phospholipids in forming the bulk of structure of cell Past Papers
organisms membranes, forming bilayers (link to Unit 2). (W) (Basic) Paper 21, June 2011, Q5
 Learners do research to find out that: there are many different fatty acids and Paper 22, June 2011, Q5 (a)(b)(i)(ii)
Key concepts phospholipids; some phospholipids have a nitrogen-containing (choline) (c)(d)
Cells as the units of life, portion. (H) (Basic) (Challenging) Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
Biochemical processes
2.1.a (ii) Only the second part of this learning objective is included here: carry out tests Practical booklet 2
carry out tests for reducing sugars emulsion test for lipids to identify the contents of solutions
and non-reducing sugars, the iodine in  Practical work, testing for lipids using the (ethanol) emulsion test. Online
potassium iodide solution test for o Test vegetable oil and yellow-dyed water. (I) (Basic) http://www.mrothery.co.uk/bio_web_
starch, the emulsion test for lipids o Test crushed fruits and seeds. (I) (Basic) prac/practicals/2Food%20Tests.doc
and the biuret test for proteins to  Practical booklet 2 is designed to be carried out after learners have used the http://www.mrothery.co.uk/module1/
identify the contents of solutions emulsion test as described above. Mod%201%20techniques.htm
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/nutrition/fo
V3.1 17
Key concepts otes.html

Note
Biochemical processes,
Observation and experiment  Ensure learners understand that lipids include triglycerides (fats and oils). Textbooks/Publications
King p.19-22
Siddiqui p.56-60
Bio Factsheet 173: How to identify
foods: Food Tests and
Chromatography
2.1.a (iii) Only the third part of this learning objective is included here: carry out tests Practical booklet 2
carry out tests for reducing sugars biuret test for proteins to identify the contents of solutions.
and non-reducing sugars, the iodine in  Practical work, testing for proteins using the biuret test on a solution of egg Online
potassium iodide solution test for white, skimmed milk, chicken or tofu and water. (I) (Basic) http://www.mrothery.co.uk/bio_web_
starch, the emulsion test for lipids and  Extension practical using a semi-quantitative biuret test: learners prepare a prac/practicals/2Food%20Tests.doc
the biuret test for proteins to set of standard solutions and compare the intensity of colour obtained of an http://www.mrothery.co.uk/module1/
identify the contents of solutions unknown with the standards (control variables). (P) (I) (Challenging) Mod%201%20techniques.htm
 Practical booklet 2 is designed to be carried out after learners have used the http://www.biotopics.co.uk/nutrition/fo
Key concepts biuret test as described above. otes.html
Observation and experiment Textbooks/Publications
King p.19-22
Siddiqui p.56-60
Chromatography
2.3.a  Familiarise learners with the names of the 20 amino acids (encoded by the Online
describe the structure of an amino acid genetic code – see Unit 3) and their three-letter shortened version from http://www.biotopics.co.uk/as/aa.html
and the formation and breakage of a labelled diagrams. http://www.worldofmolecules.com/life
peptide bond  Learners write out the general formula of an amino acid, and on the diagrams /
use a colour code to identify the: R group; part common to them all; amine
Key concepts group; carboxylic acid group. (W) (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
Biochemical processes o Learners make notes to show understanding that the ‘side-chain’ or R Bio Factsheet 78: Chemical bonding
(residual) group can take different forms and that the amino acids can be in biological molecules
grouped according to the properties of their R-group. (I) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 80: Structure and
 Learners draw simple diagrams of: peptide bond formation (choose two amino biological functions of proteins
acids from their diagram sheet) by condensation (add the name of the bond to
V3.1 18
their table of 2.3.b); hydrolysis of the dipeptide. (I) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Discuss how a series of condensation reactions leads to the formation of a Paper 21, June 2011, Q5
polypeptide. (W) (Basic) Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
Note
 The names and structures of the amino acids are not required learning.
 Learners could be introduced to the one-letter abbreviations (useful for Unit
8).
2.3.b  Learners write down their own polypeptide, 25 amino acids long (choose from Online
explain the meaning of the terms the sheet of 2.3.a) using encircled three-letter abbreviations and share with http://www.pdb.org/pdb/home/home.
primary structure, secondary structure, the rest of the group to highlight how an enormous number of different do
tertiary structure and quaternary polypeptides can be obtained. Discuss the term primary structure. (W) (I) http://www.biology.arizona.edu/bioch
structure of proteins and describe the (Basic) emistry/tutorials/chemistry/page2.ht
types of bonding (hydrogen, ionic,  Make links forward to Unit 2 to the roles of cell structures in protein synthesis ml
disulfide and hydrophobic interactions) to fold / further modify the polypeptide chain. (W) (Basic)
that hold these molecules in shape  Expand knowledge of hydrogen bonding (from 2.3.d) and 2.2.e) with an Past Papers
explanation of secondary structure. (W) (Basic) Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q3 (a)
Key concepts  Learners suggest what will hold the chain in place to form a specific 3-D
Biochemical processes structure before discussing tertiary structure. (W) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Include interactions between R groups and the different types of bonding.
(W) (Basic)
o Give a simple definition of quaternary structure. (W) (Basic)
o Discuss how the loss of tertiary (and quaternary where it exists) results in
the loss of function of the protein. (W) (Basic)
o Learners make notes on levels of organisation to highlight the relationship
between the structures and role of bonding in determining shape /stability.
(I) (Challenging)
Note
 For quaternary structure learners should know that this is a protein composed
of more than one polypeptide chain – details of the association between
chains is not required.
 Do not allow learners to think that proteins with quaternary structure must be
composed of four polypeptides.
2.3.c  Show diagrams/images of globular and fibrous proteins to learners for them to Online
V3.1 19
describe the molecular structure of describe, and then discuss their features (include solubility) and overall roles http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoglob
haemoglobin as an example of a (e.g. mainly metabolically active versus mainly structural). Discuss the fact in
globular protein, and of collagen as an that many fibrous proteins show little or no tertiary structure. (W) (G) (P) (I)
example of a fibrous protein and relate (Basic) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
these structures to their functions (The  Display a diagram / image of haemoglobin for learners to identify the features Bio Factsheet 175: Haemoglobin:
importance of iron in the haemoglobin of a globular protein and consolidate knowledge of levels of protein structure. structure & function
molecule should be emphasised. A (W) (Basic) (Challenging) Past Papers
haemoglobin molecule is composed of o Give details of haem and explain the idea of a prosthetic group. (W) Paper 22, June 2011, Q3 (c)
two alpha () chains and two beta () (Basic). Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q3 (c)
chains, although when describing the o Notes made or construct a spider diagram / concept map relating
chains the terms -globin and -globin haemoglobin structure to function. (I) (Challenging)
may be used. There should be a  With textbook/internet research, learners make bullet-pointed notes on
distinction between collagen molecules collagen structure (include the difference between a molecule and a fibre),
and collagen fibres) linking to its function (including role in blood vessel structure – link to Unit 4).
(W) (I) (Basic)
Key concepts  Learners construct a comparison table showing the similarities and
Cells as the units of life, differences between haemoglobin and collagen. (F)
Biochemical processes  Compile a set of multiple choice questions from past papers for learners to
complete. (F)
Note
 Mention that haemoglobin has a role in the carriage of carbon dioxide (for Unit
4).
2.1.a  Practical investigation, without using instructions, to analyse the biochemicals Practical booklet 2
carry out tests for reducing sugars and in a range of unknown solutions or liquefied solid foods. (F)
non-reducing sugars, the iodine in  Practical booklet 2 is a suitable protocol (designed to develop skills for Paper Online
potassium iodide solution test for 3). http://www.mrothery.co.uk/bio_web_
starch, the emulsion test for lipids and prac/practicals/2Food%20Tests.doc
the biuret test for proteins to identify http://www.mrothery.co.uk/module1/
the contents of solutions Mod%201%20techniques.htm
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/nutrition/fo
Key concepts otes.html
King p.19-22
Siddiqui p.56-60,
V3.1 20

Chromatography
6.1.a  Draw a labelled diagram of a nucleotide to show the three components: Online
describe the structure of nucleotides, phosphate, pentose sugar and nitrogenous organic base (e.g. using a circle, http://hyperphysics.phy-
including the phosphorylated pentagon and rectangle) for learners to reproduce without help. (W) (I) astr.gsu.edu/hbase/biology/atp.html
nucleotide ATP (structural formulae (Basic)
are not required)  Give out images of the structural formulae of the four RNA and four DNA
nucleotides, ensuring learners know the names of the bases and explaining Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts carbon atom numbering. (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 129: ATP – what it is,
Biochemical processes, o In a small group, learners interpret how the diagram of a nucleotide has what it does.
DNA, the molecule of heredity been derived and identify similarities and differences between the DNA
and RNA nucleotides. (G) (Basic) (Challenging) Past Papers
o Learners draw a labelled generalised RNA and a DNA nucleotide, naming Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q5 (a)
the different pentose sugars and indicating the four different bases for
each. (I) (Basic)
 Discuss briefly an image of the structural formula of ATP and agree it is a
phosphorylated nucleotide before learners draw a simple diagrammatic,
annotated version. Include the concept that on removal of a phosphate,
energy is released (links with 1.2.c and idea of activated nucleotides for 6.1.c
and 6.2.d). (W) (I) (Basic)
 Introduce DNA base-pairing for 6.1.b by showing learners structural /skeletal
formulae and diagrammatic forms. (W) (Basic)
o Allow learners to volunteer that in the diagrams: A and G are the same
‘length’ and are ‘longer’ than T and C (also the same length) as they are
double ring structures; the end where the pairs meet shows a
complementary nature (e.g. A pointed, T ‘V’ shaped; G convex, C
concave).
o Introduce the concept of complementary base pairing and hydrogen
bonding between base pairs (mention also RNA/DNA base-pairing).
Note
 Base names must be spelt correctly, e.g. thymine not thiamine, and learners
must be clear about the difference between adenine and adenosine.
 Emphasise that the structural/skeletal formulae of the bases is not required.
V3.1 21
6.1.b  Discuss phosphodiester bond (strong, covalent) formation by condensation Online

describe the structure of RNA and reactions to produce a polynucleotide (learners add the bond name to their http://www.dnaftb.org
DNA and explain the importance of table of 2.2.b). (I) (Basic) http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/dn
base pairing and the different  Learners prepare cut-out nucleotides and, with verbal prompts, build up a a/index.html
hydrogen bonding between bases short polynucleotide strand, learning about the sugar-phosphate backbone http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/ncbe/
(include reference to adenine and and noting the variation in sequences among the class (different ‘information’). PROTOCOLS/DNA/extracting.html
guanine as purines and to cytosine, (P) (I) (H) (Basic) http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content
thymine and uracil as pyrimidines.  Explain the concept of ‘direction’ of the strand (5′ to 3′) before learners build /labs/extraction/
Structural formulae for bases are not up the anti-parallel complementary strand (see final activity 6.1.a). (P) (I) http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/
required but the recognition that (Challenging) archive.html
purines have a double ring structure o Point out how base pairing allows the strands to be parallel and the
and pyrimidines have a single ring strength of having many hydrogen bonds (from single weak H bonds). (W) Past Papers
structure should be included) (Basic) Paper 21, June 2011, Q3
 Groups of learners can join together their sections to give the idea of a (short!) Paper 21, June 2012, Q6 (a)
Key concepts gene and the class can see each gene carries different information to code for
Biochemical processes, different proteins. (W) (G) (Basic)
DNA, the molecule of heredity  Learners fully label and annotate pre-existing diagrams of DNA. (I) (Basic)
 Extension activity (see website recommended): learners read about the
discovery of DNA. (I) (Challenging)
 Progress to RNA structure, giving an outline of the three types of RNA before
learners make notes, including diagrams. (W) (I) (Basic)
 Learners construct a summary table of the similarities and differences
between DNA and RNA. (F)
 Summary discussions (small group and class) about requirements of the ideal
molecule of inheritance, resulting in a large poster. (W) (G) (Basic)
(Challenging)
o Carrying information to allow proteins to be synthesised (sequence of
nucleotides).
o Expression to obtain the proteins (transcription and translation, learned
later).
o Stability (strong sugar-phosphate backbone, many H bonds).
o Faithful replication to pass on information to daughter cells
(complementary nature of the strands).
o Ability to provide variation (mutations, learned later).
Note
 Save the nucleotides for DNA replication in Unit 3.
V3.1 22
3.1.a  Brainstorm or provide multiple choice questions to gauge learner knowledge, Online
explain that enzymes are globular including understanding of the terms globular, metabolic and catalyst. http://highered.mcgraw-
proteins that catalyse metabolic Emphasise that previous studies will be extended and name some enzymes hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_
reactions they will learn about e.g. DNA polymerase and carbonic anhydrase. (W) view0/chapter2/animation__how_en
(Basic) zymes_work.html
Key concepts  State that most enzyme names end with ‘ase’ and discuss the role of http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcont
Cells as the units of life, enzymes, e.g. synthesising macromolecules; transferring groups such as ent/animations/content/enzymes/en
Biochemical processes phosphates; rearranging molecules to form different ones. (W) (Basic). zymes.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 163: Answering
Questions: enzyme activity.
Past Papers
Paper 23, Nov 2013, Q6 (c)
3.1.b  Explain that enzymes are produced within cells. Learners volunteer the Textbooks/Publications
state that enzymes function inside cells meanings of ‘intra-‘ and ‘extra- ‘and discuss these with respect to enzymes Bio Factsheet 24: Human digestion.
(intracellular enzymes) and outside that remain to function intracellularly and others that are released to act
cells (extracellular enzymes) extracellularly (e.g. digestive enzymes) (this links later to role of the Golgi
body). (W) (Basic)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life, Note
Biochemical processes  Learners will benefit if they know the meaning of prefixes e.g. intra, extra,
poly, milli, mono. Explain that some have the same meaning but Latin or
Greek origins (e.g. uni versus mono).
3.1.c  Learners make notes on the mode of action of enzymes (remind them of Online
explain the mode of action of enzymes protein structure), highlighting structure to function. (I) (Challenging) http://highered.mcgraw-
in terms of an active site, o Describe and explain enzyme structure, including the active site. hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_
enzyme/substrate complex, lowering of o Include a set of annotated diagrams of the lock and key and induced fit view0/chapter2/animation__how_en
activation energy and enzyme mechanisms (noting the role of the R groups of amino acids at the active zymes_work.html
specificity (the lock and key hypothesis site in binding with the substrate). http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcont
and the induced fit hypothesis should o Explain that many/most reactions can be catalysed in both directions. ent/animations/content/enzymes/en
be included)  Learners use paper cut-out models to show how enzymes can break up zymes.html
substrates into smaller molecules or can build up larger molecules from http://www.learnerstv.com/animation/
Key concepts smaller ones. (P) (I) (Basic) animation.php?ani=161&cat=Biolog
V3.1 23
Biochemical processes  Discuss the concept of lowering activation energy. (W) (Challenging) y
o Learners annotate a ‘boulder analogy’ graph to highlight that, although the
energy content of substrate and products is not changed, the reaction Past Papers
pathway follows a lower energy course. (H) (Basic) Paper 23, Nov 2013, Q6 (c)
o Learners summarise a discussion about the different ways activation
energy can be lowered by adding notes to their diagrams or the graph. (I)
(Challenging)
Note
 Use the term ‘complementary’ to describe how the substrate fits into, and
binds at, the active site. ‘Matches’ is incorrect.
 Check understanding of the term substrate - some may have used the term
reactant.
3.1.d  Explain that the course of an enzyme-catalysed reaction can be shown by Practical booklets 4, 5
investigate the progress of an enzyme- substrate disappearance or product formation over time. (W) (Basic)
catalysed reaction by measuring rates  Emphasise that a rate measurement is given per unit time and that there will Online
of formation of products (for example, be a change in the rate during the course of the reaction. (W) (Basic) http://www.practicalbiology.org/areas/
using catalase) or rates of  Learners carry out practical work using catalase (e.g. from yeast, potato, advanced/bio-molecules/factors-
disappearance of substrate (for celery, lettuce) to investigate the rate of release of oxygen (product) from affecting-enzyme-
example, using amylase) hydrogen peroxide (substrate). (W) (G) (P) (I) (H) (Basic) (Challenging) activity/investigating-an-enzyme-
o A graph should be constructed of volume produced (or mass lost if using controlled-reaction-catalase-and-
Key concepts an electronic balance) over time intervals. hydrogen-peroxide-
Biochemical processes, o Use the graph to calculate initial rate and explain the initial steep release concentration,47,EXP.html
Observation and experiment of product, which then flattens out. www.csub.edu/~kszick_miranda/Enz
 Practical booklet 5. Learners carry out practical work using amylase to time ymes%20part2.doc
how long it breaks down starch. Remind learners that using iodine (in http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/te
potassium iodide) solution on samples shows the loss of starch from the aching-resources/293-learner-
reaction mixture over time. This practical is designed to develop practical skills sheet-24-microscale-investigations-
(itemised in the Teacher’s practical notes) assessed in Paper 3. (W) (G) (P) (I) with-catalase
(H) (Basic)
 Extend practical using amylase if a colorimeter is available to get quantitative Textbooks/Publications
results. Trials are required to ensure that the colour of resulting solutions is Bio Factsheet 130: Investigating
not too intense for the colorimeter for a graph. (P) (I) (Challenging) catalase
 Practical booklet 4 (carry out after Practical booklet 5) is a modification of
the method described above using catalase. Past Papers
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q2 (a)
V3.1 24
3.2.a  With prompting, learners explain why measuring the time taken for complete Practical booklet 5
investigate and explain the effects of removal of substrate is unsuitable if trying to measure the effect of substrate
the following factors on the rate of concentration (with more substrate the rate of reaction is faster, but it takes Online
enzyme-catalysed reactions: longer for it all to disappear). (W) (I) (Challenging) http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/NCBE
 Temperature  Discuss with learners why, ideally, initial rates should be calculated when /PROTOCOLS/menu.html
 pH (using buffer solutions) comparing enzyme activity under different conditions. (W) (Challenging) http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/NCBE
 enzyme concentration  Develop planning skills: learners design an investigation in which several /PROTOCOLS/juice.html
 substrate concentration variables need to be controlled and carry this out (ensure that a range of plans http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/te
 inhibitor concentration is covered). (W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) aching-resources/95-investigating-
 Learners carry out practical activities on factors affecting the rate of an the-effect-of-competitive-and-non-
Key concepts enzyme-catalysed reaction (examples below). (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) competitive-inhibitors-on-the-
Organisms in their environment o Effect of temperature: the catalase experiment in 3.1.d. enzyme-ss-galactosidase
o Effect of pH: use trypsin to digest protein in a suspension of milk powder. http://www.southernbiological.com/
o Effect of enzyme concentration or substrate concentration: use amylase or http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/te
diastase to digest a starch suspension. aching-resources/261-the-inhibition-
Then learners present their results and contribute to whole class discussion, of-catechol-oxidase-by-lead
following up with a written explanation. Construct and annotate graphs
showing: Textbooks/Publications
o the impact of rate of collisions (temperature, substrate concentration, King p.64-68
enzyme concentration). Siddiqui p.69-75.
o the effect on hydrogen bonding, tertiary structure, shape of active site and Bio Factsheet 43: Factors affecting
complementary fit of substrate (temperature, pH, inhibitors). enzyme activity
(W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
 Possibly demonstrate a practical that uses inhibitors considered to be Past Papers
hazardous to the environment (minimises the volumes used). Check your Paper 21, June 2011, Q4
local authority regulations concerning safe disposal. Paper 32, June 2013, Q1
Note
 Ensure learners can interpret correctly graphs with the same shaped curve,
e.g. course of an enzyme-catalysed reaction / the effect of increasing
substrate concentration on the rate of a reaction.
 For inhibitor concentration, 3.2.b should be covered first or incorporate this
part of 3.2.a with 3.2.b.
 To show that an inhibitor is competitive is difficult as separate reaction
mixtures with different concentrations of the substrate need to be made up.
3.2.b  Explain Vmax and Km (great detail not required) before learners make notes. Online
V3.1 25
explain that the maximum rate of (W) (I) (Basic) http://www.worthington-

reaction (Vmax) is used to derive the o Show learners how to obtain Vmax and Km from a graph. biochem.com/introbiochem/substrat
Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) which o Learners arrive at the idea that the enzyme is saturated with substrate at eConc.html
is used to compare the affinity of the maximum rate of reaction, Vmax.
different enzymes for their substrates o Show learners how to obtain Km from a graph, the concentration of
substrate that enables the enzyme to achieve half the maximum rate of
Key concepts reaction, or half Vmax
Biochemical processes,  Learners obtain (Vmax) and (Km) using one of the graphs constructed from their
Observation and experiment practical work. (I) (Basic)
 Extend learner understanding of Km by discussion or a worksheet providing
some information accompanied by questions. (W) (I) (Challenging)
o Explain that (Km) is the affinity of enzyme for its substrate.
o Allow learners to suggest that an enzyme with a low K m
 has a high affinity for its substrate
 needs a lower concentration of substrate to reach Vmax than an
enzyme with a high Km.
o Explain that an enzyme with a low Km is more likely to be saturated with
substrate in the normal conditions of substrate within a cell, so variations
in substrate will have less effect on the rate of formation of product.
o Ask learners to explain why an enzyme with a high Km is likely to vary its
activity more (i.e. the concentration of substrate becomes more
important).
 Learners sketch out two graphs to show the differences between an enzyme
with a high Km and an enzyme with a low Km
o Annotate graphs with explanations. (I) (Challenging)
3.2.c  Following class discussion, learners use resources to make notes and Online
explain the effects of reversible annotated diagrams about enzyme inhibition. (I) (Challenging) http://www.wiley.com/college/boyer/0
inhibitors, both competitive and non- o Draw graphs of increasing substrate concentration with and without 470003790/animations/enzyme_inhi
competitive, on the rate of enzyme inhibitors. bition/enzyme_inhibition.htm
activity  Learners construct a summary table showing the differences between
competitive and non-competitive inhibition (include the different graphs). (I) Textbooks/Publications
(Challenging) Bio Factsheet 31: Enzyme control of
Key concepts  Extension activity: learners investigate and discuss the use of inhibitors as metabolic pathways.
Biochemical processes medicinal drugs, including the different uses of competitive versus non-
competitive inhibitors. (G) (P) (I) (Challenging) Past Papers
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)
V3.1 26
Note
 Irreversible inhibition and allosteric regulation could be worth mentioning
briefly when covering 3.2.c.
3.2.d  Practical: ‘Better milk for cats’ or similar protocol using a different enzyme. Online
investigate and explain the effect of o Discuss how immobilised enzymes are used in everyday applications. (W) http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-
immobilising an enzyme in alginate on (Basic) eng/Biotech-
its activity as compared with its activity o Introduce the use of dipsticks containing glucose oxidase (useful for Environ/IMMOB/Immob.htm
when free in solution 14.1.k). (W) (Basic) http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/enztech
 Demonstrate the same enzymatic reaction using the enzyme free in solution. /imeconom.html
Key concepts Learners suggest the advantages of immobilising the enzyme rather than
Observation and experiment using it free (not immobilised) and summarise with a comparison table. (W) Textbooks/Publications
(Challenging) King p.69-73
 Extension practical: learners use immobilised yeast cells to investigate the Siddiqui p.72-73
effectiveness of their sucrase or catalase enzymes. (P) (I) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 148: Industrial uses of
 Learners complete a worksheet prepared by you to interpret and compare enzymes.
graphical and tabulated data for immobilised enzymes with free enzymes.
o Data extraction to compare both for the following factors: temperature; pH; Past Papers
substrate concentration; inhibitor presence. Paper 32, June 2012, Q1 (b)
o Learners consider explanations of the differences between free and Paper 43, June 2011, Q2
immobilised enzymes, e.g. protective and stabilising effect of the alginate Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)
matrix; degradation over time; active sites of immobilised enzymes may
not all be available; time taken for diffusion to occur; possibility of slightly
altered active site shape when immobilised, amongst others. (I)
(Challenging)
Note
 Experiment and observation, a key concept, has increasingly been used to
develop biotechnological applications – here learners can appreciate how
biological systems can be used to benefit humans in the everyday world.
 Learners should know the method to prepare alginate beads.
V3.1 27
Unit 2: Cells as the basic units of life

Little prior knowledge is required but a basic knowledge of cell structure and practical knowledge of the light microscope would be helpful. The ability to carry out
simple mathematical calculations is required. Learners should understand kinetic theory (http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/kt/basic.html is a good basic
introduction). If Unit 1, Biological molecules, is taught after this unit, some knowledge of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates is useful.
Context
Unit 1, Biological molecules, leads on to an understanding of the structure of cells and the functions of cell structures, including biological membranes. This unit
deals with topics that are fundamental to almost every area of study covered in the AS and A Level course. Cell structure, and the functions of the various
organelles, will reappear in numerous contexts. Learners should appreciate the key concept that cells are the basic unit of life and that all living organisms are
composed of one or more cells. Learners will need to be reminded, or taught, how to use a light microscope. An understanding of how substances are transported
across membranes is essential reference material for other topics in this syllabus, especially those covering plant and animal physiology.
Outline
Early on, learners are introduced to the use of the microscope in cell studies, including use of the graticule and micrometer to measure cells. Calculations of
magnification and actual sizes are included in this unit. This unit covers the two fundamental types of cell, eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Details of cell structure are
studied, including the functions of organelles. The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure highlights how membranes can fulfil their roles. The role of the
membrane in cell signalling is introduced. The unit also covers the different mechanisms that enable the movement of substances into and out of cells.
Teaching time
V3.1 28
1.1.d  Show images of both microscope types and agree more detail can be Online
explain and distinguish between obtained about cells / cell structure using microscopes. (W) (Basic) http://www.biology4all.com/resource
resolution and magnification, with  Agree the meaning of magnification – learners write a worded version and link s_library/details.asp?ResourceID=10
reference to light microscopy and this later to the formula used in 1.1.c. Explain how the overall magnification is http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/virt
electron microscopy obtained (eyepiece x objective lens). (W) (Basic) uallessons/#fesemsimulatie
 Introduce resolution, explaining why the resolution of electron microscopes is http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_
Key concepts much higher than that of light microscopes (only enough detail of the workings bio/tutorials/cells/cells2.html
Observation and experiment of each to help understanding of resolution). (W) (Basic) (Challenging) http://zeiss-
o Explain that detail smaller than 200nm (approximately half the wavelength campus.magnet.fsu.edu/articles/basi
of light) cannot be resolved by the light microscope. (W) (Challenging) cs/index.html
 Explain that increasing magnification is only desirable up to the limit of
resolution, e.g. up to approx. x 1000 for the light microscope (electron Textbooks/Publications
microscopes vary considerably). King p.39-41
 Compare the TEM and SEM (no details of working required) and the Bio Factsheet 75: Microscopes and
micrographs produced, so learners see the difference between, and their uses in Biology
usefulness of, both.
 Learners suggest advantages and disadvantages of the two types of Past Papers
microscope. (G) (Basic) Paper 21, June 2012, Q2 (a)
 Learners observe a range of photomicrographs and electron micrographs and Paper 22, June 2013, Q2 (b)
explain which type of microscope was used to produce the image. If these Paper 22, Nov 2012, Q1 (a)
have a mixture of magnifications and scale bars on them, they can be used in
1.1.e. (G) (P) (Basic)
1.1.a  Practical: learning how to use the light microscope. (I) (Basic) (Challenging) Online
compare the structure of typical animal  Brainstorm knowledge of the plant cell structure and animal cell structure and http://www.biology4all.com/resource
and plant cells by making temporary discuss cells as the units of life. (W) (Basic) s_library/details.asp?ResourceID=10
preparations of live material and using  Learners construct a comparison table, generalised animal cell v generalised
photomicrographs plant cell, the first row containing simple labelled diagrams. (I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
(Challenging) Siddiqui p.28-29
Key concepts  Practical: learners make a temporary preparation, check and give comments
Cells as the units of life, on technique and slides made of peers. (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Observation and experiment  Discuss the slides and compare with the constructed table (links to the ideas
in 1.1.d). (W) (Basic)
V3.1 29
Note
 This may be combined with 1.1.c and 1.1.e.
 Diagram-drawing skills may be introduced here.
1.1.c  Revise the units of length commonly used during the course (see 1.1.c) with Practical booklet 1
use an eyepiece graticule and stage the metre (meter US) as the SI unit of length. CD-ROM
micrometer scale to measure cells and o Learners to perform conversions between nm, m, mm and m. (W) Bioscope – teaching and learning
be familiar with units (millimetre, (Basic) tool for the skills required to use a
micrometre, nanometre) used in cell  Explain how to use a stage micrometer to calibrate an eyepiece graticule. (W) graticule and stage micrometer
studies (Challenging) successfully.
o Practical booklet 1 is designed to develop the skills required by learners
Key concepts (see Teacher’s practical notes) when measuring using an eyepiece Online
Cells as the units of life, graticule and a stage micrometer. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content
Observation and experiment o If learners always use the same microscope, then they can calibrate once /cells/scale/
only for each objective lens, and keep a record of it. (I) (Challenging) http://www.biology4all.com/resources
o Learners use the Bioscope to learn the principles of use. (I) (Challenging) _library/details.asp?ResourceID=10
 Learners use their calibrated eyepieces to measure a range of microscopic http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/virt
specimens, choosing one specimen to draw (see 1.1.a). (I) (Basic) uallessons/#fesemsimulatie
(Challenging) http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_b
o Learners measure the actual length of a part of a specimen on the slide io/tutorials/cells/cells2.html
and by measuring the length drawn on their diagram, they can calculate http://zeiss-
the linear magnification of their drawing. (I) (Basic) campus.magnet.fsu.edu/articles/basi
cs/index.html
Note
 Discourage measuring in cm as many forget to multiply by 10 to convert to Textbooks/Publications
mm before converting to m. King p.20-22
 The eyepiece graticules can be fitted permanently into the eyepiece of the Siddiqui p.42-43
microscope.
 Inexpensive stage micrometer scale kits and eyepiece graticules can be Past Papers
obtained from the Cambridge publications catalogue Paper 31, Nov 2012, Q2 (b)(c)
www.cie.org.uk/cambridge-for/teachers/order-publications Paper 33, Nov 2012, Q2 (b)
Paper 35, Nov 2012, Q2 (b)
Paper 12, Nov 2011, Q5
1.1.b  Hold up an apple, then drawings of the apple: at the same size = Past Papers
V3.1 30
calculate the linear magnifications of magnification x 1; double the size = x 2; half the size = x 0.5. Discuss the Paper 22, June 2011, Q4 (b)
drawings, photomicrographs and mental calculation learners have made to get the right answer. Paper 21, June 2011, Q1 (a)
electron micrographs o magnification = image size / actual size. (Group) (Basic) Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q1 (a)
 Explain how to use scale bars to calculate magnification, emphasising that Paper 31, June 2011, Q2 (c)
Key concepts learners should measure the scale bar length and not the image. (W)
Observation and experiment (Challenging)
 Learners complete a worksheet prepared by you with images of varying stated
length (nm to mm) and with scale bars only. Use copyright-free images to
prepare the worksheet (e.g. Wikipedia). (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
1.1.e  Discuss how the actual sizes can be calculated using the rearranged formula Online
calculate actual sizes of specimens to calculate magnifications. (W) (Basic) http://www.cellsalive.com/howbig.htm
from drawings, photomicrographs and o Explain also how to use scale bars to calculate actual sizes. (W) (Basic)
electron micrographs o Learners calculate actual sizes from diagrams and the photomicrographs Past Papers
and electron micrographs from 1.1.d using the given scale bar or Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q5 (a)
Key concepts magnification. (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Observation and experiment  Learners tackle worksheets prepared by you with exam-style (differentiated)
questions to calculate actual sizes and magnifications (use past papers). (I)
(H) (F) (Basic) (Challenging)
1.2.b  Interactive session using diagrams and electron micrographs: agree Online
recognise the following cell structures descriptions of the cell structures and discuss their functions. http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/insid
and outline their functions: o With reference to plant and animal cells, introduce the terms eukaryote ethecell/chapter1.html
 cell surface membrane and eukaryotic, explaining the meaning of ‘true nucleus’. (W) (Basic) http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/cell_m
 nucleus, nuclear envelope and  Provide an overview of how different cell structures are linked, e.g. outline odel.htm
nucleolus sequence of events in protein production and secretion. (W) (Basic) http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content
 rough endoplasmic reticulum  Learners identify particular cell structures and state their function using /cells/insideacell/
 smooth endoplasmic reticulum electron micrographs and photomicrographs, at various magnifications. http://www.bscb.org/?url=softcell/inde
 Golgi body (Golgi apparatus or Include examples of both plant and animal cells (names of cell types not x
Golgi complex) required). (G) (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) http://cellpics.cimr.cam.ac.uk/
 mitochondria (including small  Learners label the cell structures on diagrams drawn from electron http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/
circular DNA) micrographs of both plant cell and animal cells, and annotate each with a HISTHTML/EM/EM006.html
 ribosomes (80S in the cytoplasm function. (F)
and 70S in chloroplasts and Textbooks/Publications
Note Bio Factsheet 4: Structure to function
mitochondria)
V3.1 31
 lysosomes  Learners should understand (no definition required) that an organelle is a in eukaryotic cells.
 centrioles and microtubules structure within a cell that has a function.
 chloroplasts (including small circular  Discuss the idea of the advantages of cellular compartments. Past Papers
DNA)  For mitochondria and chloroplasts see also 1.2.c. Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q6 (a)
 cell wall Paper 21, June 2012, Q2 (b)(c)(e)
 plasmodesmata
 large permanent vacuole and
tonoplast of plant cells
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
1.2.c  Extend 1.2.b so learners know that ATP is produced: in chloroplasts as a Online
state that ATP is produced in result of the absorption of light; in mitochondria in aerobic respiration. (W) http://www.biologyinmotion.com/atp/i
mitochondria and chloroplasts and (Basic) ndex.html
outline the role of ATP in cells  Discuss why a cell needs energy and the need for energy transfers within a
cell. (W) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts o Explain that ATP is the molecule used for these transfers and is described Bio Factsheet 129: ATP–what it is,
Biochemical processes as the universal energy currency of the cell. what it does.
o Stress that ATP is not a form of energy but that energy is released when
ATP is hydrolysed and this energy can be used by the cell.
Note
 This sets the scene for other learning objectives, e.g. 4.2.a, 12.1.a, 12.1.b,
13.1.f, 13.1.h and 15.1e, so do not be tempted to give too many details at this
stage.
1.2.a  Emphasise that although cells are the basic unit of life, they can have different Online
describe and interpret electron structures depending on their function. (W) (Basic) http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/te
micrographs and drawings of typical  State that membranes range from approximately 5-9 nm thick and allow chniques/contrast.html
animal and plant cells as seen with the learners to explain that the boundary of the cell /nucleus is only seen with the http://www.uni-
electron microscope light microscope because of the contrast (membranes are not visible). (W) mainz.de/FB/Medizin/Anatomie/work
(Challenging) shop/EM/EMAtlas.html
V3.1 32
Key concepts o Learners volunteer that detail such as membranes are visible using the http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content
Cells as the units of life electron microscope. (W) (Basic) /cells/insideacell/
 From electron micrographs of different cell types, learners can identify:
o whether plant or animal, stating the features that enabled the choice, Past Papers
o all the cell structures seen, adding labels and annotations. Paper 21, June 2012, Q2
(P) (I) (H) (F) (Basic) (Challenging) Paper 22, Nov 2012, Q1 (b)
 Extension activity: learners compare electron micrograph images and
drawings with those obtained with the light microscope. (P) (I) (Basic)
(Challenging)
o Learners construct a descriptive list of the additional features seen. (G)
(P) (Basic)
1.2.d  Short answer test to revise plant and animal cell structural details. (F) Online
outline key structural features of typical  Linking to the key concept of cells as the units of life, explain to learners that http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/bactc
prokaryotic cells as seen in a typical there are two fundamental types of cell: eukaryotic and prokaryotic. ell.htm
bacterium (including: unicellular, 1- o Explain how the term ‘prokaryotic’ arose. http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/bacter
5m diameter, peptidoglycan cell o Discuss how the single cell comprising a unicellular organism will exhibit ia/bacteria.html
walls, lack of organelles surrounded by all the characteristics that define life. (W) (Basic)
double membranes, naked circular  Build up a typical bacterial cell (example of a prokaryote) by introducing each Textbooks/Publications
DNA, 70S ribosomes) key structural feature in turn (e.g. overhead transparency overlays/PowerPoint Bio Factsheet 73: The prokaryotic
slides). (W) (Basic) cell
Key concept  From 1.2.b, learners suggest functions of prokaryotic structures. (I)
Cells as the units of life (Challenging) Past Papers
 Learners label a diagram, or draw a labelled diagram, of a typical bacterium / Paper 22, June 2011, Q4
prokaryote. (I) (Basic) (Challenging) Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q1
 Annotate the diagram with an outline function. (H) (Basic)
Note
 Reference could be made to the bacteria responsible for cholera and TB (see
Unit 5).
 Archaea as prokaryotes are covered in Unit 7.
 You could mention (to prepare for Unit 7), the kingdom Prokaryotae and the
four eukaryotic kingdoms, Fungi, Protoctista, Plantae and Animalia.
1.2.e  Learners examine photomicrographs, electron micrographs and diagrams of
V3.1 33
compare and contrast the structure of typical prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. (G) (Basic) Online
typical prokaryotic cells with typical o Learners discuss the major differences between the two cell types. (G) http://www.biology4all.com/resources
eukaryotic cells (reference to (Basic) _library/details.asp?ResourceID=52
mesosomes should not be included) o Learners give a bullet-point list of similarities and construct a table of
differences. (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts Bio Factsheet 107: Answering exam
Note
Cells as the units of life questions – cells
 Mention to learners that mesosomes (in many textbooks) are now considered
to be artefacts from preparation for electron microscopy. Past Papers
Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q1 (b)
1.2.f  Outlining the key features of viruses for learners to produce annotated Past Papers
outline the key features of viruses as diagrams. (W) (I) (Basic) Paper 21, June 2012, Q6 (c)
non-cellular structures (limited to  Learners investigate a range of viruses. (H)
protein coat and DNA/RNA) o A follow-up discussion/debate about viruses as complex entities that do
not fit the cell theory of life (also applies understanding of the key concept
Key concepts of cells as the units of life – are viruses living organisms?). (W)
Cells as the units of life, (Challenging)
DNA, the molecule of heredity Note
 Mention that some viruses have an additional outer envelope similar in nature
to a cell surface membrane (preparation for HIV in Unit 5).
4.1.a  Learners make protein, cholesterol and phospholipid (mix of fatty acid tails – Online
describe and explain the fluid mosaic both, saturated and unsaturated or one of each) cut-outs from templates http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/te
model of membrane structure, provided by you. (H) (Basic) aching-resources/754-using-
including an outline of the roles of  Learners complete a short test to recall knowledge of phospholipids, proteins beetroot-in-the-lab
phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, and carbohydrates. Go through this and make links to membrane structure. www.ultranet.com/~jkimball/BiologyP
proteins and glycoproteins (F) (Challenging) ages/C/CellMembranes.html
o For a phospholipid, use a symbolised or molecular model to point out the http://www.wisc-
Key concepts hydrophilic phosphate ‘head’ portion and the two hydrophobic online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?
Cells as the units of life, hydrocarbon tails (fatty acid residues). ID=ap1101
Biochemical processes o Relate protein structure to the main membrane protein types e.g. enzymes http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/
(globular); channel (lining of amino acids with hydrophilic R groups), etc. flashanimat/lipids/membrane%20fluid
o Describe carbohydrate portions of glycolipids and glycoproteins as chains ity.swf
of sugar molecules.
V3.1 34
 Discuss the basic model to describe the structure of membranes, explaining Textbooks/Publications
that the physical boundary is based on phospholipids. (W) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 8: The cell surface
o Draw a line indicating a water/air boundary and a diagram of a symbolised membrane.
phospholipid. Learners suggest how phospholipids would behave if they
were spread as monolayer (tails in the air, heads in water). Past Papers
o Discuss the behaviour of phospholipids immersed in water (spheres, Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q1 (a)
heads out, tails to centre, natural self-assembly). Paper 22, Nov 2012, Q2 (a)
o Highlight the idea of a ‘fluid’ phospholipid bilayer forming a compartment
(e.g. cell/membranous organelle) and discuss which substances could
cross the hydrophobic core.
o Discuss the scattered (hence ‘mosaic’) proteins and their various overall
roles, e.g. enzymes, receptors for binding ligands, and the transport of
polar molecules and ions.
o Mention interspersed cholesterol molecules (lipids).
 Learners use their cut-outs to build a section of a membrane, noting the larger
gaps when phospholipids with unsaturated fatty acid tails occur within the
bilayer. (P) (I) (Basic)
 Discuss and explain factors affecting membrane fluidity, including: the role of
unsaturated and saturated fatty acids; how cholesterol acts to regulate;
temperature. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners label the different membrane components on a range of different
diagrams (prepared by you) of the fluid-mosaic model. (I) (Basic).
 Learners make notes to explain why the fluid mosaic model is an appropriate
term to use. (I) (Basic)
 Link the presence of glycolipids and glycoproteins to the cell surface
membrane and outline their roles. (W) (Basic)
 Learners practise drawing a labelled diagram of a section of a membrane that
can be completed under exam conditions in 3-4 minutes. (I) (F) (Challenging)
o Learners can annotate with the roles of the components. (F)
Note
 Learners should know the terms given in the notes in 2.3.d (Unit 1) to explain
transport of substances across the phospholipid bilayer or using membrane
proteins.
V3.1 35
4.1.b  Learners suggest and list the desired features of cell surface membranes. Online
outline the roles of cell surface Explain that there are some specialised cells that can engulf e.g. bacteria to http://www.biologymad.com/cells/cell
membranes including references to introduce phagocytosis / endocytosis. (W) (I) (Basic) membrane.htm
carrier proteins, channel proteins, cell  Brainstorm a list of materials/substances entering and leaving cells. (W) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/N
surface receptors and cell surface (Basic) BK9847/
antigens  Learners give a written explanation of the role of phospholipids and proteins in
controlling the passage of substances across the cell surface membrane, Past papers
Key concepts making reference to its partially permeable nature. (I) (Challenging) Paper 22, June 2013, Q4 (c)
Cells as the units of life,  Learners research and note the differences between carrier and channel
Biochemical processes proteins (how they act to transport solutes across the membrane), and explain
how aquaporins increase the membrane permeability to water. (I) (Basic)
 Question and answer session revising protein structure, discussing cell
surface receptors for learners to make notes. (W) (Basic)
o Learners suggest / research examples of ligands, e.g. hormones,
neurotransmitters. (I) (Basic)
 Outline how glycoproteins and glycolipids can act as antigens (also in Unit 5).
(W) (Basic)
 Learners write out a summary of this learning objective. (F)
4.1.c  A reminder of cell receptors introduces the idea of cell signalling. (W) (Basic) Online
outline the process of cell signalling  Learners draw one or more annotated diagrams to show the general http://www.open.edu/openlearn/scien
involving the release of chemicals that sequence of events occurring in cell signalling. (I) (Challenging) ce-maths-technology/cell-
combine with cell surface receptors on  Extension work: learners apply knowledge to specific examples. (I) signalling/content-section-0#
target cells, leading to specific (Challenging)
responses
Key concepts
4.2.a (v) Only the fifth part of this learning objective is included here: describe and explain Online
describe and explain the processes the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis http://highered.mcgraw-
of diffusion, facilitated diffusion,  Learners refer to the list of substances that enter/leave cells (4.1.b) hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
osmosis, active transport, endocytosis o State that there is also ‘unwanted’ entry of, e.g. bacteria. ew0/chapter2/
and exocytosis (no calculations o Discuss how the nature of the substance and its size will direct which
V3.1 36
involving water potential will be set) mechanism of transport across the membrane is used. Textbooks/Publications
describe and explain the processes of o Learners place each item on the list into the correct group: through the Biological Nomenclature. Explains
diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, phospholipid bilayer; through membrane proteins; neither (too large/bulk the terminology that should be used
active transport, endocytosis and transport). (W) (I) (Challenging) when teaching osmosis.
exocytosis (no calculations involving  Learners recall membrane fluidity and read about bulk transport across Bio Factsheet 54: Water potential
water potential will be set) membranes. (I) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 116: Transport
o Explain pinocytosis and phagocytosis (see 11.1.a in Unit 5) as forms of Mechanisms in cells
Key concepts endocytosis.
Cells as the units of life, o Learners draw diagrams showing the sequence of events involved in Past Papers
Biochemical processes endocytosis and exocytosis (revise Golgi vesicle formation). Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q1 (b)
o Point out that endocytosis and exocytosis are active (energy-requiring) Paper 22, June 2012, Q1
mechanisms of movement of substances across membranes.
4.2.c  Learners use cubes to build 'organisms' of the same shape, with different Textbooks/Publications
calculate surface areas and volumes of numbers of blocks, and calculate surface area to volume ratios. (I) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 165: Surface Area and
simple shapes (e.g. cubes) to illustrate o Discuss the discovery that SA:V decreases as size of organism (same Volume.
the principle that surface area to shape) increases.
volume ratios decrease with increasing o Highlight the relative distances from the outside to the inside.
size
Note
Key concepts  This serves as an introductory exercise before considering diffusion (4.2.a (i)).
Observation and experiment
4.2.a (i) Only the first part of this learning objective is included here: describe and explain Online
describe and explain the processes the processes of diffusion http://highered.mcgraw-
of diffusion, facilitated diffusion,  Explain that diffusion is a passive (thermodynamic) method of movement hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
osmosis, active transport, endocytosis across membranes. (W) (Basic) ew0/chapter2/
and exocytosis (no calculations  Learners write a definition, make bullet-pointed notes to expand and draw
involving water potential will be set) simple diagrams. (I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
describe and explain the processes of Bio Factsheet 116: Transport
diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, Mechanisms in cells
active transport, endocytosis and
exocytosis (no calculations involving
water potential will be set)
V3.1 37
Key concepts
4.2.d  Practical: to represent ‘cubic’ organisms, learners cut different-sized agar Online
investigate the effect of changing (technical agar better) or gelatine blocks, coloured using a pH indicator (e.g. http://teachers.net/lessons/posts/251
surface area to volume ratio on cresol red or phenolphthalein), then lower them carefully into dilute 8.html
diffusion using agar blocks of different hydrochloric acid. Learners time how long it takes for the cube to change http://www.neiljohan.com/projects/bio
sizes colour to measure the effect of surface area to volume ratio on diffusion. (P) logy/sa-vol.htm
(Basic)
Key concepts  Learners note the implications of a changing SA:V on the needs of
Observation and experiment multicellular plants and animals (size too great; distances too far; diffusion too
slow) and the need for transport systems. (I) (Basic)
 Discuss shapes that give a large surface area for the same volume (e.g. cube,
flattened to give a leaf lamina, with branching to give a plant shape). (W)
(Basic)
o Explain how this means that in plants diffusion alone is sufficient for
gases, so no transport system is required (presence of stomata and
lenticels mentioned). (W) (Challenging)
4.2.b  Practical: learners add glucose solution and/or starch suspension to lengths of Past Papers
investigate simple diffusion using plant Visking tubing tied at one end, tie at the other end and place in water (and Paper 35, Nov 2011, Q1
tissue and non-living materials, such vice versa) for a set time. The appearance of the tubing and the results of
as glucose solutions, Visking tubing biochemical tests on the internal and external solutions is recorded and
and agar results explained. (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
 Practical: in agar (in Petri dishes) containing starch, learners cut out a central
Key concepts well, add amylase solution (or use a soaked filter paper disc) and after
Cells as the units of life incubation observe the changes that occur when iodine (in potassium iodide)
solution is added. (I) (Basic)
4.2.a (ii) Only the second part of this learning objective is included here: describe and Online
describe and explain the processes explain the processes of facilitated diffusion http://highered.mcgraw-
of diffusion, facilitated diffusion,  Emphasise that facilitated diffusion is also a passive method of movement hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
osmosis, active transport, endocytosis across membranes and that it is diffusion through a channel or carrier protein. ew0/chapter2/
and exocytosis (no calculations Learners make notes and use textbooks/internet. (W) (Challenging)
V3.1 38
involving water potential will be set) Textbooks/Publications

describe and explain the processes of Bio Factsheet 54: Water potential.
diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, Bio Factsheet 116: Transport
active transport, endocytosis and Mechanisms in cells
exocytosis (no calculations involving
water potential will be set) Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2012, Q1
Key concepts
4.2.a (iii) Only the third part of this learning objective is included here: describe and Online
describe and explain the processes explain the processes of osmosis (no calculations involving water potential will http://highered.mcgraw-
of diffusion, facilitated diffusion, be set) hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
osmosis, active transport, endocytosis  Remind learners that movement of water molecules by crossing the bilayer or ew0/chapter2/
and exocytosis (no calculations via aquaporins is passive. (W) (Basic)
involving water potential will be set)  Explain water potential. (W) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
describe and explain the processes of  Learners define osmosis, make bullet-point notes and draw simple diagrams. Biological Nomenclature. Explains
diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, (I) (Basic) the terminology that should be used
active transport, endocytosis and  Learners write a paragraph stating the similarities and differences between when teaching osmosis.
exocytosis (no calculations involving osmosis and (passive) diffusion. (F) Bio Factsheet 54: Water potential.
water potential will be set) Bio Factsheet 116: Transport
Note Mechanisms in cells
Key concepts  Terminology to use: partially permeable; water potential; solute potential;
Cells as the units of life, pressure potential. Learners should ignore other terms that they come across Past Papers
Biochemical processes such as hypotonic and hypertonic, osmotic potential, etc. Paper 22, June 2012, Q1
4.2.f  Recall the different permeabilities of the cell surface membrane, partially Practical booklet 3
explain the movement of water permeable and cell wall, (freely- or fully-) permeable. (W) (Basic)
between cells and solutions with  Discuss the terms that can be used to describe cells: plasmolysis / Online
different water potentials and explain plasmolysed, flaccid, turgid / turgidity and lysis / haemolysis. http://www.kscience.co.uk/animations
the different effects on plant and  Learners describe what happens when animal and plant cells are placed into /plasmolysis.htm
animal cells different external solutions at the same, lower and higher water potential than http://www.biotopics.co.uk/life/osmdia
that of the cells. Diagrams drawn and explanation given in terms of osmosis .html
Key concepts and water potential. http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-
V3.1 39
Cells as the units of life,  Learners complete a worksheet (prepared by you) with the cellular level/biology/cells-and-
Observation and experiment environment and the external solutions identified only with values of water organelles/revise-it/movement
potential. (I) (Basic) (Challenging) http://www.biologymad.com/resource
 Practical: learners use water and different concentrations of salt solutions to s/ch%202%20-
observe onion cells and make high power drawings. (I) (Challenging) %20getting%20in%20and%20out%2
 Extension practical: as above, learners observe changes in red blood cells 0of%20cells.pdf
(use a safe, acceptable source). Making estimates of cell numbers makes this
a semi-quantitative investigation. (I) (Challenging) Past papers
4.2.e  Learners immerse pieces of root or stem (e.g. potato tuber tissue) in sucrose Practical booklet 3
investigate the effects of immersing solutions of different concentrations. The water potential of the solution in
plant tissues in solutions of different which there is no change in length or mass is the estimate of water potential Online
water potential, using the results to of the tissue. (I) (Basic) http://www.biotopics.co.uk/life/carrot.
estimate the water potential of the  Practical booklet 3 develops skills for Paper 3 (see Teacher’s practical html#top
tissues notes), followed up by Q1 in Paper 52, June 2011 (data interpretation). http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/te
aching-resources/286-measuring-
Key concepts the-water-potential-of-a-potato-cell
King p.60-63
Siddiqui p.38, 40-43.
Past papers
4.2.a (iv) Only the fourth part of this learning objective is included here: describe and Online
describe and explain the processes explain the processes of active transport http://highered.mcgraw-
of diffusion, facilitated diffusion,  Discuss examples of active transport to show why it is necessary to transport hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
osmosis, active transport, substances against the concentration gradient. (W) (Basic) ew0/chapter2/
endocytosis and exocytosis (no  Learners make notes on active transport, including the role of membrane
calculations involving water potential (carrier) proteins. (I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
will be set) describe and explain the  Learners write a paragraph stating the similarities and differences between Bio Factsheet 116: Transport
processes of diffusion, facilitated facilitated diffusion and active transport. (I) (Challenging) Mechanisms in cells
diffusion, osmosis, active transport,  Learners construct a summary chart with main points (see below), and then
V3.1 40
endocytosis and exocytosis (no add details. (H) (F) (Challenging) Past Papers
calculations involving water potential  Paper 22, June 2012, Q1
will be set)
transport mechanism
Key concepts active
Cells as the units of life, passive
passive facilitated bulk active
diffusion diffusion transport transport
endocytosis exocytosis
phagocytosis pinocytosis
V3.1 41
Unit 3: DNA and the mitotic cell cycle

Learners should have covered cell structure in Unit 2. Building on the key concept of cells as the basic unit of life, they should be familiar with the terms unicellular
and multicellular and know the definition of a tissue. Knowledge of the cell structures involved in protein synthesis and in mitotic cell division is essential so that
learners understand where and when the biological processes described in this unit occur. The role of enzymes in biological processes should be appreciated.
Context
This unit brings together important ideas from Units 1 and 2. Eukaryotic cells can divide by mitosis and meiosis. Cells arising as a result of mitosis are genetically
identical to each other and their parent cell, owing to faithful DNA replication during the cell cycle. DNA transcription and translation occurs during the cell cycle and
results in protein synthesis. Learners will have studied the structure of nucleic acids and proteins and will know the cell structures involved in protein synthesis. DNA
as the molecule of heredity, a key concept, contains coded information for the synthesis of proteins. The central dogma describes the flow of genetic information in a
cell and is a concept that works at a molecular level to help explain the more general statement that “the nucleus controls the cell’s activities”. Mitotic division by
stem cells allows multicellular organisms to develop and to maintain their programmed structure and organisation. Malfunctioning of cells may cause uncontrolled
growth and division and lead to tumours, or could cause the early death of cells. An understanding of the processes involved in the cell cycle will underpin later
studies of genetic control and detailed knowledge of mitotic division will facilitate understanding of the events occurring in meiotic division, studied later in the
scheme of work.
Outline
This unit covers the mitotic cell cycle and begins with detail of the structure of chromosomes. After gaining an overview of the cell cycle, DNA replication by the
semi-conservative mechanism is tackled as part of late interphase of the cell cycle and then consideration is given to the importance of mitosis to unicellular and
multicellular organisms. Stem cells are introduced and an explanation of how uncontrolled division can lead to tumours is given. To aid understanding of the events
occurring during mitosis, especially of chromosome behaviour, learners also have the opportunity to study cells in stages of mitosis in prepared or temporary slides.
The unit finishes with a molecular definition of a gene and a gene mutation, and provides detail of DNA transcription and translation, which gives learners further
insight into processes occurring during interphase of the mitotic cell cycle.
Teaching time
V3.1 42
5.1.a  State that the structure of chromatin alters during the cell cycle and explain that Online
describe the structure of a in a non-dividing cell, chromatin is in its least condensed state. (W) (Basic) http://www.dnalc.org/resources/3d/
chromosome, limited to DNA, histone o Learners describe a chromosome in a non-dividing cell or a cell in 07-how-dna-is-packaged-basic.html
proteins, chromatids, centromere and interphase as a molecule of DNA complexed with histone protein. http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/bas
telomeres o Remind/explain that the length of DNA in a chromosome is organised into ics/chromosome
functional units, genes.
Key concepts  Learners draw and annotate a chromosome at prophase/metaphase to include
Biochemical processes, two sister chromatids, the centromere and telomeres
DNA, the molecule of heredity o Learners write a paragraph to explain that an identical sister chromatid is
formed before cell division. (W) (I) (Basic)
 Extension: learners find out more about euchromatin and heterochromatin. (I)
(Challenging)
5.1.c  Explain that only some cells carry out mitotic cell division (most remain in the Online
outline the cell cycle, including interphase state) and one mitotic cell cycle results in two cells, following a http://www.cellsalive.com/cell_cycle
interphase (growth and DNA nuclear division (mitosis) and a cell division. (W) (Basic) .htm
replication), mitosis and cytokinesis  Learners research and produce an outline, annotated diagram of a cell cycle. (I)
(Challenging) Past Papers
Key concepts o Include the two main phases, interphase and a mitotic phase and note that Paper 22, June 2011, Q1
Cells as the units of life, the timing of cell division is controlled by a number of genes. Paper 23, June 2011, Q1 (c)
DNA, the molecule of heredity o Indicate that DNA replication takes place in late interphase and that protein
synthesis occurs throughout interphase.
o Indicate that cell growth occurs in interphase.
o Include for the mitotic phase (mitosis) the main stages: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, telophase and also indicate cytokinesis following
telophase.
 Add background information, e.g. cytokinesis only takes place if new cells are
to be formed (without cytokinesis a multinucleate cell is formed); notes on the
G1, S and G2 phases (use a key to indicate background information only).
 Learners label incomplete diagrams (prepared by you). (F)
 Introduce and give a general outline of stem cells (for 5.1.e), explaining that
they divide to become more stem cells and cells that differentiate.
o Discuss the location of stem cells in the bone marrow and within epithelial
tissue (describe this as lining or surface tissue).
V3.1 43
o For plants, use the terms ‘meristem’, ‘meristematic’ and ‘cambium’ and
discuss locations within plants where this tissue occurs. (W) (Basic)
6.1.c  Revise 5.1.a and 5.1.c so learners understand the need for interphase Online
describe the semi-conservative chromosomes (and hence DNA) to replicate before mitosis occurs. (W) (Basic) http://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/0
replication of DNA during interphase  Learners match events/descriptions (printed on strips of card) to unlabelled 471393878/student/animations/dna
diagrams of semi-conservative replication to correctly describe the sequence of _replication/index.html
Key concepts events that occur in the process (you’ll need to prepare this in advance). (P) (I) http://highered.mcgraw-
Biochemical processes, (Challenging) hill.com/sites/dl/free/0072437316/1
DNA, the molecule of heredity o Ensure learners are clear about the role of DNA polymerase and DNA 20076/bio23.swf
ligase and the concept of activated nucleotides.
o Include a description pointing out that replication occurs in opposite Textbooks/Publications
directions for each strand. Bio Factsheet 207: How science
 Learners explain what is meant by (define) semi-conservative replication. (I) works: Meselson and Stahl’s
(Basic) classic experiment.
 Learners use their cut-outs of DNA nucleotides to simulate DNA replication.
o Use very short sections of double strands, separate them to show the Past Papers
template strands and build up the two complementary strands. (P) (I) Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (c)(d)
(Basic) Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q5 (b)
o Extension: simulate as it occurs – one strand built-up in one direction as a
continuous process and the other in Okazaki fragments (not required
knowledge). (P) (I) (Challenging)
 Discuss how this process allows for faithful replication to produce identical DNA
molecules and hence genetically identical sister chromatids, ready for mitotic
cell division. (W) (Basic)
Note
 The Meselsohn and Stahl investigation is not required learning but learners
could be given the information to test application of knowledge and
understanding.
 The poster (from Unit 1, DNA as the ideal molecule of inheritance) should
remain visible as this unit is covered.
5.1.d  Explain that DNA replication results in loss of a short section of the ends of the Online
outline the significance of telomeres chromosome and that telomeres are made from repeating sequences of http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/conte
V3.1 44
in permitting continued replication nucleotides. (W) (Basic) nt/chromosomes/telomeres/

and preventing the loss of genes  Learners suggest how telomeres are useful, with a follow-up outline of their role
discussed and notes made: (W) (I) (Challenging)
Key concepts o Telomeres serve to prevent the ends of chromosomes from being
DNA, the molecule of heredity degraded.
o Without telomeres the ends would appear damaged to the cell’s repair
machinery so they prevent the ends from being joined to the ends of other
chromosomes.
o Telomeres protect genes and the integrity of the genetic material and allow
continued replication.
 Extension: learners investigate the shortening of telomeres with age and the
role of telomerase. (I) (Challenging)
5.1.b  Ensure that learners know the definition of a tissue. (W) (Basic) Online
explain the importance of mitosis in  Discuss with learners how their own growth occurs and how damaged tissue is http://www.nature.com/scitable/topi
the production of genetically identical repaired. Remind them that replacement of cells can occur when cells are cpage/replication-and-distribution-
cells, growth, cell replacement, repair old/die thorough programmed cell death. of-dna-during-mitosis-6524841
of tissues and asexual reproduction  Refer to the poster (DNA as the ideal molecule of inheritance) and agree that it http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art
is essential that each daughter cell contains the same complete set of icles/PMC256985/pdf/03-10-
Key concepts instructions and the same number of chromosomes as the parent (i.e. 043_p214.pdf
Cells as the units of life, genetically identical). (W) (Basic) http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/c
DNA, the molecule of heredity  Discuss how cells could be rejected (attack by the immune system) if the s/collection/
daughter cells were genetically different and not recognised as ‘self’ (link to
antigens in Unit 2 and see Unit 5). (W) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Learners investigate simple examples where mitosis is involved in reproduction Paper 23, June 2011, Q1 (b)
e.g. Hydra, or a plant that reproduces asexually. (H) (Basic)
 Discuss briefly the terms clone and vegetative propagation. (W) (Basic)
 Learners make brief notes summarising the discussions. (H) (F)
5.1.e  Learners research examples, e.g. the repair of damage to intestinal epithelial Online
outline the significance of mitosis in cells, replacement of old cells in the gas exchange system. (I) (Basic) http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/
cell replacement and tissue repair by o Extend learning to discuss how cells that are structurally and functionally pages/basics4.aspx
stem cells and state that uncontrolled the same need to be genetically identical. (W) (Basic) http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/i
cell division can result in the o Remind learners that all cells in the body have the same set of instructions nfo/stem_cell/
formation of a tumour and explain that control of cell function is by the organised ‘switching on’ of
V3.1 45
relevant genes. (W) (Challenging) Past Papers

Key concepts  Explain (see 5.1.c) that the timing of cell division is under genetic control; an Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
Cells as the units of life, alteration in a gene could lead to the cell dividing uncontrollably to form a
DNA, the molecule of heredity tumour – an example of how a cell malfunctioning upsets the delicate balance.
(W) (Challenging)
 Learners sequence a set of diagrams (prepared by you) showing changes that
occur to result in a tumour (should include an abnormal mass from which two
arrows emerge to a benign growth and a cancerous (malignant) growth (see
Unit 5). (I) (Basic).
o Following research, learners add brief annotations to the diagrams. (H)
(Challenging)
o Extension: learners research differences between the two types of tumour.
(I) (Challenging)
 Extend 5.1.c to discuss the statement: "Stem cells allow multicellular organisms
to develop and to maintain their programmed structure and organisation”. (W)
(G) (Challenging)
 Extension: learners investigate biotechnological applications, e.g. the use of
adult stem cells in research and therapy. (I) (Challenging)
5.2.a  Demonstrate using a model of a cell (2n=4) (2 short and 2 long pipe cleaners = CD-ROM
describe, with the aid of chromosomes; cell surface membrane and nuclear envelope = string). (W) Bioscope – has material which
photomicrographs and diagrams, the (Basic) covers this
behaviour of chromosomes in plant o Model the events as a continuous process.
and animal cells during the mitotic o Model replication by attaching a second pipe cleaner to the first. Simulate Online
cell cycle and the associated nuclear envelope disassembly by cutting the string into smaller lengths. http://faculty.nl.edu/jste/mitosis.htm
behaviour of the nuclear envelope, o Cytokinesis should be described for both animal and plant cells. http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell
cell surface membrane and the o Learners describe and make suggestions as to why various events occur. _bio/tutorials/cell_cycle/main.html
spindle (names of the main stages of (W) (Basic) (Challenging) http://highered.mcgraw-
mitosis are expected)  From a list (prepared by you), learners match an event that occurs in relation to hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_
the spindle fibres and spindle (centrioles in animal cells only) to the behaviour view0/chapter2/animation__control
Key concepts of the chromosomes during the mitotic cell cycle. (W) (Basic) _of_the_cell_cycle.html
Cells as the units of life,  Learners work with their own models and talk through each stage. (P)
DNA, the molecule of heredity (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
 Learners make annotated diagrams of stages in mitosis. (I) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 76: The eukaryotic
 Learners practise identification of the stages and description of events using a cell cycle and mitosis
V3.1 46
range of photomicrographs and diagrams of both plant and animal cells. (I)
(Basic) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Learners sequence images of a cell at various stages during the cycle, naming Paper 21, June 2011, Q1 (c)
the stages and noting chromosome behaviour. (F) Paper 23, June 2011, Q1 (a)
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q4 (c)
Note
 Condensation/coiling of DNA to form the prophase chromosome can be
simulated by taking a very long piece of thin wire that is then wrapped round a
pencil (which is removed) to make a coiled, string-like structure that is now
much shorter, fatter and more visible.
5.2.b  Learners draw from a prepared slide a plan diagram of a root tip to indicate: the Online
observe and draw the mitotic stages root cap; meristematic area (zone of cell division); zone of elongation http://www.microscopy-
visible in temporary root tip squash (expansion); and zone of differentiation. (I) (Basic) uk.org.uk/micropolitan/index.html
preparations and in prepared slides  Learners identify, draw and annotate cells (high power) in all stages of mitosis. http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/t
of root tips of species such as those (I) (Challenging) eaching-resources/552-floating-
of Vicia faba and Allium cepa  Learners prepare a root tip squash (e.g. garlic or onion root tips with acetic garlic-growing-roots-
orcein or toluidine blue) and examine their slide and those of others for stages http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/t
Key concepts of mitosis. (G) (I) (Basic) eaching-resources/288-
Cells as the units of life  Learners use the eyepiece graticule by measuring the relative length and width investigating-mitosis-in-allium-root-
of chromosomes and cells. (I) (Challenging) tip-squash
o Learners use the calibrated eyepiece graticule to measure the size of
chromosomes in m. (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
 Extension: learners investigate why each step of the procedure in the root tip King p.236, 207, 209
squash preparation is necessary. (I) (Challenging) Siddiqui p.79-81.
6.2.a  Learners recall primary structure and a polypeptide (Unit 1) and suggest a Online
state that a polypeptide is coded for definition of a gene from previous learning objectives. http://evolutionlist.blogspot.co.uk/20
by a gene and that a gene is a o Refer to the ‘DNA as the ideal molecule’ poster and ensure learners 06/10/new-definitions-of-gene.html
sequence of nucleotides that forms understand the idea of the term ‘coded’ (see 6.2.c, 6.2.d). (W) (Basic) http://www.sanger.ac.uk/
part of a DNA molecule o Discuss the fact that the sequence of nucleotides comprising a gene codes http://www.yourgenome.org/
for the amino acid sequence in a polypeptide chain. (W) (Basic)
Key concepts  Background discussion/extension research about the human genome project.
Biochemical processes, (W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Note
V3.1 47
 If learners query the origin of RNA, explain that there are genes that code for
tRNAs and rRNAs and that mRNA is an intermediate molecule in producing the
polypeptide. (W) (Basic).
 For A Level, learners should understand that these proteins, including
enzymes, will ultimately allow development and control of cells and hence
organisms (i.e. they determine the nature of organisms).
6.2.b  After learners write this definition, use question and answer to recall (from Unit Online
state that a gene mutation is a 1) that primary structure determines secondary and tertiary structure, which http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/mu
change in the sequence of then determine the shape and shape of, e.g. active site, specific channel, tationsanddisorders/genemutation
nucleotides that may result in an receptor site. This determines the function of the protein. (W) (Basic) http://www.yourgenome.org/dgg/ge
altered polypeptide  Stress to learners that the gene is responsible for a particular feature, trait or neral/var/var_3.shtml
characteristic and that a mutation is just an alternative form of the gene, an
Key concepts allele. (W) (Basic)
DNA, the molecule of heredity, Note
Natural selection  Online resources may be best understood after learning about the genetic code
and transcription and translation
 Learners do not need to define an allele at this point, see 16.2.a.
6.2.c  Learners write out definitions of a gene and a gene mutation. (F) Online
describe the way in which the  Learners suggest why DNA needs to remain in the nucleus (large size, less http://www.yourgenome.org/dgg/ge
nucleotide sequence codes for the prone to degradation). neral/proteins/proteins_2.shtml
amino acid sequence in a o Lead the discussion to explain that a ‘messenger’ molecule needs to be http://www.kumc.edu/gec/
polypeptide with reference to the formed, in transcription, to take the information to the ribosomes. (W) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J
A
nucleotide sequence for Hb (normal) (Basic) 3HVVi2k2No
S
and Hb (sickle cell) alleles of the  Discuss the concepts involved in the central dogma
gene for the -globin polypeptide (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology overlap with Past Papers
ideas in 6.2.d). (W) (Basic) Paper 23, June 2011, Q2 (b)(c)
Key concepts o Learners produce an annotated flow chart representing the flow of Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q3 (b)
Cells as the units of life, information, beginning with DNA and ending in a functioning protein. Paper 21, Nov 2013, Q5
Biochemical processes, o Learners identify the point at which the nucleotide sequence becomes an
DNA, the molecule of heredity, amino acid sequence.
Natural selection o State that the process is termed translation (details in 6.2.d).
 Learners study a DNA genetic dictionary/ DNA triplet table to work out, from
V3.1 48
specific nucleotide base sequences, specific amino acid sequences. (P) (I)
(Basic) (Challenging)
o Explain this is the sequence on the strand (the template strand) that is used
to produce the polypeptide
o Include the sections where the nucleotide sequences of normal and sickle-
cell alleles differ.
Note
 Learners should also be able to use the sequence on the non-template strand
to work out the amino acid sequence (using the DNA triplet table)
 The sickle cell -globin polypeptide and sickle cell anaemia also occur in Units
5 and 7.
 It is a common error for learners to state that DNA is a chain of amino acids.
When learners guess or are given incorrect matches, many will learn the
incorrect match, so only reinforce the correct relationship between nucleotides
and DNA / RNA, and between amino acids and protein.
6.2.d Previous learning objectives have included enough additional information to Online
describe how the information in DNA prepare learners for the details of transcription and translation. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/conte
is used during transcription and  Learners sequence a set of events to describe and explain the process of nt/molecules/transcribe/
translation to construct polypeptides, transcription. (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) http://www.brookscole.com/chemist
including the role of messenger RNA o Ensure learners realise that mRNA transcripts pass out through the nuclear ry_d/templates/student_resources/s
(mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and pores to the ribosomes. (W) (Basic) hared_resources/animations/protei
the ribosomes o Explain post-transcriptional modification: sections not required, introns (now n_synthesis/protein_synthesis.html
known to have a role, not ‘genetic junk’ as previously believed), may be cut http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit/d
Key concepts out of the initial transcript and the ‘meaningful’ sections, exons, re-sealed to na/
Biochemical processes, give shorter mRNA transcripts. (W) (Challenging)
DNA, the molecule of heredity  Formalise knowledge of the genetic code (universal, non-overlapping, Textbooks/Publications
degenerate, sequential), by introducing the mRNA genetic dictionary / mRNA Bio Factsheet 22: Protein synthesis
codon table. I – nucleic acids
 For translation, provide learners with a set of diagrams (prepared by you) that Bio Factsheet 49: Protein synthesis
can be annotated and discussed. II – mechanisms
 Learners research the different ways the polypeptide formed can be modified in
post-translational modification. (I) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Learners write a paragraph on each of mRNA, tRNA and the ribosomes, Paper 21, June 2011, Q3 (c)
Paper 23, June 2011, Q2 (d)
V3.1 49
explaining their roles in transcription and translation. (H) (F) (Challenging) Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q5 (c)
 Find the DNA nucleotide sequences of sections of proteins (choose from the Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
syllabus) to produce a worksheet (and mark scheme). Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (c)(d)
o Learners use the genetic code and one or more pieces of information to
work out missing information. Completed worksheets show the tRNA
molecules involved and the sequences of template and non-template DNA
strands, mRNA and amino acids. (H) (F) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Extension: learners explain why a DNA nucleotide sequence worked out
only using an amino acid sequence may not represent the actual DNA. (I)
(Challenging)
 Learners produce a large annotated diagram to show transcription and
translation in relation to the different locations within the cell. (H) (Challenging)
 Extension: learners research how post-transcriptional modification (removal of
introns and resealing of exons) allows one gene to be able to produce
variations of the protein product. (I) (Challenging)
Note
 TransCription comes before transLation alphabetically as well as in protein
synthesis.
 With website animations, check the level of detail before recommending to
learners.
V3.1 50
Unit 4: Transport and gas exchange

Knowledge of cell structure, as covered in Unit 2, will enable learners to apply knowledge to cells involved in transport and gas exchange. An understanding of
diffusion, osmosis and active transport from Unit 2 is required, including confidence in understanding the movement of water in terms of differences in water
potential. Learners will need to have an understanding of haemoglobin structure and of hydrogen bonding between water molecules from Unit 1. It will be helpful if
learners have acquired basic knowledge of the mammalian circulatory system in previous studies.
Context
This unit extends the key concept of cells as the units of life by looking at the way in which cells and tissues of plants and mammals, multicellular organisms, are
provided with their requirements and how humans, as multicellular organisms, exchange gases in the lungs. The unit builds on learner knowledge of cell structure
and movement into and out of cells and highlights the importance of water as a transport medium. The work on blood in this unit leads into the immunity section in
Unit 5. Much of this unit lays the foundations for further work on physiology at A Level. In Unit 9, learners will study the way in which oxygen is used by cells for the
biochemical process of aerobic respiration, and how carbon dioxide is produced as a result of this process.
Outline
The topic of transport in plants is introduced by improving learner knowledge of plant anatomy and histology and their understanding of the relation between the
structure and function of transport tissues. Details of transport of water and minerals are covered, including a consideration of the factors affecting the rate of
transpiration, which gives learners the opportunity to carry out investigative practical work. Adaptations of organisms to their environment are exemplified by
reference to xerophytes. The transport of assimilates by phloem tissue is also covered. The topic of mammalian transport is introduced by considering the meaning
of a closed double circulation and then progresses to structure and function of the blood vessels, blood and heart. A comparison of blood, tissue fluid and lymph is
made. The carriage of respiratory gases is covered, which includes revisiting the structure and function of haemoglobin from Unit 1. Detail of gas exchange at the
alveolus is covered. The gross and fine structure of the human gas exchange system will allow learners to see the link between structure and function. Learners will
make comparisons in this unit, for example between xylem and phloem tissue, between an artery and vein, between blood, tissue fluid and lymph, and between the
two sides and upper and lower chambers of the heart .There are many good opportunities within this unit for learners to improve their microscope handling,
observational and diagram-drawing skills, and to develop manipulative and dissection skills if they choose to dissect a mammalian heart.
Teaching time
V3.1 51
7.1.a  Revise a simple diagram of a plant: leaves and petioles, stem, (soil level), root(s) CD-ROM
draw and label from prepared slides and piliferous / root hair region. (W) (Basic) Bioscope
plan diagrams of transverse sections o Explain the difference between: tissue and organ; transverse and longitudinal
of stems, roots and leaves of sections (TS and LS). Online
herbaceous dicotyledonous plants o Explain what is meant by a herbaceous (i.e. non-woody) dicotyledon. University biology department and
using an eyepiece graticule to show  Discuss tissue distribution in leaves, roots and stem sections by projecting an microscope manufacturer
tissues in correct proportions electronic image onto a screen. (W) (Basic) websites, e.g.:
(see 1.1.c) o Learners see what they should observe later using the microscope (revise http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/index.
use). html
Key concepts o Describe how to draw the image as a plan diagram. http://images.botany.org
Cells as the units of life,  Learners identify tissues (especially the distribution of the vascular tissue) and
Observation and experiment make plan diagrams (low power) from slides of TS of a leaf, stem or root Textbooks/Publications
(dicotyledonous plants e.g. Ranunculus and Ligustrum), using the eyepiece Siddiqui p.5-7, 112, 115-124, 135-
graticule to gauge the correct proportions. (I) (Challenging) 139
 Learners draw labelled diagrams of stem and leaf sections and construct a table
comparing the two; similarities run across the columns, differences in separate Past Papers
columns. (I) (Challenging) Paper 23, June 2011, Q3
Note Paper 31, June 2011, Q2
 Learners should be able to recognise: epidermis, endodermis, mesophyll, xylem, Paper 34, June 2011, Q2
phloem, cambium, cortex, pith. Paper 33, June 2013, Q2
 High quality microscope slides are available to order, including those used in
previous practical examinations from the Cambridge publications catalogue
www.cie.org.uk/cambridge-for/teachers/order-publications
7.1.b  Learners observe slides showing LS. An eyepiece graticule and stage CD-ROM
draw and label from prepared slides micrometer can be used for measurement. (I) (Challenging) Bioscope – Superb slides and
the cells in the different tissues in  Learners draw and label individual cells under high power (from TS and LS learning tasks, including
roots, stems and leaves of slides). (I) (Challenging) chloroplasts in Elodea, a variety
herbaceous dicotyledonous plants  Extension: learners practise using the eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer of leaf sections, including sun and
using transverse and longitudinal to estimate actual dimensions of the cells. (I) (Challenging) shade leaves.
sections  Background: discuss briefly differences between monocotyledons and
dicotyledons. (W) (Basic) Online
Key concepts  An extension discussion: outlining the anatomical transition in the area where the University biology department and
Cells as the units of life, root becomes the stem. microscope manufacturer
Observation and experiment websites, e.g.
V3.1 52
http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/
Note
virtuallessons/leaf/
 High quality microscope slides are available to order, including those used in http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/pae/
previous practical examinations from the Cambridge publications catalogue botany/histology/html/ptmodov.ht
www.cie.org.uk/cambridge-for/teachers/order-publications m
http://leavingbio.net/FLOWERING
%20PLANTS.htm
http://images.botany.org/
Siddiqui p.5-7, 112, 115-124, 135-
139
Bio Factsheet 19: Plant tissues
Past Papers
Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q3 (a)
7.1.c  Use photomicrographs and diagrams to illustrate and discuss, with teacher CD-ROM
draw and label from prepared slides prompts, the structure of xylem vessel elements, phloem sieve tube elements Bioscope – useful for this section.
the structure of xylem vessel and companion cells. (G) (I) (Challenging)
elements, phloem sieve tube  Learners add annotations to labelled diagrams of these three cell types. (F) Online
elements and companion cells and http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ul
be able to recognise these using the tranet/BiologyPages/P/PlantTissu
light microscope es.html
http://leavingbio.net/FLOWERING
Key concepts %20PLANTS.htm
Cells as the units of life, http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/pae/
Observation and experiment botany/histology/html/ptmodov.ht
m
Siddiqui p.5-7, 112, 115-124, 135-
139
Bio Factsheet 19: Plant tissues
Bio Factsheet 146: Tracheids,
vessels and sieve tubes
V3.1 53
Bio Factsheet 132: Phloem
7.2.a  Provide learners with an overview diagram of the movement of water down a Online
explain the movement of water water potential gradient from soil to air. (W) (Basic) http://www.biologymad.com/resou
between plant cells, and between o Learners add given numerical values of water potential to the different rces/transpiration.swf
them and their environment, in terms locations, for comparison, and annotate the diagram. (I) (Challenging)
of water potential (see 4.2. No  Learners recall osmosis and the concept of water potential. Textbooks/Publications
calculations involving water potential o Learners complete a worksheet (prepared by you) containing examples of Bio Factsheet 225: Synoptic
will be set) adjacent cells / cells and their environment with water potential values. biology: water potential.
Learners work out and explain which way water will flow. (H) (F) (Basic)
Key concepts (Challenging)
Organisms in their environment
7.2.c  From a diagram, learners suggest how a root hair cell is adapted for water and Online
describe the pathways and explain mineral ion uptake (e.g. large surface area, lack of cuticle, thin cell walls, http://www.microscopy-
the mechanisms by which water and membrane transport proteins, mitochondria). (W) (G) (Challenging) uk.org.uk/mag/artmar00/watermvt
mineral ions are transported from soil  Learners suggest how mineral ions are taken up by the root hair cell. (W) (Basic) .html
to xylem and from roots to leaves  Learners research the most important mineral ions that are required, giving http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ul
(include reference to the symplastic reasons. (H) tranet/BiologyPages/X/Xylem.html
pathway and apoplastic pathway and  Ensure that learners know the difference between the apoplastic pathway and http://highered.mcgraw-
Casparian strip) symplastic pathway (include the vacuolar pathway). hill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?
o Agree that osmosis is not involved in the apoplast pathway (no membranes). it=swf::600::480::/sites/dl/free/007
Key concepts o Use a model to explain why water has to take a symplastic pathway at the 353224x/788092/Water_Uptake.s
Cells as the units of life, endodermis (suberised Casparian strip). wf::Water%20Uptake
Biochemical processes o Learners use arrows and labels to show the different pathways on diagrams
and annotate, using the terms water potential and water potential gradient. Textbooks/Publications
(W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 82: Transport in
 Learners stand small plants (intact root systems, soil washed off) in dye (e.g. flowering plants
eosin) for 10-30 minutes, then cut thin sections to investigate the distribution of Bio Factsheet 108: Water
the dye and show the position and continuous nature of xylem vessels (the dye movement across the root
collects in the leaf as water is lost by transpiration). (I) (Challenging)
 Learners use cut petioles of variegated leaves to make sections and observe Past Papers
xylem tissue. (P) (I) (Basic) Paper 23, June 2011, Q3 (a)
 Discuss briefly the concept of root pressure (outline only). (W) (Basic)
V3.1 54
Note
 Root hairs can be seen clearly on newly-germinated seedlings, such as mung
beans, if these are grown on damp filter paper or cotton wool.
 Do not discuss the concept of capillarity.
 Learners are better to explain water movement in terms of water potential
gradients to avoid confusion with mass flow in phloem.
7.2.b  Tackle cohesion-tension first: use a question and answer session to help learners Online
explain how hydrogen bonding of make the link between hydrogen bonding of water molecules (cohesive forces) http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physi
water molecules is involved with and the concept of transpiration pull. (W) (Basic) cal_Chemistry/Physical_Propertie
movement in the xylem by cohesion-  Discuss the concept of adhesion. Remind learners that the attraction of water s_of_Matter/Atomic_and_Molecul
tension in transpiration pull and molecules to the secondary cell wall of xylem vessel elements is mainly as a ar_Properties/Intermolecular_Forc
adhesion to cellulose cell walls result of hydrophilic cellulose (which is impregnated with lignin). (W) (Basic) es/Cohesive_And_Adhesive_Forc
 Learners write a paragraph explaining the difference between cohesion and es
Key concepts adhesion in the movement of water up the xylem. (F) http://www.microscopy-
Biochemical processes  Learners research what is meant by a transpiration stream. (H) (Basic) uk.org.uk/mag/artmar00/watermvt
.html
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ul
tranet/BiologyPages/X/Xylem.html
.
http://highered.mcgraw-
hill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?
it=swf::600::480::/sites/dl/free/007
353224x/788092/Water_Uptake.s
wf::Water%20Uptake
Bio Factsheet 82: Transport in
flowering plants
Bio Factsheet 108: Water
movement across the root
Past Papers
Paper 23, June 2011, Q3 (a)
V3.1 55
7.2.d  Learners write a definition of transpiration. (I) (Basic) Online

define the term transpiration and  Learners draw a large diagram of a vertical section through part of a leaf, adding http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ul
explain that it is an inevitable numbered annotations to show the pathway of water (beginning with water tranet/BiologyPages/T/Transpirati
consequence of gas exchange in leaving xylem vessels) and the sequence of events occurring, using correct water on.html
plants potential terminology. (I) (Challenging)
o Emphasise the need to refer to water evaporated from the moist cell walls of Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts the spongy mesophyll cells as water vapour. Bio Factsheet 64: Transpiration
Cells as the units of life  Discuss the association between transpiration (reduces the water potential at the Bio Factsheet 81: Gas exchange
top of the plant) and tension (of cohesion-tension). (W) (Basic) in plants
 Learners explain the differences between transpiration and evaporation. (F)
 Discuss cuticular transpiration (links to 7.2.f, leaves of xerophytes). (W) (Basic) Past Papers
 Learners study a graph showing how the rate of transpiration varies during a 24- Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q3 (b)
hour day and interpret using a word list (stomata, open, closed, photosynthesis, Paper 22, Nov 2013, Q3 (a)
oxygen, carbon dioxide, gas exchange, transpiration). (I) (Basic)
 Extension: take climate into account and interpret a graph (prepared by you) with
transpiration varying over a few days. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners research the advantages of transpiration and produce a list. (H) (Basic)
7.2.e  Demonstrate the use (or show diagrams) of a standard commercial potometer to Practical booklet 6
investigate experimentally and measure water uptake (e.g. Thoday). (W) (Basic)
explain the factors that affect o Discuss the reasons for: a slanting cut across the leafy shoot; submerging in Online
transpiration rate using simple water; use of petroleum jelly round the joint; drying leaves. (W) (Challenging) http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbi
potometers, leaf impressions,  Practical: learners make a simple potometer using a long piece of capillary tubing o/virtual_labs/BL_10/BL_10.html
epidermal peels, and grids for that has a short length of rubber tubing attached at one end. The whole http://www.mikecurtis.org.uk/Poto
determining surface area apparatus can be supported vertically. meter/potometer.html
o Learners record the height of the air/water meniscus at suitable time http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary
Key concepts intervals. (P) (I) (Basic) /teaching-resources/299-
Observation and experiment o Discuss how to make results quantitative, e.g. using grids to determine the measuring-stomatal-density-
surface area of leaves; using the volume of a cylinder to calculate the volume
of water taken up. (W) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
 Extension practical: learners enclose part of a plant inside a plastic bag and use King p.142-146
data-logging equipment and a humidity-recording sensor to investigate the effect Siddiqui p. 140-144, 146-147
of transpiration on humidity. (P) (I) (Challenging)
 Learners plan and/or carry out a controlled investigation into the effect of wind
speed, temperature or light on the rate of transpiration.
V3.1 56
o Learners present results (or are given results) in graphical form and give
explanations for the shape of the graph. (P) (I) (Challenging)
 Learners make temporary slides of epidermal strips from leaves of different
species (use nail varnish or ‘new skin’ liquid plaster and peel off when dry). (I)
(Basic)
 Practical booklet 6 is designed to develop some of the practical skills (listed in
the Teacher’s practical notes) assessed in paper 3.
Note
 Remind learners that potometers measure rates of water uptake only and that a
cut end of a stem is not the same as uptake via root hairs.
 If a potometer is placed on a balance sensitive to small changes in mass, then it
is possible to measure water uptake and transpiration.
7.2.f  Explain the terms mesophyte, hydrophyte and xerophyte and discuss ways in CD-ROM
make annotated drawings, using which plants can reduce their water loss. (W) (Basic) Bioscope – has suitable images.
prepared slides of cross-sections, to  Learners consider the mesophyte leaf and give comparative descriptions (e.g.
show how leaves of xerophytic plants thicker waxy cuticle, fewer stomata per unit area of leaf, etc.) using diagrams of Online
are adapted to reduce water loss by leaves from a range of xerophytes. (P) (I) (Basic) www.worldofteaching.com/powerp
transpiration  Learners use prepared slides of cross-sections of leaves of xerophytes to make oints/biology/Xerophytes.ppt
annotated plan diagrams and detailed drawings. (I) (Basic)
Key concepts o Learners describe features and explain how each helps to reduce water loss. Textbooks/Publications
Natural selection, (I) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 29: Plant and
Organisms in their environment o Extend this to a circus of activities with, e.g. living examples; photographs animal adaptations to dry habitats
and photomicrographs; Bioscope; microscope slides; electron micrographs. Bio Factsheet 84: Xerophytes and
(P) (I) (Challenging) hydrophytes
 Learners make temporary slides of epidermal strips from leaves of mesophytes
and xerophytes and estimate the number of stomata per unit area to make
quantitative comparisons. (I) (Challenging)
o Extension: some may know how to use the t-test to see if differences are
significant (not required at AS Level). (P) (I) (Challenging)
7.2.g  Explain the term assimilates and discuss examples. (W) (Basic) Online
state that assimilates, such as  Introduce translocation as the movement of assimilates from the source (area http://leavingbio.net/FLOWERING
sucrose and amino acids, move where they are produced) to the sink (area where they are used / stored). %20PLANTS.htm
between sources (e.g. leaves and o As an example, state that sucrose is loaded into phloem at the source, and
V3.1 57
storage organs) and sinks (e.g. buds, then removed at the sink. Textbook/Publications
flowers, fruits, roots and storage o Learners suggest source and sink locations within the plant. (W) (Basic) King p.146-147
organs) in phloem sieve tubes Siddiqui p.135-136
Note
Key concepts  Learners should also be familiar with the term photosynthates. Past Papers
Cells as the units of life, Paper 23, June 2011, Q5 (b)(ii)
7.2.h  Use learner knowledge of membranes and transport mechanisms to describe Online
explain how sucrose is loaded into and explain the events that occur. (W) (Challenging) http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bi
phloem sieve tubes by companion  Learners write out a set of cards containing relevant points and practise re- os100/lectf03am/sucrosepump.jp
cells using proton pumping and the ordering them to give a sequential account. g
co-transporter mechanism in their o These could range from main points to a detailed account (see table for
cell surface membranes examples). (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) Past Papers
o Learners write an account from memory. (F) Paper 23, June 2011, Q5 (c)
Key concepts Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q5 (b)
Cells as the units of life, + Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q6 (b)
H actively pumped out of companion ATP required
Biochemical processes cells
+ +
concentration of H builds up outside membrane impermeable to H so
the membrane they cannot diffuse back in
+
H diffuses back in via a membrane down the electrochemical
carrier protein gradient
+
cotransport of sucrose occurs H and sucrose bind to the
protein (conformational change
occurs)
sucrose diffuses into phloem sieve via plasmodesmata
tube element
Note
 Emphasise that the entry of sucrose into the phloem sieve tube is passive but the
whole process is sometimes described as ‘active loading’.
7.2.i  Learners sort out cards (prepared by you) containing details such as below Online
explain mass flow in phloem sap before making notes. (P) (I) (Basic) http://highered.mcgraw-
down a hydrostatic pressure gradient hill.com/sites/9834092339/student
from source to sink _view0/chapter38/animation_-
V3.1 58
Key concepts _phloem_loading.html

Cells as the units of life at the source, sucrose enters the phloem sieve tube
Textbook/Publications
this lowers the water potential
Bio Factsheet 132: Phloem.
this draws (extra) water into the sieve tube by osmosis
this increases the hydrostatic pressure Past Papers
at the sink, sucrose leaves the phloem sieve tube Paper 23, June 2011, Q5 (c)
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q5 (b)
water follows osmotically
the hydrostatic pressure at the source is higher than at the sink
fluid / phloem sap moves from source to sink
down this pressure gradient
by mass flow
Note
 Learners should understand that phloem translocates soluble organic
compounds.
7.1.d  For xylem vessel elements, use diagrams to aid a ‘structure to function’ CD-ROM
relate the structure of xylem vessel discussion. Recall the role of xylem in the transport of water and mineral ions and Bioscope – useful for this section.
elements, phloem sieve tube introduce the need for lignification (see also 7.2.a) because of the tension
elements and companion cells to created by the transpiration pull. Online
their functions o Learners suggest other functions of lignin and continue to provide other http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ul
examples of structure to function. (W) (Challenging) tranet/BiologyPages/P/PlantTissu
Key concepts o Learners match statements about structure to statements about function. The es.html
Cells as the units of life activity could be divided into the main points and additional points. (P) (I) http://leavingbio.net/FLOWERING
(Basic) (Challenging) %20PLANTS.htm
 Learners use resources (see also 7.1.c) to label diagrams of phloem sieve tube http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/pae/
elements and companion cells. (I) (Basic) botany/histology/html/ptmodov.ht
o Learners point out the relationship between structure and function for these m
two cell types. (W) (Basic)
o Learners make bullet-pointed notes, using one colour for a structural detail Textbooks/Publications
and a different colour for a link to a function. (I) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 19: Plant tissues
Bio Factsheet 146: Tracheids,
Note vessels and sieve tubes
 It is now believed that protein strands are not present in living, functioning
V3.1 59
phloem tissue. Bio Factsheet 132: Phloem
Past Papers
8.1.a  Display an image giving an overview of the whole circulatory system and check Online
state that the mammalian circulatory that learners can describe what is meant by pulmonary and systemic circulations. http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcs
system is a closed double circulation (W) (Basic) ebitesize/pe/appliedanatomy/0_an
consisting of a heart, blood vessels  Use a question and answer session to determine that arteries carry blood away atomy_circulatorysys_rev1.shtml
and blood from the heart and veins towards the heart. (W) (Basic) http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ul
 Extension (useful for later studies): discuss names given to blood vessels serving tranet/BiologyPages/A/AnimalHea
Key concepts organs e.g. pulmonary + lungs; coronary + heart, hepatic + liver; renal + kidney. rts.html
Cells as the units of life (W) (Basic)
 Learners make brief written notes explaining closed circulation and double
circulation. (I) (Basic)
 Learners label diagrams of double circulation, including the heart chambers, the
two types of circulation and the names of the main blood vessels. (I) (Basic)
 Learners describe the journey made by a red blood cell in one complete circuit of
the mammalian blood system. (H) (F) (Basic)
 Extension: learners research and contrast the mammalian circulatory system with
organisms organised differently, e.g. insect, squid, fish and amphibians. Search
online for images of diagrams of insect, fish, amphibians and squid circulatory
systems. (I) (Challenging)
V3.1 60
8.1.b  Gauge learner knowledge of the basic structure of arteries, veins and capillaries CD-ROM
observe and make plan diagrams of with a brainstorming session before providing labelled diagrams. (W) (Basic) Bioscope – has appropriate
the structure of arteries, veins and  Learners study photomicrographs of (muscular) arteries and veins (TS), and an slides.
capillaries using prepared slides and electron micrograph of capillaries. Learners label the layers and, with prompting,
be able to recognise these vessels annotate with details. (W) (I) (Basic) Online
using the light microscope  Learners observe prepared TS slides, and draw labelled plan diagrams. Practise http://sln.fi.edu/biosci/vessels/ves
measurement using an eyepiece graticule. (I) (Basic) (Challenging) sels.html
Key concepts  Extension: learners investigate the elasticity of blood vessels by suspending http://www.histology.leeds.ac.uk/c
Cells as the units of life, weights on sections of arteries and veins. (P) (Challenging) irculatory/arteries.php
Observation and experiment  Learners carry out research into other types of blood vessels, including elastic http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/
arteries, arterioles and venules (stress this is not required learning). (H) practical-biology/elastic-recoil-
(Challenging) arteries-and-veins
 Learners sort out statements (prepared by you) into three columns for each of the http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPa
three blood vessel types. (F) th/CVHTML/CVIDX.html
Siddiqui p.175-177
8.1.c  Learners construct a table showing the relationship between structure to function Online
explain the relationship between the for each of the three blood vessel types. (I) (Challenging) http://nsb.wikidot.com/2-2-3-
structure and function of arteries,  Learners label the layers on diagrams of an artery, vein and capillary in TS, and compare-the-structure-of-arteries-
veins and capillaries then annotate to link structure to function. (F) capillaries-and-vein
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
V3.1 61
8.1.d  Learners observe blood cells using the light microscope or use other images. (I) CD-ROM
observe and draw the structure of red (Basic) Bioscope – has appropriate
blood cells, monocytes, neutrophils o Learners draw labelled diagrams of the different cell types and make tables to images.
and lymphocytes using prepared compare: red blood cells with white blood cells; monocytes with neutrophils.
slides and photomicrographs (I) (Challenging) Online
 Learners use resources to explain how the structural features of a red blood cell http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/index.
Key concepts are related to the function of oxygen transport. (I) (Challenging) html
Cells as the units of life, http://education.vetmed.vt.edu/Cu
Observation and experiment Note rriculum/VM8054/Labs/Lab6/Lab6
 The terms erythrocyte and leucocyte should also be mentioned (not required .htm
learning).
 The function of the white blood cells and details of B-lymphocytes compared to T- Textbooks/Publications
lymphocytes are covered in Unit 5. King p.120-122, 164-165
 To help later understanding, explain that monocytes take on a different Siddiqui p. 179-182
appearance when they mature to become macrophages, and that these cells are Bio Factsheet 62: Animal tissues I
usually in locations other than blood tissue. – epithelia and blood
Bio Factsheet 36: Structure and
function of blood and lymph
Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2011, Q3 (a)(b)
8.1.e  Brainstorm the composition of blood and discuss the need for exchange with Textbooks/Publications
state and explain the differences cells. (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 36: Structure and
between blood, tissue fluid and o Discuss how and why the concentrations of substances in blood, such as function of blood and lymph
lymph oxygen, carbon dioxide and dissolved glucose, can vary. (W) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 89: Tissue fluid
 Explain how pressure changes from the arterial to the venous end of the capillary Bio Factsheet 171: Answering
Key concepts network. Ask for suggestions, with reasons, as to which of the components would exam questions: the formation
Cells as the units of life be able to leave the network. (W) (Challenging) and drainage of lymph
 Learners use resources to label and annotate a diagram of a capillary network,
including explanations of how tissue fluid and lymph are formed and arrows to Past Papers
show direction of blood flow, formation of tissue fluid and formation of lymph. (I) Paper 21, June 2011, Q2 (b)
(Challenging)
o Learners add arrows of different colours or styles (use a key) to represent the
movement of substances such as dissolved glucose and amino acids, oxygen
and carbon dioxide. (I) (Basic)
V3.1 62
 Learners construct a comparative table of differences between blood, tissue fluid

and lymph. (H) (F)
Note
 Highlight the difference between blood and blood plasma.
8.2.a  Learners check their knowledge of the internal structure of the heart by adding as Online
describe the external and internal many labels as possible to a diagram. Go through this, allowing learners to add http://www.learnerstv.com/animati
structure of the mammalian heart any missing e.g. tendinous cords and papillary muscles, sinoatrial node, on/animation.php?ani=321&cat=bi
atrioventricular node and Purkyne tissue. (I) (Basic) ology
Key concepts  Show learners images of the external structure of the heart and agree labels. (W) http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci
Cells as the units of life (Basic) /Diseases/hhw/hhw_anatomy.html
 Learners match up a set of labels with a set of descriptions. (I) (Basic) http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/Co
 Learners practise adding labels, with descriptive features, to a range of internal ntexts/See-through-Body/Sci-
and external diagrams of the heart. (H) (F) (Basic) (Challenging) Media/Animations-and-
 Learners study models of the heart or dissect a heart (or observe) obtained from Interactives/Label-the-heart
butchers, abattoirs or suppliers. (G) (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPa
o Heart models are useful for learners to get a 3-D understanding if dissection th/CVHTML/CVIDX.html
is not carried out.
Note King p.128-130
 Hearts obtained for dissection have often lost their blood vessels and some or all Siddiqui p.173-174
of their atria. Obtaining heart and lungs may provide a more complete heart Bio Factsheet 35: Structure and
(useful for the gross structure of the gas exchange system, studied later). function of the mammalian heart
V3.1 63
8.2.b  Learners complete a short test or sort statements into the correct order to remind Online
explain the differences in the them about the pathway of blood in one complete circuit of the body. (F) http://www.physiologymodels.info/
thickness of the walls of the different  Explain that the differences in pressure between the left and right ventricles are cardiovascular/arterioles.htm
chambers in terms of their functions related to the ability to overcome resistance to flow by the blood vessels as blood
with reference to resistance to flow travels to the body tissues. Past Papers
o Learners volunteer that there is a far lower resistance to flow in the Paper 22, June 2013, Q6 (b)
Key concepts pulmonary circulation than in the systemic.
Cells as the units of life o Remind learners that the thicker the wall of a heart chamber, the more
cardiac muscle there is to generate force when it contracts.
 Relate the thinner atrial walls (compared to the thicker ventricle walls) to the
much lower resistance that blood has to overcome to travel the short distance to
the ventricles. (W) (Basic)
Note
Pulmonary capillaries are very delicate (very small diameter) so an increase from
normal pressure of blood leaving the right ventricle increases the likelihood of
damage.
V3.1 64
8.2.c  A discussion should switch the focus from a description of one complete circuit of Online
describe the cardiac cycle (including the body to one cardiac cycle. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/eh
blood pressure changes during o Remind learners that a decrease in volume of a heart chamber when the eart/human.html
systole and diastole) cardiac muscle contracts means an increase in blood pressure within the http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/pha
chamber. (W) (Basic) rm/hyper_heart1.html
Key concepts o Associate the events occurring during one cardiac cycle to changes in blood
Cells as the units of life pressure , explaining that valves are pushed open and shut by differences in Past Papers
pressure on either side. (W) (Challenging) Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)
Learners produce a table describing the sequence of events (including the
status of the valves) occurring in one cardiac cycle and highlighting that both
sides of the heart contract and relax in unison: (I) (Challenging)
right side of heart left side of heart
 Learners annotate a set of diagrams (prepared by you) showing the heart during
one cardiac cycle. (F)
 Use OHP overlays / PowerPoint presentation to build up a graph showing the
pressure and volume changes on one side of the heart (left side is most
commonly shown).
o Add heart diagrams below the x-axis in the different stages of the cycle,
corresponding to the correct times on the graph.
o Learners volunteer explanations throughout. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners annotate a pressure change graph describing the event in the cardiac
cycle that correlates to the change shown on the graph (including points at which
named valves open and shut). (I) (Challenging)
 Learners practise extracting information and interpreting questions based on
pressure change graphs (prepared by you). (I) (F) (Basic) (Challenging)
Note
ECGs (not required learning), accompanied by explanations, may be given as
stimulus material in a question.
V3.1 65
8.2.d  Use explanations, interspersed with questions requiring thoughtful suggestions, Online
explain how heart action is initiated to present the following ideas: http://hyperphysics.phy-
and controlled (reference should be o The heart is myogenic (initiates heart beat without receiving nerve impulses astr.gsu.edu/hbase/biology/sanod
made to the sinoatrial node, the from outside). e.html
atrioventricular node and the Purkyne o The sinoatrial node (SAN - primary pacemaker) initiates muscle cell http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/he
tissue, but not to nervous and depolarisation and atrial systole. alth-topics/topics/hhw/
hormonal control)  The insulating ring of non-conducting (connective) tissue (fibrous ring): prevents
the atria and ventricles from contracting at the same time; forces the wave of Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts depolarisation to pass through the atrioventricular node (AVN), delaying its Bio Factsheet 139: Answering
Cells as the units of life passage so the atria complete systole before ventricular systole begins. exam questions on the heart
 The Purkyne tissue passes the depolarisation down to the apex of the heart so Bio Factsheet 7: Comparing
that the ventricles contract from the bottom up, squeezing blood out up the transport in plants and animals.
arteries. (W) (Challenging)
 In the correct locations on a diagram of the heart, learners number the events Past Papers
occurring in sequence, making notes underneath for each number. (I) (Basic) Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q2 (a)
 Learners place in sequence statements of each of the events occurring, starting
with the SAN. (P) (I) (Basic)
o Create a second column so that statements of cardiac cycle events
correspond with the timing. (P) (I) (Challenging)
Note
 ‘Wave of excitation’ or ‘impulses’ are acceptable terms, not signal, wave, pulse,
message or nerve impulse.
 Learners should understand that the wave of depolarisation spreads across the
network of cardiac muscle fibres to bring about systole, and that the fibres do not
fatigue (no other details of cardiac muscle required).
9.1.a  Agree that the mammalian transport system carries the respiratory gases, Textbooks/Publications
describe the gross structure of the oxygen and carbon dioxide and contrast this with plant vascular tissue (not Siddiqui p.183
human gas exchange system. involved with gas transport). Explain that the gas exchange system facilitates
exchange with the external environment. (W) (Basic)
Key concepts  Learners revise previous knowledge by labelling familiar structures on a diagram
Cells as the units of life of the human gas exchange system, using resources to complete labelling and
add annotations. (I) (Basic)
o Ensure learners know that the specialised gas exchange surface is the
alveolus. (I) (Basic)
V3.1 66
9.1.b  Project images or show photomicrographs of the named structures and give Online
observe and draw plan diagrams of guidance as to how to identify the named structures and learn about the http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lume
the structure of the walls of the distribution of the named features. (W) (Basic) n/MedEd/Histo/frames/Histo15.ht
trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and  Learners observe, interpret, and draw plan diagrams of prepared slides. (I) ml
alveoli indicating the distribution of (Challenging) http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/index.
cartilage, ciliated epithelium, goblet o Learners also identify cilia, mucous glands and elastic fibres to prepare for html
cells, smooth muscle, squamous 9.1.c. (I) (Challenging) http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPa
epithelium and blood vessels o Learners complete a table (tick = present, cross = absent) such as below. (I) th/HISTHTML/EM/EM040.html
(Challenging)
Key concepts o Learners compare their diagrams and table with textbook versions. (I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
Cells as the units of life King p.89-91
ciliated smooth squamous blood Siddiqui p.184-185
structure cartilage goblet cells
epithelium muscle epithelium vessels
trachea
bronchus
bronchiole
alveoli
 Learners label diagrams of sections through the trachea, bronchus and

bronchiole and complete blank tables as above. (F)
Note
 Learners should know the singular and plural: bronchus and bronchi; alveolus
and alveoli.
 Explain that there are only a few goblet cells in the bronchiole (some textbooks
may state none are present) and discuss the reason for this, i.e. avoiding mucus
hindering gas exchange in the alveoli.
9.1.c  Discuss the reasons for the distribution of the various features within the gas Online
describe the functions of cartilage, exchange system by explaining their functions. (W) (Basic) http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lume
cilia, goblet cells, mucous glands,  Learners match statements: features with correct functions. (I) (Basic) n/MedEd/Histo/frames/Histo15.ht
smooth muscle and elastic fibres and  Reinforce learning by providing photomicrographs and electron micrographs for ml
recognise these cells and tissues in learners to identify the features. (P) (I) (Challenging) http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/index.
prepared slides, photomicrographs  Learners give written explanations linking the presence / location of the features html
and electron micrographs of the gas in the different areas of the gas exchange system to their function. (F) http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPa
exchange system th/HISTHTML/EM/EM040.html
V3.1 67
Key concepts Textbooks/Publications

Cells as the units of life King p.89-91
Siddiqui p.184-185
Past Papers
9.1.d  Discuss the roles of blood flow and ventilation in maintaining diffusion gradients Online
describe the process of gas for oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and blood. http://www.johnwiley.net.au/higher
exchange between air in the alveoli o Incorporate a question and answer session so learners can apply knowledge ed/interactions/media/Respiration/
and the blood of the function of haemoglobin (Unit 1). (W) (Basic) content/Respiration/resp1a/frame
 Learners draw and annotate diagrams with key features of the process, adding set.htm
Key concepts arrows to indicate the direction of exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. (I) http://www.johnwiley.net.au/higher
Cells as the units of life (Challenging) ed/interactions/media/Respiration/
 Learners write a short account of how concentration gradients are maximised for content/Respiration/resp2a/bot.ht
efficient gas exchange. (I) (Basic) m
 Learners produce a written description explaining gas exchange in terms of the
structure of the alveolus and capillary and diffusion across cell surface Textbooks/Publications
membranes. (I) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 26: Gas exchange
o The account should make clear the difference between diffusion across in animals
alveolar and capillary walls and diffusion across membranes.
 Using a diagram of an alveolus and associated capillaries, learners give an
account of how the structure of the gas exchange surface is adapted for its
function. (F)
Note
 A common written error in examinations is to state that diffusion occurs across
‘epithelial cell walls’ or ‘the cell walls of the capillary’.
 It is not sufficient to state that red blood cells take up oxygen: learners should
refer to oxygen uptake by haemoglobin in red blood cells.
8.1.f  Use a question and answer session to revise haemoglobin structure (Unit 1) Online
describe the role of haemoglobin in before providing further details of oxygen binding and carriage and oxygen http://www.biology4all.com/resour
carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide release. (W) (Challenging) ces_library/details.asp?ResourceI
V3.1 68
with reference to the role of carbonic  With teacher prompting, learners construct a diagram summarising the carriage D=8
anhydrase, the formation of of carbon dioxide by haemoglobin at the respiring tissue (ensure they understand http://www.mrothery.co.uk/circulat
haemoglobinic acid and that the reverse happens in the lung tissue). (I) (Challenging) ion/circulationotes.htm#BLOOD
carbaminohaemoglobin (details of o The labelled diagram to include the red blood cell, the endothelium with
the chloride shift are not required) pores, and the body cells. Textbooks/Publications
o Discuss in stages, with learners adding information, the sequence of events Bio Factsheet 175: Haemoglobin:
Key concepts occurring. structure & function
Cells as the units of life,  Discuss the importance of carbonic anhydrase (recall enzyme knowledge), also
Biochemical processes highlighting that haemoglobin is not the only protein found in red blood cells. (W) Past Papers
(Basic) Paper 21, June 2011, Q2 (a)(c)
 Learners produce a written explanation of the events occurring in the: respiring Paper 22, June 2011, Q3 (d)(e)
tissues, using a diagram as stimulus material; in the lungs. (H) (F) (Challenging)
 Learners explain the roles of haemoglobin in the carriage of carbon dioxide in
buffering hydrogen ions and transporting carbon dioxide directly as
carbaminohaemoglobin. (I) (Challenging)
Note
Learners should not describe oxygen binding to haemoglobin as ‘bonding’.
8.1.g  Introduce the oxygen dissociation curve step-by-step (a difficult concept to Online
describe and explain the significance grasp), returning to previous steps if necessary. http://www.biology4all.com/resour
of the oxygen dissociation curves of o Introduce partial pressure as a measure of concentration and ‘availability’ of ces_library/details.asp?ResourceI
adult oxyhaemoglobin at different oxygen and the percentage saturation of haemoglobin as ‘affinity’ for oxygen. D=8
carbon dioxide concentrations (the o Explain that the oxygen dissociation curve is constructed from results of http://www.mrothery.co.uk/circulat
Bohr effect) experimental measurements. ion/circulationotes.htm#BLOOD
o Explain the loading of oxygen in the lung (see 8.1.f). http://www.wiley.com/college/fob/
Key concepts o Explain the release of oxygen (i.e. oxyhaemoglobin dissociation) as a result anim/
Cells as the units of life, of the lower partial pressure in other body tissue (resting). (W) (Challenging) http://www.wiley.com/college/fob/
Biochemical processes  Learners annotate their own diagrams of the oxygen dissociation curve of adult quiz/quiz07/7-7.html
haemoglobin. (I) (Challenging) http://www.wiley.com/college/fob/
 Learners suggest why the steep part of the curve is important and beneficial quiz/quiz07/7-12.html
(efficient unloading in partial pressures common in respiring tissues). (W)
(Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
 Explain the Bohr shift in relation to carbon dioxide carriage by haemoglobin, Bio Factsheet 175: Haemoglobin:
using a summary diagram from 8.1.f. structure & function
o Explain that haemoglobin dissociates to a greater extent in working tissue as Bio Factsheet 9: Oxygen
V3.1 69
the presence of increased carbon dioxide concentrations facilitates the dissociation curves
unloading of ‘more’ oxygen by haemoglobin.
o Ask learners to suggest the significance of the greater dissociation (greater Past Papers
need of tissues for oxygen as they are more actively respiring). (W) Paper 21, June 2011, Q2 (a)(c)
(Challenging) Paper 22, June 2011, Q3 (d)(e)
 Learners complete worksheets involving data extraction and interpretation of the Paper 21, June 2011, Q2 (d)
curve. (P) (I) (F) (Challenging) Paper 23, June 2011, Q4
 Extension: learners research (using textbooks/internet), consider and explain the
oxygen dissociation curves of myoglobin and foetal haemoglobin. (H)
(Challenging)
8.1.h  Learners make bullet-point notes after discussing how an increase in red blood Online
describe and explain the significance cell count is linked to an increase in haemoglobin, and how this compensates for http://www.sportsci.org/traintech/a
of the increase in the red blood cell the lower saturation that occurs at high altitudes (hence ensuring that body ltitude/wgh.html
count of humans at high altitude tissues receive sufficient oxygen). (W) (I) (Basic)
 Learners complete a worksheet (prepared by you) to make comparisons of red Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts blood cell counts at different altitudes, including giving percentage changes. (H) Bio Factsheet 149: High altitude
Cells as the units of life, (Basic) (Challenging) biology
Organisms in their environment  Extension: learners research the benefits to athletes of training at high altitude, or
investigate if communities who have always lived at high altitude are different to
others. (I) (H) (Challenging)
V3.1 70
Unit 5: Disease and protection against disease

Some introductory knowledge of sickle cell anaemia would be useful, which may have arisen from additional information acquired when learning about sickle cell
haemoglobin in Unit 1, or about mutations in Unit 3. Also from Unit 1, an appreciation of protein structure to function will help when studying antibody structure and
function. Learners should have a good understanding of cell structure, the role of cell surface membrane receptors and the mechanism of endocytosis from Unit 2.
They should appreciate the difference between eukaryotes, prokaryotes and viruses. An understanding of how uncontrolled cell division may result in a tumour,
studied in Unit 3, is required. From Unit 4, learners should be familiar with the histology of the gas exchange system and have knowledge of white blood cells.
Context
Previous units have looked at living organisms on the molecular and cellular scale, before moving on to organs and systems. Disease is an outcome of the
malfunctioning of cells through altered biochemical processes. Infectious diseases show how humans interact with pathogens. These interactions are one
component of the key concept Organisms in their environment. A multicellular organism must organise, control and coordinate activities so that they have defence
mechanisms and can develop immunity from disease. A link is provided to another key concept, Natural selection, with a consideration of the development of
antibiotic resistance by bacteria. Learners are also introduced to monoclonal antibodies, one important aspect of biotechnology. Monoclonal antibodies are the
result of observation and experiment, which is a key concept.
Outline
An understanding is gained of what is meant by disease and what the differences are between infectious and non-infectious diseases. Learners are provided with
examples of non-infectious disease by learning more about sickle cell anaemia and considering how tobacco smoking affects the gas exchange and cardiovascular
systems. Five infectious diseases of global importance are studied in some detail: cause; transmission; prevention and control, including the use of antibiotics. The
unit continues with a consideration of the factors that influence the global patters of TB, malaria and HIV/AIDS. Smallpox is introduced as an infectious disease so
that learners can appreciate how vaccination programmes have helped to eradicate the disease. Penicillin is studied as an example of an antibiotic and learners
then progress to study antibiotic resistance and consider the steps taken to alleviate this problem. There are good opportunities within this unit for learners to
develop their skills in data analysis, particularly with respect to disease statistics. Natural and artificial immunity is studied, including the structure and function of
antibodies. Learners will be provided with more detail about phagocytes and the way in which they function to protect against disease. The events occurring during
a specific immune response are covered. A brief consideration is given to the outcome to the body when the immune system fails to work correctly, using
myasthenia gravis as an example. An account of the production of monoclonal antibodies and how they are used in the diagnosis of disease and treatment of
disease is included. The unit concludes with a study of vaccination and a comparison of the effectiveness of vaccination programmes in the prevention and control
of the infectious diseases studied.
Teaching time
V3.1 71
10.1.a  Ask learners for their ideas for the definition of disease (see examples below). Online
define the term disease and explain o An abnormal condition affecting an organism, which reduces the http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in722
the difference between an infectious effectiveness of its function.
disease and non-infectious disease o An absence of one or more of physical, social and mental well-being. (W) Textbooks/Publications
(limited to sickle cell anaemia and (Basic) Bio Factsheet 40: Disease and
lung cancer)  Learners name common infectious diseases and suggest the type of defence
causative organism, the pathogen (use both terms).
Key concepts o Add examples to cover bacteria, viruses and fungi. Past Papers
Cells as the units of life, o Introduce protoctists as pathogens (causative pathogen of malaria) using Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
Biochemical processes, simple ideas (e.g. eukaryotes, many are unicellular, organisms not fitting Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)(i)
Natural selection into other groups / kingdoms). (W) (Basic)
 Learners give examples of non-infectious diseases.
o Ensure they include diseases of the gas exchange system (linked with
tobacco smoking) and sickle cell anaemia.
o Discuss the cause of sickle cell anaemia (see 6.2.c), Unit 3)). (W) (Basic)
 Learners explain why lung cancer and sickle cell anaemia are not considered
to be infectious diseases.
 Learners summarise discussions in a comparison table or in comparative
sentences. (I) (Basic)
 Extension: learners research the term pathogen, e.g. ‘a biological agent (e.g.
a virus, bacterium, fungus or protoctist) that causes disease and has proteins
(foreign/non-self antigens) as part of its structure that are different from those
of the human host’.
Note
 ‘Germs’ as an alternative to ‘pathogens’ is not acceptable.
 A common error is to use the term disease rather than pathogen, e.g. “the
disease enters cells” or to name the disease instead of the pathogen e.g.
“malaria enters red blood cells”.
9.2.a  In a question and answer session, learners explain why chronic bronchitis and Online
describe the effects of tar and emphysema are also non-infectious diseases (in addition to lung cancer). (W) http://www.lung.ca/diseases-
carcinogens in tobacco smoke on the (Basic) maladies/index_e.php
gas exchange system with reference  Check learner knowledge of the terms carcinogen and carcinogenic. (W) http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/
to lung cancer and chronic (Basic) LUNGHTML/LUNGIDX.html
V3.1 72
obstructive pulmonary disease  Learners volunteer examples before projecting/showing the long list of http://www.ash.org.uk/information/fac
(COPD) carcinogens in tobacco smoke. (W) (Basic) ts-and-stats
o Explain that lung cancer may happen naturally, but the risk is increased by http://www.insidecancer.org/
Key concepts a range of different environmental factors, identifying tar as a main http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer
Cells as the units of life, causative agent. (W) (Basic) causes/geneticsandcancer/oncogene
DNA, the molecule of heredity,  Relate back to Unit 3 and ask learners to write out an outline sequence of sandtumorsuppressorgenes/oncogen
Observation and experiment consequential events leading to a tumour and the development of cancer. (W) es-tumor-suppressor-genes-and-
(I) (Basic) cancer-mutations-and-cancer
 Discuss the imprecision in the statement: “Cigarettes cause lung cancer” and http://www.who.int/en/
ask learners to suggest improvements, e.g. “There is a correlation between http://www.sanger.ac.uk/genetics/CG
tobacco smoking and the development of lung cancer”, “Tar in tobacco smoke P/Census/
is known to be a cause of lung cancer”. (W) (Challenging) http://www.parliament.the-stationery-
 Learners investigate how carcinogens can promote the mutation of two office.co.uk/pa/cm199900/cmselect/c
important types of genes involved in the control of cell division, proto- mhealth/27/9120907.htm
oncogenes (form oncogenes, associated with the development of cancer) and
tumour suppressor genes (may mutate so that they can no longer act as a Textbooks/Publications
control). (W) (I) (H) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 104: Biological basis of
 Name chronic bronchitis and emphysema as the two diseases of COPD. (W) cancer.
(Basic)
o For each, learners make short notes summarising the changes that occur Past Papers
in the gas exchange system that lead to the symptoms of disease. (I) Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q1 (c)(d)(e)
(Challenging)
 Extension: learners use data from the WHO website to practise data handling
and investigate the occurrence of deaths from cancers. (P) (I) (Basic)
(Challenging)
 Learners collect, display and analyse data about a smoking-related disease of
the gas exchange system and give a short presentation to the class. (W) (H)
(Challenging)
Note
 Explain the difference between a mutagen (an agent that increases the
mutation rate of DNA) and a carcinogen (an agent that can cause cancer).
 To help make links to changes that occur in the gas exchange system,
learners will benefit from an outline of the signs and symptoms that the
diseases share in common and those that are characteristic for each disease.
V3.1 73
9.2.b  Explain what is meant by the term cardiovascular. (W) (Basic) Online
describe the short-term effects of  Introduce carbon monoxide and nicotine as two components of smoke that http://www.ash.org.uk/files/document
nicotine and carbon monoxide on the can easily pass across the alveolar wall to the bloodstream. s/ASH_111.pdf
cardiovascular system o Discuss how the presence of these components can cause short-term http://www.bhf.org.uk/
effects, which may lead to other short-term effects (consequential http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/
Key concepts outcomes) and to long-term effects. (W) (Basic) ATHHTML/ATHIDX.html
Cells as the units of life,  Explain the affinity of haemoglobin to carbon monoxide (links to Unit 4) and http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/
Biochemical processes the permanency of this association. (W) (Basic) CVHTML/CV005.html
o Learners discuss the consequences of this with respect to: uptake of
oxygen; delivery to tissues (especially the extremities); effect on heart Textbooks/Publications
rate. (W) (G) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 218: Biology of risk
 State that carbon monoxide can also cause damage to the endothelial lining, factors 1: Smoking
which is a starting point for vascular disease (atheroma/atherosclerosis). (W) Bio Factsheet 37: Ischaemic
(Basic) (coronary) heart disease (for
 Learners make bullet-point notes about the effects of carbon monoxide. (F) extension work)
 Learners research the short-term effects of nicotine and produce a concept
map or spider diagram (with links to consequential effects). Past Papers
o Examples: damage to endothelial lining, which can cause turbulent blood Paper 22, June 2011, Q6
flow and increase risk of clotting (thrombosis); increase in blood pressure Paper 22, Nov 2013, Q6 (b)
owing to release of adrenaline (can also damage the endothelial lining);
making platelets ‘sticky’(increasing platelet aggregation), so increasing
thrombosis risk; increased heart rate; vasoconstriction, which can reduce
blood flow to extremities; increase in LDLs (low-density lipoprotein). The
summary could be in the form of a concept map/spider diagram. (P) (I)
(Challenging)
 Extension: learners research how the short-term effects can lead to longer
term effects (e.g. atheroma and atherosclerosis, peripheral arterial disease).
(H) (Challenging)
Note
 The addictive effects of nicotine are not related to the cardiovascular system,
so are not required.
10.1.b  Explain the convention for naming the organisms: upper case (capital) letter Online
state the name and type of causative for the first letter of the generic name, lower case letter for the specific epithet. http://textbookofbacteriology.net/tube
V3.1 74
organism (pathogen) of each of the (W) (Basic) rculosis.html

following diseases: cholera, malaria,  You may wish to concentrate on one disease and work through 10.1.b to http://textbookofbacteriology.net/chol
tuberculosis (TB), HIV/AIDS, 10.1.e before moving onto the next disease. Alternatively two to four learners era.html
smallpox and measles (detailed work together (lesson and homework), to research information about one http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/
knowledge of structure is not disease and prepare a presentation for the class, sharing notes. (G) (H) HISTHTML/EM/EM018.html
required. For smallpox (Variola) and (Challenging)
measles (Morbillivirus) only the name o Learners then make learning notes on each of the five diseases. (I) (H) Past Papers
of genus is needed) (Basic) Paper 22, Nov 2012, Q4 (a)
 Learners research the required information and complete the first two columns
Key concepts of a large summary headed table. (I) (H) (Basic)
Cells as the units of life,  Learners carry out a mix and match card exercise (prepared by you) with the
Organisms in their environment name of disease, type of causative organism/pathogen, name of causative
organism / pathogen. (F)
Note
 In their own handwriting learners should underline the species name, in print
they are in italics.
 A brief discussion of the term species will help understanding (defined in Unit
6).
 Learners should spell species names correctly.
 For malaria, parasite will be seen in addition to pathogen.
10.1.c See 10.1.b for group work. Online

explain how cholera, measles,  Discuss what is meant by a transmission cycle, noting that the causative http://www.biology4all.com/resources
malaria, TB and HIV/AIDS are organism is transmitted when a disease spreads. _library/details.asp?ResourceID=36
transmitted o Learners suggest reasons for some diseases spreading more rapidly than
others.
Key concepts o Summarise on a poster learner suggestions as to main modes of
Cells as the units of life, transmission.
Organisms in their environment o Learners assign a mode of transmission to each named disease and write
a paragraph for each. (W) (Basic)
 Learners add key points to their summary table. (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Ensure learners know the difference between the causative organism of
malaria, the protoctist Plasmodium, and the mosquito vector, Anopheles.
V3.1 75
10.1.d See 10.1.b for group work. Online

discuss the biological, social and  Begin with a general discussion, learners suggesting what is meant by ‘social’ http://www.who.int/en/
economic factors that need to be factors (relating to human society and interdependence - the idea of benefit to http://www.who.int/research/en/
considered in the prevention and all as a result of cooperation). http://www.cdc.gov/
control of cholera, measles, malaria, o Discuss the distinction between prevention and control. (W) (Basic)
TB and HIV/AIDS (a detailed study of  Learners study information (provided by you), including statistics, about a Past Papers
the life cycle of the malarial parasite recent outbreak of one of the named diseases. (G) (Basic) Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q4
is not required) o Discuss the availability of vaccines and treatments (including drugs) for
the disease. (W) (Basic)
Key concepts  Outline what antibiotics are and when they are useful in the treatment of
Cells as the units of life, disease. (W) (Basic)
Organisms in their environment,  Learners use information sheets to suggest ways of breaking the transmission
Observation and experiment cycle for each disease, and the difficulties in making this happen.
o Learners consider biological, social and economic factors in relation to
prevention and control. (G) (P) (Challenging)
 Learners research where these diseases are currently prevalent and how this
affects people in different parts of the world. (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Learners should be aware that antibiotics can be antifungal.
10.1.e See 10.1.b for group work. Online

discuss the factors that influence the  From 10.1.d, learners give reasons why some countries are better able to http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/malaria_
global patterns of distribution of prevent and control a particular disease. (I) (Basic) worldwide/impact.html
malaria, TB and HIV/AIDS and  Learners choose one of the named diseases to research and produce a short http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/
assess the importance of these report. (H) (Challenging) 21728152
diseases worldwide o Learners contribute from their report to a group discussion. (W) (Basic) http://www.who.int/hiv/mediacentre/n
o Point out how there is often a correlation in disease pattern, e.g. high ews60/en/
Key concepts incidence of TB in people with HIV/AIDS. (W) (Basic)
Cells as the units of life, o Learners make summary learning notes on each disease. (I) (Basic)
Organisms in their environment,  Learners fill in details on a partially completed table summarising all the main
Observation and experiment points for 10.1.b to 10.1.e (see Note). (F)
Note
 Display world maps showing the areas most affected by each disease.
V3.1 76
10.2.a  Outline the difference between bacteriostatic and bactericidal antibiotics. (W) Online
outline how penicillin acts on bacteria (Basic) http://www.cellsalive.com/pen.htm
and why antibiotics do not affect  Explain that the penicillin group of antibiotics are also known as beta lactams http://www.biology.ed.ac.uk/research/
viruses (describes their structure). (W) (Basic) groups/jdeacon/microbes/penicill.htm
 Review learner knowledge of bacterial cell wall structure and use a question http://textbookofbacteriology.net/anti
Key concepts and answer session to build up the action of penicillin. microbial.html
Cells as the units of life, o Explain that transpeptidase enzymes (glycoprotein peptidases) catalyse
Biochemical processes formation of peptide cross links between peptidoglycan chains, which Textbooks/Publications
complete the strength of the cell wall. King p.172-173
o Prompt learners to recall knowledge of enzyme inhibition before they Siddiqui p.52
suggest how penicillin acts to inhibit transpeptidases.
o Learners suggest why penicillin is only active against growing bacteria Past Papers
that are laying down new cell wall components. (W) (Challenging) Paper 22, June 2013, Q3 (b)
 Display key terms and key points for learners to write a summary of the
discussion. (F)
 Extension: learners research the other main ways in which antibiotics act and
explain why penicillin and other antibiotics do not harm human cells. (I)
(Challenging)
 Microbiology practical: learners place filter paper discs impregnated with
different antibiotics (e.g. Mast rings), or different concentrations of the same
antibiotic, onto a Petri dish with nutrient agar inoculated with non-hazardous
bacteria (e.g. Bacillus subtilis).
o Learners measure zones of inhibition created around the discs on the
lawn of bacteria and compare to determine the efficacy of each antibiotic
(or antibiotic concentration). (P) (I) (Challenging)
 Learners write a paragraph explaining why antibiotics do not affect viruses
(see Unit 2, viral structure), extending this to use HIV as an example. (I)
(Challenging)
o Remind learners that there are anti-viral drugs effective against HIV. (W)
(Basic)
10.2.b  Learners suggest changes in bacteria that could lead to the ‘inactivation’ of Online
explain in outline how bacteria penicillin. (W) (Challenging) http://www.tufts.edu/med/apua/index.
become resistant to antibiotics with o Ensure the discussion covers: mutations in genes lead to new proteins; shtml
reference to mutation and selection the new protein can be an enzyme; the enzyme can breakdown penicillin; http://www.antibioticresistance.org.uk
V3.1 77
hence antibiotic resistance. /

Key concepts o Introduce beta lactamase (formerly penicillinase) as the enzyme. http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-
DNA, the molecule of heredity, o Mention that plasmids often carry genes for antibiotic resistance. level/biology/evolution/revise-
Natural selection,  Learners suggest how new proteins could act in other ways to provide it/evolution-in-action
Organisms in their environment resistance, e.g. membrane proteins pumping out antibiotics (efflux pumps) or http://textbookofbacteriology.net/resa
inactivating them. (W) (Challenging) ntimicrobial.html
 Learners recall why it is important to complete a course of antibiotics in the
treatment of TB. Textbooks/Publications
o Discuss how the presence of antibiotic acts as a selection pressure, so Bio Factsheet 100: Antibiotics and
resistant bacteria (with a mutation) are selected for, and those that are antibiotic resistance
killed are selected against. Bio Factsheet 71: The control of
o Explain the different ways (vertical and horizontal transmission) that bacteria.
resistance can be passed. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners write a summary of the discussions. (F) Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2011, Q4 (c)(d)
Note
 Two common errors: stating that resistance to the antibiotic develops in
people, not in bacteria; confusing resistance with immunity.
10.2.c  Learners cover this learning objective by researching a chosen bacterium that
discuss the consequences of shows multiple drug resistance and present their findings to the rest of the
antibiotic resistance and the steps group.
that can be taken to reduce its impact o Points to consider in reducing impact: dosage; length of treatment; use of
narrow spectrum antibiotics; identify correctly the causative organism;
Key concepts hygiene and aseptic conditions in areas such as hospitals; measures to
Natural selection, reduce the impact of antibiotic therapy with farm animals. (W) (I) (H)
Organisms in their environment, (Challenging)
11.1.d  Learners suggest mechanisms considered as ‘first line of defence’ (e.g. skin, Past Papers
explain the meaning of the term stomach acid). Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q6 (c)
immune response, making reference o Explain that the next defence will be responses to invasion of body tissue.
to the terms antigen, self and non- o Discuss how the body can distinguish between non-self and self and recall
self previous work on antigens. (W) (Basic)
 Learners write a definition of antigen, referring to self and non-self, the
Key concepts production of specific antibody to form an antigen-antibody complex and
V3.1 78
Cells as the units of life including examples (e.g. a molecule on the outside of a bacterium, virus,
parasite, allergen or tumour cell). (I) (Basic)
 Discuss the meaning of immune response (a complex series of reactions of
the body, involving white blood cells, to a non-self antigen) before learners
make notes. (W) (I) (Challenging)
o Ensure learners understand that the non-specific (innate) response
involves phagocytes and the specific (adaptive) response involves
lymphocytes, and that the responses interact.
o Explain that the reactions result in destruction of the foreign invader and
prepare the body for a faster response to a second invasion (so the
person will have few or no symptoms).
11.1.a  Remind learners that all blood cells have their origin in the bone marrow (Unit CD-ROM
state that phagocytes (macrophages 3, 5.1.c): stem cells) and that some mature elsewhere in the body. Bioscope – has relevant images.
and neutrophils) have their origin in o Learners recall that monocytes mature into macrophages, which are
bone marrow and describe their phagocytes (see Note 8.1.d, Unit 4). (W) (Basic) Online
mode of action  Learners draw annotated labelled diagrams of a neutrophil, a monocyte, and a http://education.vetmed.vt.edu/Curric
macrophage (arrow pointing from monocyte). Learners include a label to (Fc) ulum/VM8054/Labs/Lab6/Lab6.htm
Key concepts receptors that can bind to antibodies. (I) (Basic) http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/index.ht
Cells as the units of life  Explain that phagocytes can respond to isolated pathogens or to antibodies ml
bound to antigens of pathogens. (W) (Basic) http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/
 Learners sequence and label diagrams (provided by you) showing events HISTHTML/EM/EM001.html
occurring during phagocytosis, recalling studies on endocytosis, the role of http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/
receptors and function of lysosomes. HISTHTML/EM/EM002.html
o Learners should know the term antigen presenting cell (APC). (I) (Basic) http://highered.mcgraw-
(Challenging) hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_vi
 Learners match cards of descriptive text (provided by you) to diagrams of ew0/chapter3/animation__phagocyto
stages. (F) sis.html
 Learners compare and contrast phagocytes and lymphocytes on microscope
slides. (I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
King p.164-165
Siddiqui p.181-182
Past Papers
V3.1 79
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q2 (a)
11.1.b  Discuss how the non-specific response of phagocytes to infection differs from Online
describe the modes of action of B- the specific response of B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes, which each have http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes different modes of action. (W) (Basic) net/BiologyPages/B/B_and_Tcells.ht
 Using a step-by-step teacher-prompted approach or by individual research, ml
Key concepts learners draw an annotated flow diagram to show how specific B-lymphocytes http://www.merckmanuals.com/home
Cells as the units of life respond (humoral response): /immune_disorders/biology_of_the_i
o Recognition and binding of specific antigen. mmune_system/acquired_immunity.h
o Activation/sensitisation followed by clonal expansion (mitotic division). tml?qt=immune%20response&alt=sh
o Differentiation to produce (i) plasma cells that make antibodies in a http://www.cellsalive.com/antibody.ht
primary immune response and (ii) memory cells (see 11.1.e). m
o There are important interactions with the T-lymphocytes response. (I) http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/
(Challenging) HEMEHTML/HEMEIDX.html
 Discuss the similarity of the T-lymphocyte response (cell-mediated immunity) http://www.bu.edu/histology/p/21001
to the humoral response, before outlining other key points. ooa.htm
o T-helper cells activation produces a clone of cells that release cytokines,
which stimulate and strengthen both the humoral response and Past Papers
macrophage response. Paper 23, Nov 2013, Q.1 (b)
o T-killer (cytotoxic) cells activation produces a clone of cells that can Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q6 (c)
directly kill, for example, infected cells.
o Both types produce memory cells. (W) (Basic)
 Learners choose to show the information in a flow diagram or with written
notes. (I) (Challenging)
 Distinguish between receptors of B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes that bind
non-self antigen: for B-lymphocytes the receptor is immunoglobulin (slightly
different to a secreted antibody); the T-receptor recognises antigens displayed
on the surface of APCs (see T-helper cells) or infected or foreign cells (see T-
killer cells). (W) (Challenging)
 Extension: learners research the effect of active HIV in human T-lymphocytes
(also attacks phagocytes) and see the consequences of a reduction in
numbers of white blood cells (helps to explain why people with HIV/AIDS are
prone to opportunistic infections). (I) (Challenging)
Note
V3.1 80
 Refer to humoral and cell-mediated responses (not required knowledge) as

learners will see these terms in resources used.
 11.1.e can be incorporated into this learning objective.
11.1.e  Discuss why the presence of memory cells means that a secondary immune Online
explain the role of memory cells in response will be faster and stronger than a primary response. (W) (Basic) http://www.biology.arizona.edu/immu
long-term immunity  Learners suggest meanings for the term immunity and write out an agreed nology/tutorials/immunology/09t.html
explanation of immunity and long-term immunity.
Key concepts  Learners could draw and annotate a sketch graph showing antibody
Cells as the units of life concentrations against time during an immune response. (I) (Basic)
o Learners reproduce this graph at a later date, with more detailed
annotations. (F)
Note
 Encourage use of scientific terminology and explanations: phrases such as
‘remembers the disease’ and ‘fights the disease’ are unacceptable.
11.1.c  Provide learners with information about leukaemias. Learners write an Online
describe and explain the significance account explaining the difference between an increase in white blood cell http://www.lls.org/diseaseinformation/
of the increase in white blood cell count accompanying infectious diseases with that of leukaemias. (F) managingyourcancer/newlydiagnose
count in humans with infectious  Learners explain why people with leukaemia are susceptible to infections. (I) d/understandingdiagnosis/labimaging
diseases and leukaemias (Basic) tests/bloodtests/bloodcounts/
 Extension: learners research the difference between acute and chronic
Key concepts leukaemias. (H) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
Cells as the units of life Siddiqui p.182-183
11.1.f  Use myasthenia gravis as an example to explain what is meant by Online

explain, with reference to myasthenia autoimmune disease, provide learners with a straightforward information http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/e
gravis, that the immune system sheet from which they can make their own bullet-pointed notes. (I) (Basic) ncy/article/000816.htm
sometimes fails to distinguish  Extension: learners research other auto immune diseases to highlight the https://www.mga-
between self and non-self range of immune dysfunctions that can exist. (H) charity.org/information-mg
Key concepts
V3.1 81
11.2.a  Revise protein structure with a short written test. (F) Online
relate the molecular structure of  Discuss the basic structure of an immunoglobulin (e.g. IgG) and how these http://www.biology.arizona.edu/immu
antibodies to their functions (see molecules interact with antigens. (W) (Basic) nology/tutorials/antibody/structure.ht
2.3.b)  Explain that the variable regions in different antibodies have different ml
sequences of amino acids and ask for suggestions as to how this related to http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
Key concepts the specificity of antibodies. (W) (Basic) net/BiologyPages/A/AntigenReceptor
Biochemical processes  Learners use, for example, a ribbon diagram of IgG to explain how primary, s.html
secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures of proteins are shown. (P) (I)
 Learners draw a labelled, annotated diagram linking the structure of an Paper 21, June 2013, Q2
antibody to its function, reproducing this diagram at a later stage. (I) (F) Paper 23, Nov 2013, Q1
(Challenging)
Note
 Learners may be interested to know that antibodies are glycoproteins.
 Mention the different antibody classes and refer to the term antitoxins (not
required learning) for interest.
 There is potential confusion between antibodies and antibiotics – apply error-
free learning.
11.2.b  Learners review antigens, antibodies, specificity, B-lymphocytes, plasma cells Online
outline the hybridoma method for the and cancer cells with a brainstorming session. (W) (Basic) (Challenging) http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
production of monoclonal antibodies  With guidance, learners work through the hybridoma method and produce net/BiologyPages/M/Monoclonals.ht
either a summary flow diagram, set of notes, or completed table. Learners ml
Key concepts highlight the main stages of the process and the steps that occur within each http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses
DNA, the molecule of heredity, stage are described and explained. (I) (Challenging) /molbio/MolLearners/01rakarnik/mab.
Observation and experiment  Ask learners to state the desirable features which are contributed by each cell html
that become incorporated into the hybridoma cell (this contains the genetic http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?re
material of both cells). (W) (Basic) cord_id=9450&page=8
 Learners describe the distinction between the hybridoma cell and the
monoclonal antibody (see Note). (W) (Challenging) Past papers
 Learners could make a list of all the cells involved in the production and state Paper 41, June 2012, Q2
the role of each. (I) (Basic)
 Discuss why there has been a move to produce humanised antibody rather
than mouse antibody. (W) (Challenging)
V3.1 82
Note
 Ensure learners understand that:
o a clone (group of genetically identical cells formed from one original
‘ancestor’ cell) of hybridoma cells produces one type of specific antibody,
monoclonal antibody;
o the ‘ancestor’ cell forms from the fusion of a specific plasma cell (B-
lymphocyte) and a myeloma cell.
 In this rapidly-developing area of biotechnology, learners need to apply
biological principles and concepts to new situations.
11.2.c  Explain that a sample of fluid taken from a person with an infectious disease Online
outline the use of monoclonal could contain both pathogen (with non-self antigens) and specific antibody. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/mo
antibodies in the diagnosis of disease (W) (Basic) noclonalantibody/CA00082
and in the treatment of disease  Learners study a set of diagrams showing the steps occurring in a direct http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/im
enzyme-linked immunosorbent test (ELISA) and answer a set of questions munology/vlab.html.
Key concepts that require application of the principles of immune response and knowledge http://web.archive.org/web/20080329
Observation and experiment of monoclonal antibody. (I) (Challenging) 002645/http://www.molecular-plant-
o Extension: learners describe what is occurring in an indirect ELISA test for biotechnology.info/hybridoma-and-
the presence of circulating specific antibody. (I) (Challenging) monoclonal-antibodies-mabs/uses-
 Learners research one example of the use of monoclonal antibody in the of-monoclonal-antibodies.htm
treatment of disease and present their findings to the class. (H) (W) (Basic) http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcont
(Challenging) ent/animations/content/pregtest.html
Note Textbooks/Publications
 Learners do not need to know the term ELISA or the details of the test. Bio Factsheet 112: Monoclonal
antibodies
Bio Factsheet 219: Monoclonal
antibodies: An update
Past papers
Paper 41, June 2012, Q2 (b)(c)
11.2.d  Discuss the principles behind passive immunity before learners produce an Online
distinguish between active and account explaining why (i) passive immunity is immediate but short-lived and http://www.polioeradication.org/
passive, natural and artificial active immunity is delayed but longer-term, and (ii) passive immunity does http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/p
V3.1 83
immunity and explain how not produce memory cells whereas active immunity does. (W) (I) (Basic) olio/en/
vaccination can control disease (Challenging)
 Learners draw an annotated version of the immune response curve to show Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts how vaccines act to give immunity. (I) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 99: Vaccines
Cells as the units of life,  Learners construct a summary chart, leaving enough room to add features Bio Factsheet 71: The control of
Organisms in their environment, and examples to show the differences between the categories, or, the chart of bacteria.
Observation and experiment immunity is divided into active and passive, each divided into natural and
artificial. (I) (Basic) Past Papers
Immunity
Natural Artificial
Active Passive Active Passive

 Discuss briefly how vaccination can provide immunity to avoid the spread of
disease. Include the term herd immunity. (W) (Basic)
 Extension (highly relevant): learners access current information on the
programme to eradicate polio.
11.2.e  Discuss the features that contributed to the success of the smallpox Online
discuss the reasons why vaccination vaccination programme, which was considered the main factor in the http://www.who.int/features/2010/sm
programmes have eradicated eradication of the disease. (W) (Basic) allpox/en/
smallpox, but not measles, o Learners contribute information about the progress of vaccination http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Maow
tuberculosis (TB), malaria or cholera programmes for the other diseases. (W) (Basic) _Maalin
 Working in groups of four, each member researches one of the four named http://www.who.int/topics/vaccines/en
Key concepts diseases, making comparisons with the smallpox vaccination programme. /
Cells as the units of life, o Provide a list of terms to be incorporated into the group study, e.g. http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-
Organisms in their environment antigenic concealment, antigenic drift, boosters, long/short-term, etc. (G) level/biology/immunity/revise-
(Challenging) it/problems-with-vaccines
http://www.who.int/immunization/en/
V3.1 84
Past Papers
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)(ii)(iii)
V3.1 85
Unit 6: The diversity of life

Learners should have a good understanding of the difference between plant and animal cells and of the difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes from Unit
2. Also from Unit 2, learners should know the basic structure of viruses. They should also be familiar with ecological concepts, such as: the meaning of the terms
population and community; the flow of energy through the different trophic levels of the ecosystem; and interactions between organisms.
Context
This unit, above all the others, belongs to the learner. This is their opportunity to get to know the local environment, with opportunities for fieldwork and for research
into local conservation issues and local conservation projects, allowing a practical application of the key concepts of organisms in their environment and of
observation and experiment. Stimulating an interest in biodiversity will lead appropriately to the next unit, Unit 7, Genetics, population genetics and evolutionary
processes.
Outline
The unit begins with a discussion of the meaning of the terms species, ecosystem and niche so that learners will have a good grounding for later ecological studies,
and then continues with a more detailed study of classification and taxonomy. Biodiversity is considered at three different levels, and species biodiversity is further
explored by fieldwork opportunities in a local area. Spearman’s rank correlation and Pearson’s linear correlation, together with Simpson’s diversity of index are
introduced as analytical tools for the data collected from fieldwork. The unit also covers the threats to the maintenance of biodiversity and discusses both issues
concerning conservation and practical ways to conserve endangered species and restore degraded habitats. One aspect of the key concept of organisms in their
environment is how humans can interact with their environment in ways that can have a great impact on ecosystems. Here, consideration is given to the part
humans may play in the extinction of species.
Teaching time
V3.1 86
18.1.a  Carry out a brainstorming exercise to indicate how much learners can recall of Online
define the terms species, ecosystem each term. (W) (Basic) http://purchon.com/ecology/
and niche  Discuss the species concept (and difficulties in defining the term – there are http://www.ecologydictionary.org/
over 20 definitions) before learners make notes.
Key concepts o Expand ideas of: reproductively isolated; production of fertile offspring; Textbooks/Publications
Natural selection, members have the same (very similar) features in morphology, anatomy, Bio Factsheet 131: Ecological niche
Organisms in their environment physiology, behaviour and biochemistry; occupy the same niche; defined
by same (very similar) DNA. (W) (I) (Basic) Past Papers
 Extension: learners explore difficulties in defining species in terms of fertile Paper 22, June 2011, Q2
offspring by researching examples, e.g. between plant species or between Paper 41, June 2012, Q1 (a)
mammalian species (polar bear and brown bear - rare; canid hybrids -
common). (H) (Challenging)
 Extension: learners consider how the species concept works for asexually
reproducing organisms and for interspecific plasmid transfer between
bacteria. (H) (Challenging)
 Learners write a definition of an ecosystem, incorporating the following ideas
and the same (or equivalent) terminology: (I) (Basic)
o a self-sustaining unit consisting of abiotic and biotic factors interacting
together
o includes all organisms of all populations (in a given area)
o energy flows through and cycling of minerals occur.
 Learners make notes on (ecological) niche, the functional role of a species, to
include: a description of its habitat; how it is adapted to its environment;
interactions with other organisms; features of its life-cycle. (I) (Basic)
 Learners visit an ecosystem to place into context these terms and concepts,
describing in terms of: energy flow / trophic levels; interactions between
organisms; interactions between organisms and the physical environment.
Examples of species and of niche are described. (G) (P) (Basic)
(Challenging)
 Explain that an ecosystem can vary in size and could be temporary or
permanent. (W) (Basic)
Note
 A niche is often described in terms of an organism or a population.
V3.1 87
 A field trip should be considered before covering 18.1.c) to 18.1.f). If a trip is

not possible, visiting any suitable area populated by plants and animals, within
or near to school, will be a rewarding experience for learners.
18.2.a  Learners suggest a method to sort all the different organisms in the world and Online
describe the classification of species then share ideas. (W) (G) (Basic) http://www.microscopy-
into the taxonomic hierarchy of  Introduce the idea of sorting as ‘classification’ and agree that a hierarchical uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://
domain, kingdom, phylum, class, approach is sensible. www.microscopy-
order, family, genus and species o State that levels in the hierarchy are termed taxonomic ranks, with each uk.org.uk/mag/artmay98/classif.html
example of a rank known as a taxon (plural: taxa). http://www.biologymad.com/master.h
Key concepts o Explain that the members of a group share common (homologous) tml?http://www.biologymad.com/Clas
Cells as the units of life, features based on phylogenetic / evolutionary patterns (more details in sification/classification.htm
DNA, the molecule of heredity Unit 7). (W) (Basic)
 Display a ‘tree of life’ with the three domains and briefly outline the other Textbooks/Publications
taxonomic ranks, asking for suggestions why the species taxon is considered Bio Factsheet 91: Taxonomy and
to be the only natural classification group. classification.
o Outline the classification of humans, with learners contributing their ideas. Bio Factsheet 170: Answering Exam
(W) (Basic) Questions: Classification and Keys
 Learners note down the taxonomic ranks listed and decide a good mnemonic
to help remember the hierarchical order. (P) (I) (Basic)
 Extension: choose one or more organisms to classify from domain through to
the species, for example, organisms encountered during fieldwork. (H)
 Extension: learners research classification systems based on analogous
features. (I) (Basic)
18.2.b  Learners complete a short written test (produced by you, with mark scheme) Online
outline the characteristic features of about prokaryotes and eukaryotes. (F) http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Education
the three domains Archaea, Bacteria  Explain that the Archaea and Bacteria are both prokaryotic but have quite -resources/Education-and-
and Eukarya different features, reflecting their evolutionary history. learning/Big-Picture/All-
o State some features of the Archaea that contrast with Bacteria: e.g. issues/Evolution/index.htm
Key concepts different cell wall structure, which can be quite varied (not murein); http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/alllife/t
Cells as the units of life, different types of membrane lipids (not phospholipids); differences in tRNA hreedomains.html
DNA, the molecule of heredity, and ribosomes.
Organisms in their environment o Discuss the specialised habitats of some members of the Archaea: high
V3.1 88
temperatures, extreme saline, and anaerobic environments. (W) (Basic)

 Learners use resources (textbooks, internet, etc.) to produce a list of the main
features of each domain. (I) (Basic)
Note
For this syllabus learners should use ‘Bacteria’ and not ‘Monera’.
18.2.c  Learners brainstorm the names of the kingdoms. Write down all ideas so any Online
outline the characteristic features of incorrect can be put into context (i.e. see 18.2.a). http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/plants/
the kingdoms Protoctista, Fungi, o Agree the kingdoms and discuss criteria used for classification into Fungi, plantae.html
Plantae and Animalia Animalia or Plantae kingdom, e.g. animals are eukaryotic, multicellular,
feed as heterotrophs. Point out that absent features also helps confirm the Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts classification, e.g. no cells with cell walls, don’t photosynthesise. Bio Factsheet 91: Taxonomy and
Cells as the units of life, o Discuss the Protoctista as the kingdom that contains organisms that do classification
DNA, the molecule of heredity, not quite fit into the other kingdoms. Bio Factsheet 170: Answering Exam
Organisms in their environment o Learners make notes using resources. (W) (Basic) Questions: Classification and Keys
 Learners make up an imaginary ‘named’ organism and produce a sticky note
or label with enough of a description for it to be classified into a kingdom. The Past Papers
notes could be stuck around the class for a class activity, learners revealing Paper 43, June 2011, Q1 (c)
their answers at the end of the activity. (W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging). Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q1 (c)
Paper 41, Nov 2012, Q11 (a)
18.2.d  Check learner knowledge of the main features of viruses (1.2.f) with a Online
explain why viruses are not included question and answer session. http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/5
in the three domain classification and o Add more information about the genetic material: either single or double- 1cbef267896bb431f69cb9a/?topic=5
outline how they are classified, stranded RNA or single or double-stranded DNA, but never both RNA and 1cbfc78f702fc2ba8129e70
limited to type of nucleic acid (RNA DNA. http://www.johnkyrk.com/virus.html
or DNA) and whether these are o Learners produce a generalised diagram that is annotated. (W) (I) (Basic)
single stranded or double stranded  Learners suggest why viruses are not included in the three domain Textbooks/Publications
classification. Bio Factsheet 32: Viruses made
Key concepts o Remind learners of the Unit 2 discussion (viruses do not fit the key simple.
Cells as the units of life, concept of cells as the basic units of life) and see if they have any other
DNA, the molecule of heredity points to contribute. (W) (Basic)
18.1.b  A discussion about the term biodiversity will highlight that a simple definition Online
explain that biodiversity is considered may be difficult. Introduce the idea of three different ‘levels’ of biodiversity, http://www.eoearth.org/topics/view/49
V3.1 89
at three different levels: ecosystem, species, and genetic. (W) (Challenging) 480/
 variation in ecosystems or habitats o Point out the transition from an ecological to a molecular biological http://www.bbsrc.ac.uk/web/FILES/E
 the number of species and their approach. xhibitions/pod2-factsheet.pdf
relative abundance o Explain that ecosystem biodiversity is more difficult to measure, as http://www.geography.learnontheinter
 genetic variation within each ecosystems may merge at their ‘boundaries’ (so not easy to define) and net.co.uk/topics/ecosystem.html
species vary greatly in size. http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth
 Explain that biodiversity can be considered at a local, national and global /biodiversity/what_is_biodiversity/
Key concepts level. (W) (Basic) http://www.iucn.org/iyb/about/?gclid=
DNA, the molecule of heredity,  Give a definition of a habitat, for reference only, e.g. the particular location CJ7n2a2576QCFQsGbAodI3nz1A
Organisms in their environment and type of local environment occupied by a population or organism,
characterised by its physical features or by its dominant producers. (W)
(Basic)
 Learners volunteer the different types of medium-scale (meso) ecosystems in
their region: e.g. wood/forest, lake/river, field, rocky shore (ecosystem
biodiversity).
o To understand how biodiversity can be reduced, learners suggest an
occurrence for each ecosystem that would lead to its loss. (W) (Basic)
 In groups, volunteer states a habitat within one of the named ecosystems,
choosing the next person to give another habitat and so on. (G) (Basic)
(Challenging)
 Reinforce, using examples, learner understanding of the differences between
ecosystem and habitat, e.g. the habitat of a catfish is a freshwater stream
versus the catfish is part of the freshwater ecosystem; removal of boulders
from the stream bed reduces the variety/number of different habitats in the
ecosystem. (W) (Basic)
 Learners consider species biodiversity within a community.
o Give a definition of community (reference only), e.g. all of the populations
of all of the different species within a specified area at a particular time.
o Explain, using examples, the difference between number of species
(count of how many species exist within a particular community), and
relative abundance of species (count how many members of each species
there are - the population size).
o Expand the discussion to consider species diversity on a global scale. (W)
(Challenging)
 For genetic biodiversity, explain that a genome is the sum total of all the
V3.1 90
hereditary information in an organism, and discuss how, although each

species can be identified by a characteristic genome, there will still be
variation (link to Unit 7).
A
o Learners recall from Unit 3, the different nucleotide sequences for Hb
S
(normal) and Hb (sickle cell) alleles and their definition of a mutation
(6.2.b).
o Explain that genetic biodiversity (variation) can be within a population or
between populations. (W) (Basic)
 Learners summarise discussions with their own notes, using examples to help
their explanation. (F)
 Extension: learners consider further examples of how ecosystem biodiversity
can be affected by different factors: trophic levels, food chains/webs and
energy flow; the cycling of nutrients; interactions. (H) (Challenging)
Note
When tackling variation in ecosystems or habitats, reference to some of the
issues in 18.3.a and 18.3.h will help for later studies.
18.1.c  Random sampling is best demonstrated by holding up one page from a large Practical booklet 11
explain the importance of random newspaper that contains words of different sized fonts, images and blank
sampling in determining the areas. Online
biodiversity of an area o Explain that this simulates a field, which has no more than 26 species http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/how
living there, each species represented by a letter of the alphabet. (W) to.htm
Key concepts (Basic) http://fua.field-studies-
Organisms in their environment, o Learners discuss a method to determine how many different species and council.org/media/59629/how_to_car
Observation and experiment how many individuals of each species there are (and only 30 minutes to ry_out_a_random_sample.pdf
carry out the task). (G) (Challenging)
o Discuss a suitable strategy, highlighting the importance of: having to
sample; taking a number of samples (the sample may be
unrepresentative, e.g. a photograph could represent a bare rock, so no
individuals would be found); choosing the correct size/area of each
sample; random sampling (biased sampling - any measurements can only
apply to the sample, not to the whole area). (W) (Basic)
Note
 Learning objectives 18.1.c to 18.1.f are best understood, and could be carried
V3.1 91
out, in the context of fieldwork. Practical booklet 11 may provide suitable

protocols and should be consulted first.
18.1.d  See Note for 18.1.c. Practical booklet 11

use suitable methods, such as frame  Learners use resources to note the difference between distribution and
quadrats, line transects, belt abundance. (I) (Basic) Online
transects and mark-release-  Discuss different techniques for estimating, e.g. counting numbers of each of http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/how
recapture, to assess the distribution the different species within the quadrat; ‘by eye’ estimation of percentage of to.htm
and abundance of organisms in a quadrat covered by each particular plant species; using an abundance scale http://fua.field-studies-
local area (e.g. ACFOR). council.org/media/59629/how_to_car
o Learners suggest what to do with their data in order to make calculations ry_out_a_random_sample.pdf
Key concepts of estimates of population size. (W) (Basic) http://fua.field-studies-
Organisms in their environment,  Discuss how quadrats of a known area can be used for random sampling and council.org/teaching-equipment-and-
Observation and experiment the importance of: choosing the right size of frame quadrat (e.g. size of methods.aspx
organisms, area to cover; reducing edge effects); when to use a quadrat with http://www.biologymad.com/resource
a grid. (W) (Basic) s/RevisionM5Ch4.pdf
 Explain line and belt transects for systematic sampling. http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/app
o Learners suggest advantages and disadvantages of belt versus line lied-science/distribution-and-
transects. abundance-species
o Explain the difference between interrupted belt transects (quadrats placed
at regular intervals) or continuous belt transects (quadrats laid side by Textbooks/Publications
side). (W) (Basic) King Chapter 11
 Learners consider different (theoretical) fieldwork tasks and choose whether Siddiqui, Chapter 7
frame quadrats randomly placed, line transects, interrupted belt transects or Bio Factsheet 5: An idiot’s guide to
continuous belt transects would be most the appropriate, justifying their populations.
answers. (H) (F) (Basic) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 68: Fieldwork
 Discuss the concept behind the mark-release-recapture technique and techniques
situations where mark-release-recapture would be appropriate. Show the Bio Factsheet 184: Investigating
formula to use: sand dunes.
number in the first sample x number in second sample
number marked in second sample
o Explain the problem if there is a low rate of recapture, e.g. 20 animals
caught and marked, 1 marked in 10 captured the second time, estimate of
total number =200/1 = 200, but 2 marked individuals recaptured makes
the estimate only 100. (W) (Basic)
V3.1 92
o Learners practise this using a container of beans or beads. Remove a

small handful to be marked for the first sample, add them back to the
container (shake them up), remove a second sample for the ‘recapture’
(closed eyes) and record results, obtaining the estimate using the formula.
(P) (I) (Basic)
 Learners obtain estimates of population size from several different sets of
data using the mark-release-recapture formula. (I) (Basic)
o Learners extract the required numerical data from paragraphs of prose to
estimate the population size (no formula provided). (F)
 Learners make notes on the mark-release-recapture technique, annotating the
formula to use and explaining some of the assumptions made: marked
animals returned to the population mix randomly; the marking had no effect
(e.g. non-toxic, more visible to predators); the marking remained on
individuals; equal chance of capturing marked and unmarked individuals; no
immigration or emigration during the sampling. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners carry out fieldwork, using each of the methods listed to assess the
distribution and abundance of organisms. (G) (P) (Basic) (Challenging)
18.1.e  See Note for 18.1.c. Practical booklet 11

use Spearman’s rank correlation and  Discuss instances in fieldwork where differences in species abundance or
Pearson’s linear correlation to distribution occurred (or provide examples). Explain that the next step is to Online
analyse the relationships between find out if these correlate with some factor, either biotic or abiotic (see 18.1.a). http://www.statstutor.ac.uk/topics/corr
the distribution and abundance of o Explain the measure of association between two variables ranges from elation/pearsons-correlation-
species and abiotic or biotic factors completely negatively correlated, -1, to completely positively correlated, coefficient/
+1; the closer to these values, the stronger the relationship. http://www.statstutor.ac.uk/topics/corr
Key concepts o Explain that a statistical test cannot confirm a relationship between the elation/spearmans-correlation-
Organisms in their environment, two, but can lends support to it. (W) (Basic) coefficient/
Observation and experiment  Discuss situations when Pearson’s linear coefficient calculation is carried out: http://www.heckgrammar.co.uk/index
when there is interval (quantitative) data that shows a linear relationship and a .php?p=10310
statistical assessment of the strength of the correlation is required (e.g. data
plotted on a scattergraph; a ‘by-eye’ judgment of correlation is not always Textbooks/Publications
reliable). (W) (Challenging)
o Learners work through an example, with guidance, starting with a null Bio Factsheet 144: Spearman’s rank
hypothesis statement before using the formula to calculate the Pearson correlation coefficient.
product moment correlation. Learners use a table of critical values to
V3.1 93
reject or accept the null hypothesis and make a statistically valid

statement about the strength of the correlation and its significance. (W) (I)
 Explain that if one variable increases and the other increases (or decreases)
then Spearman’s rank correlation can be carried out, even if the relationship is
non-linear, and that ordinal data can also be used with this test. (W)
(Challenging)
o Work through examples with learners, as with Pearson’s test, and discuss
how to use Spearman’s table. (W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
 Learners analyse relationships by practising a number of different examples
using either Spearman’s rank correlation or Pearson’s linear correlation.
o Learners then work with calculated values to analyse the data and make
judgements about the strength of the relationship. (I) (Basic)
(Challenging)
 Discuss how correlation does not imply causation, e.g. abundance of a plant
species appears to decrease with increasing altitude. Applying caution with
cause and effect would consider other factors that change with altitude
(oxygen concentration, temperature, soil nutrients etc.). (W) (Basic)
Note
 Learners should work through examples themselves before using other
resources available to them.
 Learners could use spreadsheet software to enter the relevant figures and
obtain a scattergraph and the final calculated value, and then explain what the
results are showing. You could set up spreadsheets of data for learners to
access (see learning resources).
 Practical booklet 11 includes the chi-squared test for association. This is
another use in addition to the ‘goodness of fit’ test (see 16.2.d).
18.1.f  See Note for 18.1.c. Practical booklet 11

use Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D)  Explain that Simpson’s Index of Diversity gives an overall measure of diversity
to calculate the biodiversity of a by taking into account the number of different species in a sample and the Online
habitat, using the formula D = 1– abundance of each species. http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/sim
2 psons.htm
(Σ(n/N) ) and state the significance of o Explain that a high D value represents high biodiversity, indicating a high
different values of D number of species, evenly spread for abundance. The value of D goes http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/app
lied-science/ecology-and-simpsons-
V3.1 94
down if there are fewer species, or if, for example, one or a few species diversity-index
Key concepts are very abundant and others are very rare.
Organisms in their environment, o Discuss how this can be used to compare biodiversity over time in any Textbooks/Publications
Observation and experiment one area. (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 34: Species diversity
 Learners use their fieldwork data (or be given data) to calculate a biodiversity
value and state its significance. (I) (Challenging)
18.3.a  To check understanding of the terms, learners give examples of specific local Online
discuss the threats to the biodiversity terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. (W) (Basic) http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrar
of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems  Discuss the global food and energy demands (from increasing population y/news/120301_chipmunks
(see 18.1 b) size, developing nations and increasing industrialisation) that may affect http://www.wri.org/resources/maps
ecosystems (also to a lesser extent, demand for ‘living’ space). (W) (Basic) http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/fr
Key concepts o Learners consider these factors on a local basis, suggest ways to satisfy eshwater/panafrica/threats
Organisms in their environment, these demands and consider the consequential effects of this action on http://www.biodiv.be/biodiversity/thre
Observation and experiment one chosen local terrestrial or aquatic ecosystem. (P) (Challenging) ats
o Point out that global effects, such as climate change and global warming http://environment.nationalgeographi
can still affect at a local level. (W) (Basic) c.co.uk/environment/
o Learners add their ideas to master sheets headed, ‘demand for food’,
‘demand for energy’ and ‘demand for living space’ (each sheet divided Textbooks/Publications
vertically into ‘terrestrial ecosystems’ and ‘aquatic ecosystems’) and follow Bio Factsheet 27: Biological effect of
up with a class discussion. It is highly likely that their ideas will reflect what deforestation
is happening globally. (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 203: Climate change
 Learners produce a general list, using local and global examples to help and ecological decoupling
explain each point. (H) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 197: Biology of coral
reef ecosystems
Note
 The effect of introducing alien species into an ecosystem is also an important Past Papers
feature, covered in 18.3.f (you may prefer to teach 18.3.f with 18.3.a). Paper 41, June 2011, Q8 (a)(b)
17.3.e  Discuss what is meant by extinction, pointing out that it is a natural process Online
explain why organisms become and part of the theory of evolution by natural selection (see Unit 7). http://www.bbc.co.uk/lastchancetose
extinct, with reference to climate o Explain that there is a threshold number below which extinction is e/sites/about/extinction.shtml
change, competition, habitat loss and inevitable. http://www.iucnredlist.org/
killing by humans o Learners suggest why species become extinct (check that those
referenced in 17.3.e are covered). (W) (Basic) Past Papers
V3.1 95
Key concepts  Learners find examples (relevant to them) of plant and animal species that Paper 43, June 2011, Q1 (a)
Natural selection, have become extinct or are near extinction for the reasons listed in 17.3.e and
Observation and experiment produce poster displays. (G) (P) (Basic)
18.3.b  Learners research the reasons to maintain biodiversity. (H) (Basic) Online
discuss the reasons for the need to o In a follow-up discussion include the following ideas: maintenance of gene http://www.nationalgeographic.com/x
maintain biodiversity pools; preservation of genetic diversity; applications of the use of gene peditions/lessons/08/g68/preserve.ht
technology (see Unit 8); current and new uses of organisms; discovery of ml
Key concepts new species (may have use in the future); aesthetic and spiritual benefits; http://www.davidsuzuki.org/search/?q
Organisms in their environment, practical value of animals (e.g. dolphins helping autistic children); the awe =biodiversity&x=0&y=0
Observation and experiment of the vast range of organisms, their attractive or unusual appearances http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth
and different methods of survival. (W) (Basic) /biodiversity/biodiversity/
 Agree some main categories, e.g. genetic, future uses, current uses, spiritual /
aesthetic, etc. (W) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
o Learners place each idea on the list in the correct category, with an Bio Factsheet 224: Why we need
accompanying explanation. (I) (Challenging) biodiversity
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2012, Q6 (b)(ii)
Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q5 (a)(iii)
18.3.g  Learners suggest what is meant by ‘NGOs’. Discuss the advantages of non- Online
discuss the roles of non- governmental organisations, such as greater cooperation between nations, http://wwf.panda.org/
governmental organisations, such as international agreements that can be reached sooner than inter-governmental http://www.cites.org/
the World Wide Fund for Nature agreements.
(WWF) and the Convention on o Introduce WWF and CITES.
International Trade in Endangered o Learners are shown or browse CITES Appendices I, II and III. (W) (Basic)
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora  Learners check the websites or read summary print-out sheets to become
(CITES), in local and global familiar with a variety of NGOs active in conservation.
conservation o Agree a definition for the term ‘conservation’. (W) (Basic)
o Learners write a short account summarising the role of the WWF and
Key concepts CITES and the benefits of NGOs in general. They could also add details
Organisms in their environment, of a local conservation group. (H) (Basic)
V3.1 96
18.3.c  Introduce the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Discuss Online
discuss methods of protecting what is meant by the term ‘endangered’ (refer learners to work on http://www.iucn.org/knowledge/tools/
endangered species, including the biodiversity). http://www.iucnredlist.org/
roles of zoos, botanic gardens, o Discuss (or display the IUCN web page) the criteria used to classify an https://worldwildlife.org/species/direct
conserved areas (national parks and organism as endangered. (W) (Basic) ory?direction=desc&sort=extinction_s
marine parks), ‘frozen zoos’ and o Learners write a definition of the term ‘endangered’, researching a named tatus
seed banks example and include the species name and the reasons for it being http://www.kew.org/index.htm
endangered. (H) (Basic) http://www.zsl.org/conservation/
Key concepts o Learners findings are shared in a class presentation. (W) (Basic) http://www.petermaas.nl/extinct/index
Organisms in their environment,  Learners refer to the species identified in their fieldwork for 18.1.d and use the .html
Observation and experiment IUCN Red List to determine their category. (I) (Basic) http://www.eoearth.org/topics/view/49
 Discuss what is meant by a frozen zoo and a seed bank. (W) (Basic) 513/
o Learners research the variety of methods employed to help protect http://www.sandiegozooglobal.org/wh
endangered species in one of: zoos, botanic gardens, national parks, at_we_do_banking_genetic_resource
marine parks. Include any advantages or disadvantages of each method. s/frozen_zoo/
(G) (Basic) (Challenging) http://animals.nationalgeographic.co.
o Learners produce a summary sheet of their research to share with the uk/animals/conservation/
class. (W) (G) (Challenging)
o Produce one card for each member of the group. On each card write one Textbooks/Publications
of the categories listed (zoo, national park etc.). Give out the cards Bio Factsheet 65: Conservation
randomly. Learners give a written outline of methods used to protect Bio Factsheet 208: Captive breeding
endangered species. (F) and the role of zoos
 Learners research local and national efforts to protect endangered named
species. (H) (Basic) Past Papers
 With reference to genetic improvement and the maintenance of the gene pool, Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q1 (a)(b)
learners research examples of wild relatives of crop plants, landraces of crop Paper 42, June 2012, Q6 (a)
plants and rare breeds of livestock. (H) (Basic)
 A visit to a national park, nature reserve, zoo or botanic garden will enable
learners to see the work that is being done locally or nationally.
Note
 Point out that the IUCN list does not cover all groups of organisms.
18.3.d  Explain that humans can assist reproduction in endangered mammals and, Online
discuss methods of assisted with learner input, discuss the techniques involved. http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
V3.1 97
reproduction, including IVF, embryo o Learners suggest the considerations when deciding that assisted net/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reprodu
transfer and surrogacy, used in the reproduction should be used, such as: research to decide on appropriate ction.html#ART
conservation of endangered method (not always easy to study reproduction in rare mammals); modify http://www.eplantscience.com/index/
mammals technique to be specific to the mammal; evaluating success. (W) (Basic) biotechnology/animal_biotechnology/
 Learners make notes, using resources, outlining the main stages and the manipulation_of_reproduction_and_tr
Key concepts main principles involved. (I) (Challenging) ansgenic_animals/biotech_in_vitro_f
Organisms in their environment, o Learners apply the principles to examples they have been given or have ertilization_technology.php
Observation and experiment researched. (H) (Basic) http://nationalzoo.si.edu/SCBI/reprod
 Learners could be asked to sort statements, some irrelevant to be discarded, uctivescience/consendangeredcats/
to end up with a set of notes that could be used as a summary of assisted
reproduction. (I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 105: Manipulation and
Note control of reproduction.
 Learners may have included ideas from this in their research for 18.3.c. Some parts of this are relevant.
 Although this learning objective is about endangered mammals, not about
assisted reproduction for humans, the techniques are similar and learners Past Papers
may gain useful information by researching them. Paper 41, June 2011, Q3 (a)
18.3.e  Ensure learners know what is meant by the two terms, and then explain that Online
discuss the use of culling and there are frequently debates about the issue, including deciding when a http://www.egzac.org/whyusecontrac
contraceptive methods to prevent population is considered to be ‘over-populated’. (W) (Basic) eption.aspx
overpopulation of protected and non-  Learners research examples meaningful to them, including the different http://www.ceru.up.ac.za/elephant/fa
protected species reasons given to either culling or use of contraceptive methods, and qs.php
explaining why one method was favoured. (I) (Basic)
Key concepts  Provide new examples: learners write a short article weighing up the Textbooks/Publications
Organisms in their environment, advantages and disadvantages of culling versus contraceptive methods. (F) Bio Factsheet 65: Conservation.
Observation and experiment  Organise a mini debate. (W) (H) (Basic) (Challenging)
Note
 Stress that learners will need to develop the ability to apply principles to new
situations
18.3.f  Discuss how, in many ecosystems throughout the world, the introduction of Online
use examples to explain the reasons alien species has had harmful economic or ecological effects (termed ‘alien- http://www.birdlife.org/worldwide/prog
for controlling alien species invasive’ species). Balance this with a discussion of how some alien species rammes/invasive-alien-species
V3.1 98
have been of benefit. (W) (Basic) http://eol.org/info/460

Key concepts  Learners research examples of alien species (local, national and global) that http://www.galapagos.org/conservati
Organisms in their environment, are now considered unwelcome, and for each explain the reasons for on/invasive-species/
Observation and experiment controlling them. (H) (Basic)
Past papers
Note Paper 41, June 2011, Q8 (a)(b)
 This may have been discussed with 18.3.a.
 Some agencies give ‘alien’ and ‘exotic’ slightly different meanings, others use
them interchangeably. Also seen are ‘non-indigenous’, ‘non-native’ and
‘introduced’.
18.3.h  Discuss the concept of restoration ecology and the need for scientific planning Online
outline how degraded habitats may and understanding when restoring degraded habitats or ecosystems. (W) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restoratio
be restored with reference to local or (Basic) n_ecology
regional examples  Learners research one example and present their findings to the group. (W) (I) http://www.ser.org/
(Challenging). Points to consider: http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowl
Key concepts o A description of the habitat before degradation. edge/library/restoration-ecology-
Organisms in their environment, o Reasons for the degradation and what may happen if degradation 13339059
Observation and experiment continues.
o What could be / is being carried, with overall aims, e.g. re-establishing
what was, improving by addition of species or physical factors, modifying
to create a new habitat.
o The benefits to the community of restoration.
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Unit 7: Genetics, population genetics and evolutionary processes

Learners should have a good knowledge and understanding of the mitotic cell cycle from Unit 3. They should be able to describe the structure of DNA and the
events occurring in DNA replication, in transcription and in translation from Unit 3, including an understanding of the genetic code. Learners should have a good
understanding of what is meant by a gene, an allele and a gene mutation. An appreciation of the diversity of life, from Unit 6, will stimulate interest in how diversity
has come about.
Context
This unit builds on AS Level work, especially Unit 3, DNA and the mitotic cell cycle. It leads on from Unit 6, The diversity of life, so that learners are provided with an
explanation of how the mechanisms of natural selection and isolation can lead to the formation of new species. This unit strongly incorporates the key concepts of
cells as the basic units of life, biochemical processes, DNA, the molecule of heredity and observation and experiment. Knowledge and understanding gained in this
unit will be particularly useful for Unit 8, Molecular biology and gene technology.
Outline
The unit begins with an introduction to ideas and terms that will be needed. The mechanism and significance of meiosis is dealt with, showing how genetic
information passes from parent to offspring. A link is made to gamete formation in animals and plants. Genetic crosses are practised and the chi-squared test is
used. The nature of genes and alleles and their role in determining the phenotype is discussed, including human conditions that result from gene mutations. Once
an understanding of basic genetics is gained, the unit leads to a consideration how the passage of information from parent to offspring is translated to population
genetics. Variation, and its importance for the mechanism of natural selection, is studied before considering the role of natural selection in evolution and speciation.
Natural selection is a key concept in biology, with mutation acting as the raw material for evolution. The unit considers how selection pressures allow successful
individuals to survive to pass on genes to the next generation and how changes in the genetic make-up of the population, coinciding with isolation, can lead to
speciation. The key concept of observation and experiment is exemplified by studying the improvement of the milk yield of dairy cattle and the improvement of crop
plants by humans. Humans can apply the principles of natural selection to artificial selection and speed up the process of biological change.
Teaching time
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16.1.a  Introduce the topic explaining that a fertilised egg cell will have a set of Online
explain what is meant by chromosomes from the mother and a set from the father, to give pairs of http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
homologous pairs of chromosomes chromosomes in cells. (W) (Basic) v423/n6942/fig_tab/423810a_F1.html
 Discuss the features of homologous chromosomes. (W) (Basic)
Key concepts o Learners list the similarities and differences between a pair of homologous
DNA, the molecule of heredity chromosomes and note the differences between the X and Y
chromosomes. (I) (Basic)
Note
 Avoid using 46 chromosomes and 23 pairs of chromosomes in explanations
(also for 16.1.b): a common error is stating these when answering questions
about other organisms.
 The term bivalent is the same as one pair of homologous chromosomes.
16.1.b  From 16.1.a, explain that cells with one set of chromosomes are termed
explain the meanings of the terms haploid (n), and a particular species has a specific haploid number. Extend
haploid and diploid and the need for this to explain the term diploid (2n). (W) (Basic)
a reduction division (meiosis) prior to o Discuss why a diploid organism needs a reduction division (meiosis) to
fertilisation in sexual reproduction produce haploid cells. Use phrases such as ‘restore the diploid number on
fertilisation’, ‘to avoid doubling the number of chromosomes’. (W) (I)
Key concepts (Basic)
Cells as the units of life,  Extension: learners outline the differences between asexual and sexual
DNA, the molecule of heredity reproduction and between asexual reproduction in eukaryotes and asexual
reproduction in prokaryotes (background information - refer to binary fission).
(H) (Challenging)
Note
 Do not go into details of meiosis for this learning objective.
 Mention that some organisms only have one set of chromosomes, while
others have one set for some part of their life cycle
16.2.a (i) Only part of this learning objective is included here: explain the terms gene, Online
explain the terms gene, locus, locus, allele, dominant, recessive, phenotype, genotype, homozygous and http://www.biology.arizona.edu/vocab
allele, dominant, recessive, heterozygous ulary/mendelian_genetics/mendelian
codominant, linkage, test cross, F1  Learners recall previous studies: _genetics.html
V3.1 101
and F2, phenotype, genotype, gene 6.2.a definition http://www.genome.gov/glossary/inde

homozygous and heterozygous allele 6.2.b concept of new alleles forming by mutation x.cfm?id=8
A S
6.2.c Hb and Hb alleles.
Key concepts  Use pipe cleaner or string models, with sticky labels for alleles, to help explain Textbooks/Publications
Biochemical processes, gene, allele, locus, dominant, recessive, heterozygous, homozygous, Bio Factsheet 156: Dominant and
DNA, the molecule of heredity genotype, then discuss the meaning of phenotype. (W) (Basic) Recessive Alleles.
 Learners write definitions for the terms and draw diagrams of homologous Bio Factsheet 45: Gene expression
chromosomes to annotate locus and allele and, using examples, draw
homologous chromosomes with different genotypes (homozygous alleles and Past Papers
heterozygous alleles; dominant and recessive), indicating the phenotype. (I) Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q9 (a)
(Challenging)
 Learners match a set of cards with terms to a second set with definitions. (F)
Note
 It is useful to introduce the term early so learners can correlate the behaviour
of chromosomes in meiosis and the formation of gametes with allele
behaviour (and enhance understanding of genetic crosses).
16.1.c  State that meiosis involves two divisions to produce four cells. Explain what is Online
outline the role of meiosis in meant by the term ‘gamete’. Highlight the role of meiosis in terms of a http://highered.mcgraw-
gametogenesis in humans and in the reduction division and the production of genetically different cells. (W) (Basic) hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
formation of pollen grains and  Using resources, learners write out a definition and give an outline of ew0/chapter28/animation__unique_f
embryo sacs in flowering plants gametogenesis, naming the ovary and testis as the organs involved and eatures_of_meiosis.html
including the role of meiosis. (I) (Challenging) http://highered.mcgraw-
Key concepts  Learners draw a fully labelled human life cycle. (I) (Basic) hill.com/sites/0072495855/learner_vi
Cells as the units of life  Using resources and teacher input, learners produce annotated diagrams to ew0/chapter28/animation__spermato
outline the formation of pollen grains and embryo sacs. genesis__quiz_1_.html
o Diploid pollen mother cells in pollen sacs (in the anther) divide by meiosis
to form 4 haploid microspores. These mature to become pollen grains Textbooks/Publications
(details of mitosis not required. Bio Factsheet 168: Gamete
o In the ovule the megaspore mother cell divides by meiosis to form 4 Formation in Animals
haploid megaspores: one survives to divide by mitosis to produce an
eight-nucleate embryo sac. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners compare the main similarities and differences between
gametogenesis in humans with pollen grain and embryo sac formation in
plants.
V3.1 102
o Include a flow chart diagram to highlight the stages where meiosis and
mitosis occur. (H) (Challenging)
Note
 Details of ovary and testis histology are not required.
 Learners should be familiar with the terms oogenesis and spermatogenesis.
16.1.d  With a short written test (prepared by you, with mark scheme), assess learner Online
describe, with the aid of recall of mitosis. (F) http://www.biologymad.com/CellDivisi
photomicrographs and diagrams, the  Show learners diagrams or photographs of an ordered haploid chromosome on/CellDivision.htm
behaviour of chromosomes in plant set (karyotype), e.g. human sperm and egg to review knowledge of www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/tut
and animal cells during meiosis, and homologous chromosomes, haploid, diploid, sex chromosomes. (W) (Basic) orials/meiosis/page3.html
the associated behaviour of the  Learners model meiosis with teacher guidance. Use pipe cleaners (or string or http://www.biologyinmotion.com/cell_
nuclear envelope, cell surface wool) to demonstrate the behaviour of 4 chromosomes. Explain the use of e.g. division/index.html
membrane and the spindle (names of one homologous pair (i.e. maternal and paternal) = 2 (sister chromatids) light http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcont
the main stages are expected, but blue and 2 dark blue pipe cleaners; the second homologous pair use a ent/animations/content/meiosis.html
not the sub-divisions of prophase) different colour, light and dark. http://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis.ht
o Learners model late interphase (DNA replication means 1 pipe cleaner m
Key concepts becomes 2 identical) before moving onto the stages of meiosis. Learners
Cells as the units of life, suggest ‘what happens next’ and explain why each stage occurs. Textbooks/Publications
DNA, the molecule of heredity o At the appropriate points explain the concepts of chiasmata formation, Bio Factsheet 50: Sources of genetic
crossing over and independent assortment. (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) variation.
o Learners model meiosis (no help, noting the comparisons with mitosis
(correct spellings). (P) (I) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Learners study prepared slides, photomicrographs and diagrams. (I) (Basic) Paper 43, June 2011, Q7 (a)
 Learners draw a series of annotated diagrams, or annotate prepared
diagrams. (I) (Basic)
 Learners construct a table of differences between mitosis and meiosis or sort
a set of statements into comparative statements, into two columns. (I) (Basic)
(Challenging)
16.1.e  Learners recall their understanding of a gene and an allele. Emphasise the Online
explain how crossing over and importance of using the terms in the correct context. (W) (Basic) http://www.biologymad.com/CellDivisi
random assortment of homologous  Use the pipe cleaner models of a homologous pair (label ‘A’ on each on/CellDivision.htm
chromosomes during meiosis and chromatid of one homologue and label ‘a’ on each chromatid of the other) to www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/tut
random fusion of gametes at explain how reduction division separates the two alleles of a gene. orials/meiosis/page3.html
V3.1 103
fertilisation lead to genetic variation o Mention how this creates variation when gametes fuse randomly at http://www.biologyinmotion.com/cell_
including the expression of rare, fertilisation. division/index.html
recessive alleles o Discuss how this allows rare recessive alleles to come together. (W) http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcont
(Basic) ent/animations/content/meiosis.html

n
Key concepts Choose two different organisms, e.g. fruit fly (n=4) and humans. Using 2 , http://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis.ht
Cells as the units of life, learners work out how many different types of gamete could be formed with m
DNA, the molecule of heredity two homologous pairs assorting randomly and independently at metaphase I http://www.biozone.co.uk/biolinks/GE
of meiosis. (I) (Challenging) NETICS.html#Inheritance
 Make a pipe cleaner / string model for a second homologous pair using ‘B’s http://www.contexo.info/DNA_Basics/
and ‘b’s. Learners show how random assortment in one cell can produce AB Meiosis.htm
and ab gametes, and in another Ab and aB gametes. http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcont
o Using this example, learners explain how random fusion contributes to ent/animations/content/independenta
variation. ssortment.html
o Learners draw annotated diagrams to illustrate the concepts. (W)
 Add labels (‘alleles’) ‘D’ to the homologue with ‘A’ genes, and ‘d’ to the Paper 43, June 2011, Q7 (b)
homologue with ‘a’ genes. Explain that if the genes are on the same
chromosome, they are said to be linked.
o Demonstrate crossing over to show how this can lead to even more
variation in the gametes (AD, ad = parental: Ad, aD = recombinant).
o Explain that the longer the chromosome pair, the greater the number of
possible crossovers.
o Learners draw annotated diagrams to illustrate the concept. (W)
(Challenging)
 Learners give written and diagrammatic descriptions of random assortment,
crossing over and random fusion, explaining how each of these leads to
genetic variation. (F)
Note
 Explain that homologous pairs assort randomly at metaphase I and this
means they are assorting independently of other homologous pairs.
V3.1 104
16.2.a (ii) Only part of this learning objective is included here: explain the terms Online
explain the terms gene, locus, codominant, linkage, test cross, F1 and F2 http://www.biology.arizona.edu/vocab
allele, dominant, recessive,  Using the pipe cleaner / string models, discuss the meaning of the term ulary/mendelian_genetics/mendelian
codominant, linkage, test cross, codominant. (W) (Basic) _genetics.html
F1 and F2, phenotype, genotype,  Remind learners of a simple monohybrid cross from previous studies and http://www.genome.gov/glossary/inde
homozygous and heterozygous using the terms already discussed show what is meant by F1 and F2. Briefly x.cfm?id=8
explain a test cross for learners to define. (W) (I) (Basic)
Key concepts  Learners match a set of cards with terms from 16.2.a to a second set with all Textbooks/Publications
Biochemical processes, the definitions. (F) Bio Factsheet 156: Dominant and
DNA, the molecule of heredity Recessive Alleles.
Note Bio Factsheet 45: Gene expression
 These definitions are best understood when tackling 16.2.b.
 A full explanation of test cross should be reserved for later.
V3.1 105
16.2.b  Using resources, learners write out what is meant by a monohybrid cross and Online
use genetic diagrams to solve a dihybrid cross, and explain what is meant by true (or pure) breeding, http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content
problems involving monohybrid and multiple alleles, pedigree diagrams, autosomal chromosome and sex /inheritance/
dihybrid crosses, including those chromosome. (I) (Basic) http://www.dnaftb.org
involving autosomal linkage, sex  Monohybrid cross: using a visual (photographs/drawings) simple example http://www.biology.arizona.edu/mend
linkage, codominance, multiple (e.g. purple and white flowers in pea plants), demonstrate how to set out a elian_genetics/mendelian_genetics.h
alleles and gene interactions (the genetic diagram (circles should be drawn around the gametes). tml
term epistasis does not need to be o Learners explain why they can be certain of the genotype if a pea plant http://faculty.baruch.cuny.edu/jwahler
used; knowledge of the expected has white flowers. t/bio1003/genetics.html
ratio for various types of epistasis is o Explain test crosses. (W) (Basic) http://www.utilitypoultry.co.uk/sexlink
not required. The focus is on problem o Learners work though one problem themselves and peer-check the quality age.shtml
solving) of the genetic diagrams. (I) (Basic) http://udel.edu/~mcdonald/mythintro.
 Learners construct genetic diagrams, working through monohybrid cross html
Key concepts problems, including pedigree diagrams. Learners also performing test http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcont
DNA, the molecule of heredity, crosses. (P) (I) (F) (Basic) (Challenging) ent/animations/content/mendel/mend
Organisms in their environment,  Codominance: describe an example of codominance and the convention to el.html
Observation and experiment represent this (alleles as superscripts). Many examples involve a ‘colour’ http://www.learnerstv.com/animation/
gene: ensure learners know that C is for colour, not codominance. animation.php?ani=2&cat=Biology
o Go through the different ratios obtained and ask learners to explain why
no test cross is required. (W) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
o Learners work through some codominance problems (monohybrid Bio Factsheet 23: Genetics made
crosses). (I) (Basic) (Challenging) simple: I
 Multiple alleles: as an example, discuss the inheritance of human blood Bio Factsheet 97: A guide to sex
groups (ABO system) to illustrate multiple alleles, dominance, recessiveness linkage
and codominance before learners work through problems. (W) (I) Bio Factsheet 93: The ABO Blood
(Challenging) (Basic) Group System
 Sex linkage: describe the largely non-homologous X and Y chromosomes to Bio Factsheet 183: Variations from
explain why the male genotype has only one allele for genes located on sex expected Mendelian Monohybrid
chromosomes. Ratios.
o Using an example of a sex-linked trait, e.g. eye colour in Drosophila, Bio Factsheet 115: Answering
explain how to annotate the allele symbol as a superscript by the X (Y
- Examination Questions: Genetics
shows that the allele is absent in the Y chromosome). (W) (Basic)
o Learners write down the possible genotypes for this trait, then tackle a Past Papers
monohybrid cross problem, covering the reciprocal cross. (I) (Basic) Paper 43, June 2011, Q9 (b)
o Emphasise that not all problems indicating numbers of individuals of each Paper 41, June 2012, Q7
V3.1 106
sex, or stating ‘female crossed with male’ will be sex-linked inheritance.

(W) (Basic)
o Learners state and explain the pattern of inheritance associated with sex-
linkage and then practise questions. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners model using pipe cleaners / string, or draw diagrams, to show how a
written genetic cross correlates to events occurring at meiosis and fertilisation.
(P) (I) (Challenging)
 Dihybrid cross: explain that these involve two genes located on non-
homologous chromosomes (unlinked / separate linkage groups). Work
through a dihybrid cross, e.g. Mendel’s pea plants, showing how to write out
genotypes e.g. AaBb and not ABab. (W) (Basic)
o Learners work out the possible gametes from crossing the double
heterozygotes. Guide learners how to construct a Punnett square and
complete it correctly before they work out the phenotypic ratio (explain
that 9:3:3:1 still fits the 3:1 monohybrid crosses ratio: each gene shows a
12:4 ratio). Learners work through a test cross. (W) (I) (Challenging)
 Linkage: remind learners of the concept of linkage and of crossing over
(16.1.e)): two linked genes involve only one homologous chromosome pair.
Using a model or diagrams, explain how linked genes could result in both
parental and recombinant types in the gametes and offspring, but not in the
standard Mendelian ratios.
o Discuss why genes close together will produce few, if any, recombinant
types (the further apart the greater proportion of recombinant to parental
types). (W) (Challenging)
 Learners tackle a range of differentiated questions involving two genes. (I)
(F) (Basic) (Challenging)
Note
 The terms backcross and incomplete dominance are no longer used.
 There are two approaches: (i) cover the theory of the learning objective, then
learners work on genetics problems or (ii) have a set of problems prepared for
each type of cross and learners practise these as they are taught.
 Some human genetic traits used as examples in schools are now known to be
more complex than at first thought, Learners should be discouraged from
analysing patterns of inheritance in their family.
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16.2.c  This learning objective is covered in 16.2.b. Online

use genetic diagrams to solve  Consolidate by agreeing that a test cross should be performed to find out the http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content
problems involving test crosses genotype of an organism that is known to have a dominant trait but could be /inheritance/
homozygous dominant or heterozygous. (W) (Basic) http://www.dnaftb.org
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity, Note
Observation and experiment Learners should appreciate the advantage of carrying out test crosses in terms
of the ratios between the phenotypic classes when compared to a cross
involving two heterozygotes.
16.2.d  Revise different ratios obtained with the different types of genetic cross, Online
use the chi-squared test to test the emphasising that these are theoretical (based on probability) ratios. http://www.blc.arizona.edu/courses/m
significance of differences between o Learners mentally calculate expected numbers from totals e.g. with 40 cb422/MendelStarFolder/merChiSqu
observed and expected results (the offspring, how many of each if expecting a 3:1 ratio? (W) (Basic) are.html
formula for the chi-squared test will  Approach the concept using observed results: learners suggest and justify the
be provided) (see Mathematical type of genetic cross when given actual genotype numbers, e.g. Textbooks/Publications
requirements) codominance, for a ratio of 32 red, 26 pink, 10 white flowers (ratio Bio Factsheet 79: The chi-squared
approximating 1:2:1). (W) (Basic) test for goodness of fit.
Key concepts o Learners debate a result of: 15 red, 20 pink, 13 white. Agree that a
Observation and experiment statistical test is needed to compare the observed ratio to the expected: Past papers
near enough for differences to be due to chance effects or so different that Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q1
other factors should be considered. (W) (Challenging) Paper 51, Nov 2011, Q2
 Practical booklet 11. Work through, with guidance (if not covered in 18.1.e, Paper 53, Nov 2011, Q2
in the context of field study), examples of the use of the chi-squared test. (I)
(Basic)
 Learners use a calculated chi-squared value to:
o State the critical value at a stated probability level.
o State where the chi-squared value fits in the range of probabilities.
o Make a conclusion, referring to a null hypothesis and significance level. (I)
 Learners use results from a genetic cross (increasing difficulty)to:
o Practise the calculations involved in the chi-squared test
o Interpret the results to write a valid conclusion about the nature of the
genetic cross. (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Note
 See also the syllabus section, Mathematical requirements.
V3.1 108
 Learners should be able to:

o Identify the situations where the use of the test is applicable
o Use the table of critical values and state the probability of obtaining their
results by chance.
 Learners should consider :
o The use of stating the actual probability value (p), which they can
calculate using software
o The probabilities of 0.05 and 0.01 (often used to report results).
17.1.a  Explain that biological variation describes the variation within a population Online
describe the differences between (members of the same species). http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowl
continuous and discontinuous o Learners suggest examples of variation that is: inherited / genetic; not edge/library/mutations-are-the-raw-
variation and explain the genetic inherited / environmental; likely to be due to both genetic and materials-of-evolution-17395346
basis of continuous (many, additive environmental sources. http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicp
genes control a characteristic) and o Explain the equation Vp = Vg +Ve, (no need to learn) and use an example age/genomics-enables-scientists-to-
discontinuous variation (one or few (e.g. blood groups) to show Ve = 0 when a trait is due only to genetic study-genetic-variability-6526364
genes control a characteristic) effects. http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebit
(examples from 16.2.f) may be used o Discuss the use of monozygotic twins, (Vg = 0), to study the effects of the esize/science/edexcel_pre_2011/gen
to illustrate discontinuous variation; environment on variation. (W) (Basic) es/genesrev1.shtml
height and mass may be used as  Learners produce a list of causes of genetic variation for sexually reproducing
examples of continuous variation) organisms and for asexually reproducing organisms (i.e. only mutation), as Textbooks/Publications
well as causes of environmental variation (disease, edaphic factors, climate, Bio Factsheet 50: Sources of genetic
Key concepts water availability, etc.). (I) (Challenging) variation
DNA, the molecule of heredity,  Using resources, learners define discontinuous variation (include a bar chart)
Natural selection, and continuous variation (include a histogram), and give examples. (I) (Basic)
Organisms in their environment o Learners consider a trait that has a genetic basis and describe what is
likely to be occurring to if the variation is (i) discontinuous (one/two
genes), and (ii) continuous (polygenic, environmental effects may also
contribute). (I) (Challenging)
17.1.c  Explain the situations where the t-test would be applicable and work through Practical booklet 10
use the t-test to compare the an example. (W) (Basic)
variation of two different populations  Learners work through a number of examples, stating a null hypothesis and Online
(see Mathematical requirements) using a table of critical values to state the probability of obtaining the result. http://www.theseashore.org.uk/these
(W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) ashore/Stats%20for%20twits/T%20T
V3.1 109
Key concepts  Learners choose from a list of outlines of investigations those for which the t- est.html
Observation and experiment test could be used. (F) http://archive.bio.ed.ac.uk/jdeacon/st
atistics/tress4a.html
Note
 There is information about this test in the syllabus (Mathematical requirements Textbooks/Publications
section). Bio Factsheet 3: Which stats test
 Practical booklet 10 gives learners the opportunity to use the t-test on data should I use?
that they have collected themselves
Past papers
17.1.b  Learners recall the difference between genotype and phenotype and describe Online
explain, with examples, how the the flow of information from DNA to the phenotype. (W) (Basic) http://www.flowersbulbs.com/ql_hydr
environment may affect the  Explain that the term ‘environment’ encompasses everything that is not angea_color.htm
phenotype of plants and animals considered genetic. (W) (Basic) http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicp
 Learners research examples that they are given and provide explanations for age/environmental-influences-on-
Key concepts the observations. (I) (Basic) (Challenging) gene-expression-536
DNA, the molecule of heredity,  Learners research further examples and report back to the class. (H) (Basic) http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicp
Organisms in their environment age/phenotypic-range-of-gene-
expression-environmental-influence-
581
http://www.nature.com/scitable/conte
nt/gene-environment-interactions-
from-epidemiological-studies-33011
http://www.newscientist.com/article/d
n1520-iq-is-inherited-suggests-twin-
study.html
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicp
age/the-collective-set-of-alleles-in-a-
6385985
16.2.e  Use questioning to gauge knowledge of DNA structure, the definition of a Online
explain that gene mutation occurs by gene mutation, protein synthesis and protein structure. (W) (Basic) http://www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/27/conc
substitution, deletion and insertion of  Outline the changes that occur to give base substitution, deletion and insertion ept/index.html
base pairs in DNA and outline how mutations. Point out how frameshift mutations arise. Learners can produce http://www.who.int/genomics/public/g
V3.1 110
such mutations may affect the summary notes. (W) (Basic) eneticdiseases/en/index2.html
phenotype o Learners research and give an account of how a base substitution in the http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
A S
Hb allele to produce the Hb allele leads to the altered amino acid in net/BiologyPages/M/Mutations.html
Key concepts sickle cell anaemia. (W) (Challenging)
Biochemical processes, o Learners work out the new amino acid sequences for examples of Textbooks/Publications
DNA, the molecule of heredity, insertion and deletion mutations and suggest how this could affect the Bio Factsheet 94: Gene Mutations
Natural selection protein synthesised (include examples leading to premature stop codons). Bio Factsheet 179: Answering Exam
(I) (Challenging) Questions: Mutation
 Discuss how it is possible that some changes in DNA nucleotide sequences
have no (e.g. same amino acid specified), or little (e.g. non-structural amino Past Papers
acid replaced) consequential effects while others have profound effects. (W) Paper 43, June 2011, Q9 (a)
(Challenging)
 Extension: learners research examples of gene mutations resulting in cystic
fibrosis (differing severities). (W) (Challenging)
Note
 Focus on gene mutation, but alert learners to the existence of chromosomal
mutations (sections of chromosomes/many genes and chromosome number).
16.2.f  Learners construct a flow chart to show how a gene mutation can lead to Online
outline the effects of mutant alleles symptoms of sickle cell anaemia. (I) (Challenging) http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-
on the phenotype in the following  Learners research one other condition from the list then work with others (that level/biology/evolution/revise-
human conditions: albinism, sickle have covered the same condition) to produce an information sheet to present it/evolution-in-action
cell anaemia, haemophilia and to the class to use as notes. (W) (G) (H) (Basic) (Challenging) Notes on sickle cell anaemia.
Huntington’s disease
Key concepts Bio Factsheet 110: Genetic Disease
DNA, the molecule of heredity, in Humans.
16.2.g  Provide information about the role of tyrosinase. Learners produce an Online
explain the relationship between annotated flow diagram to illustrate the relationship between the gene, the http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/TYR
genes, enzymes and phenotype with enzyme and the phenotype. (I) (Challenging)
respect to the gene for tyrosinase
that is involved with the production of
melanin
V3.1 111
Key concepts
17.1.d  Discuss how named examples of animals, plants and bacteria with different Online
explain why genetic variation is genotypes and hence phenotypes (e.g. bacteria and antibiotic resistance) may http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content
important in selection differ in their chances of survival or in their reproductive capacity. (W) (Basic) /variation/sources/
 Learners suggest why ‘more likely to survive to reproduce’ is more important http://darwiniana.org/evolution.htm
Key concepts for the species than ‘more likely to survive’ (idea of passing on genetic http://www.eoearth.org/article/Geneti
Natural selection information. (W) (Basic) c_variation
 Learners debate the advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual http://www.wellcometreeoflife.org/
reproduction. (G) (Basic)
Past Papers
Note Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q2 (c)
Learners should have an outline of selection – covered in detail later.
17.2.a  Introduce the idea that organisms have high reproductive potential and given Online
explain that natural selection occurs ideal conditions, exponential or explosive population growth occurs (starting http://www.bbsrc.ac.uk/web/FILES/E
as populations have the capacity to with a few individuals). xhibitions/pod1-factsheet.pdf
produce many offspring that compete o Describe examples of ideal conditions and for each ask learners to http://www.biologycorner.com/worksh
for resources; in the ‘struggle for suggest phenotypes (and hence genotypes) that are more likely to survive eets/peppermoth_paper.html
existence’ only the individuals that (introduce the term differential survival) if ideal conditions are not http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
are best adapted survive to breed maintained. net/BiologyPages/P/Populations2.ht
and pass on their alleles to the next o Remind learners of variation within a population and explain that some ml
generation organisms are better adapted to survive when selection pressures act to http://www.eoearth.org/article/Popula
control population size (most populations oscillate about a mean size). tion_ecology
Key concepts o Explain that individuals that are better adapted to survive are said to be http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/lib
Natural selection fitter than those who do not have the adaptations. (W) (Basic) rary/01/2/l_012_02.html
 Learners list examples of selection pressures and describe phenotypes that www.biologyinmotion.com/evol/
are selected for and those selected against. (I) (Basic) http://anthro.palomar.edu/synthetic/s
 Learners summarise discussions with bullet-point notes and complete the idea ynth_4.htm
of natural selection with the following points:
o Individuals selected for pass on their alleles to their offspring when they Past Papers
reproduce (differential reproduction) Paper 43, June 2011, Q8
o The frequency of the allele in the population increases. (I) (Challenging)
V3.1 112
 Explain that a gene pool describes the sum of all alleles for all the genes in a
population. (W) (Basic)
 Explain that most mutations are not beneficial. Learners complete a
worksheet (prepared by you) describing and explaining changes to allele
frequencies / the gene pool following mutation: (a) if the mutation is not
beneficial and is a (i) dominant allele and (ii) recessive allele; (b) if
environmental factors change and the mutation becomes beneficial. (F)
 Learners research examples of natural selection and produce a summary
table: example, different phenotypes involved, selection pressure(s) involved,
adaptation possessed, and additional notes.
o Suggestions: warfarin resistance in rats; melanism in peppered moths;
cyanogenic clover; antibiotic resistance in bacteria; resistance in insects to
insecticides. (H) (Challenging)
 Learners choose one example from the summary table and write a sequential
account to explain how allele frequencies within a population can change. (F)
Note
 Avoid using the phrase ‘survival of the fittest’ (different phenotypes can be
equally fit).
 Background: take some time to discuss the work of Charles Darwin and Alfred
Russel Wallace.
 An understanding of abiotic and biotic limiting factors and of density-
dependent and density-independent factors will be beneficial.
17.2.b  Explain that in most cases the environment remains relatively stable and so Online
explain, with examples, how the same phenotype has a selective advantage in each generation. http://www.eoearth.org/article/Evoluti
environmental factors can act as  Discuss how the environment acts as a stabilising force of natural selection, on?topic=49508
stabilising, disruptive and directional so that selection pressures act to remove the extremes of the phenotype (e.g. http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ri
forces of natural selection birth weight in human babies). dley/a-z/Stabilizing_selection.asp
 Discuss the other two modes of selection: directional, where allele frequencies http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
Key concepts change in one direction (e.g. drug resistance in bacteria) and disruptive, v313/n5997/abs/313047a0.html
Natural selection, where the extremes of the phenotype are favoured (e.g. size of male Pacific
Organisms in their environment salmon). (W) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
 Learners draw annotated graphs for each of stabilising, directional and Bio Factsheet 44: Evolution.
disruptive selection to show the frequency of phenotypes ‘before’, ‘during’ and Also useful for 17.3c).
‘after’ a period of time when selection occurred. (I) (Basic)
V3.1 113
 Learners research and describe one further example for each of the three Past Papers
types. (H) (Challenging) Paper 42, June 2012, Q1 (a)
Paper 42, June 2013, Q8 (b)
17.2.c  Learners should consider how natural selection can affect the level of genetic Online
explain how selection, the founder variation for any one heritable trait. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/lib
effect and genetic drift may affect o Use an example (e.g. melanism in Biston betularia) to discuss how a rary/06/3/l_063_03.html
allele frequencies in populations different set of selection pressures in a different environment affects allele http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowl
frequencies and leads to different outcomes for the population. (W) edge/library/natural-selection-
Key concepts (Basic) genetic-drift-and-gene-flow-
Natural selection  Learners research the link between sickle cell anaemia and malaria to 15186648
describe and explain the differences in allele frequencies between areas free http://biology4.wustl.edu/cloverprojec
of malaria and areas where malaria is endemic. (H) (Challenging) t/Assets/White%20Clover%20Backgr
 Learners use beads to model the effect on allele frequency in a population by ound%20for%20Teachers.pdf
differential survival of two different genotypes for one gene. http://evolution-
o Place a large (known) number of beads of two different colours (alleles) in textbook.org/content/free/notes/ch18
a container (the population). Decide on a percentage survival rate for the _WN18Dc.html
homozygous recessive genotype, e.g. 60%. http://sickle.bwh.harvard.edu/malaria
o Pick out pairs of beads at random, discarding four out of every ten pairs of _sickle.html
recessive beads. When all beads have been used, only replace the ones http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrar
which 'survived' (not discarded) and repeat for the next generation. y/home.php
o Record numbers of each genotype in each generation and construct
graphs to show the effect of selection over time. (G) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
 Introduce Darwin’s finches and outline the main points of the founder effect for Bio Factsheet 191: What have we
learners to summarise. (W) (I) (Challenging) learned from Darwin’s finches?
 Explain that genetic drift involves chance effects, known as sampling errors,
where the allele frequencies of a small founding (ancestor) group are unlikely
to be representative of the larger main population (the smaller the population
the greater the likely effect).
o Exemplify the concept using Darwin’s finches. (W) (Basic)
 Learners suggest the similarities and differences between natural selection
and genetic drift and then engage in class discussion. (W) (P) (Basic)
(Challenging)
o Similarities: both involve changes in allele frequency and can contribute to
change (evolution).
V3.1 114
o Differences: natural selection is a directed process, genetic drift is not;

only natural selection involves adaptations; with natural selection the
frequency of the ‘advantageous’ allele increases whereas with genetic
drift, allele frequencies change by chance/sampling error (the frequency of
a ‘disadvantageous’ allele could increase). (W) (G) (Challenging)
17.2.d  Explain that Hardy and Weinberg considered the behaviour of genes in Online
use the Hardy-Weinberg principle to idealised populations. http://anthro.palomar.edu/synthetic/s
calculate allele, genotype and o Work through an example to show how allele frequencies can be used to ynth_2.htm
phenotype frequencies in populations calculate genotype frequencies and how genotype frequencies can be http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
and explain situations when this used to calculate allele frequencies. (W) (Basic) net/BiologyPages/H/Hardy_Weinberg
principle does not apply o Learners work through simple examples using the Hardy-Weinberg .html
equation and make notes. (I) (Basic) http://highered.mcgraw-
Key concepts  Learners use an example where the number of individuals with the recessive hill.com/sites/0767424263/student_vi
Natural selection, trait is known to calculate the proportion, and hence number of, heterozygotes ew0/chapter4/the_hardy-
Observation and experiment in a population. (W) (Challenging) weinberg_equilibrium.html#
 Learners make notes to: http://www.wwnorton.com/college/bio
o Explain the differences between allele frequencies, genotype frequencies logy/discoverbio3/core/content/ch17/
and phenotype frequencies. animations.asp
o Explain the conditions that need to be met for the Hardy-Weinberg http://www.perinatology.com/calculat
principle to apply. (I) (Challenging) ors/Hardy-Weinberg.htm
 Learners suggest reasons why an unchanging allele frequency from one
generation to the next is rarely encountered in nature (non-random breeding; Textbooks/Publications
not all individuals produce offspring; not a static population as there is Bio Factsheet 211: Hardy Weinberg
emigration/immigration; selection occurs; mutation occurs). and population genetics.
o Discuss how these frequencies would change if mutations occurred (e.g.
harmful recessive mutations; heterozygote advantage etc.), so that
learners appreciate the potential for change by evolution. (W) (Basic)
 Explain to learners that the Hardy-Weinberg equations can be used to
determine frequencies for ‘at this moment in time’ occurrences.
o Learners use an example, e.g. the incidence of cystic fibrosis to calculate
the allele frequencies and work out the carrier frequency (the
heterozygotes) in the population. (I) (Challenging)
17.3.a  17.3.c) includes the idea that species have formed from pre-existing species. Online
V3.1 115
state the general theory of evolution Discuss the ideas of ‘change over time’ and of common descent - there is http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrar
that organisms have changed over overwhelming evidence to suggest that all life is related. (W) (Basic) y/article/evo_47
time  Learners research examples of evolution to outline how change over time has
occurred. (H) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts o A class discussion will help learners appreciate that the pace of change Jones, Fosbery, Taylor, Gregory,
Natural selection can be different for different examples. pages
253-254 (2007), or pages 374-375
(2013), includes the Darwin-Wallace
theory and a discussion about
speciation.
17.3.b  Learners suggest the type of evidence used to determine whether organisms Online
discuss the molecular evidence that were closely related (i.e. comparative morphology and anatomy, fossils, http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrar
reveals similarities between closely classification and embryology). (W) (Basic) y/news/100501_xwoman
related organisms with reference to o Explain how the continually improving techniques to obtain DNA http://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/04
mitochondrial DNA and protein base/nucleotide sequences and protein amino acid sequences (e.g. rapid 71393878/instructor/activities/phylog
sequence data sequencing) has provided databases to improve understanding of enetic_trees/index.html
relationships. (W) (Challenging) http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/les
Key concepts  Explain that evolutionary related proteins that belong in a group (protein sons/molb.ws.pdf
Biochemical processes, family) can be most usefully compared between organisms. (W) (Basic)
DNA, the molecule of heredity,  Introduce the use of a single letter code for the amino acids before learners Past papers
Natural selection analyse (in terms of closely related organisms) sequence data of a number of Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q2
organisms (e.g. for cytochrome C). (I) (Challenging)
 With prompting, learners suggest how mitochondrial DNA differs from nuclear
DNA (inherited only from the mother; doesn’t swap genetic material with
paternal mitochondrial DNA and higher mutation rate).
o Discuss the usefulness, in terms of close relationships, of databases for
comparing mitochondrial DNA sequences of different organisms. (W) (I)
(Challenging)
Note
 This has close links to 19.2.a) and bioinformatics.
 Learners should understand that there are freely accessible databases
available to researchers.
17.3.c  Review learner understanding of the terms species and gene pool by a Online
V3.1 116
explain how speciation may occur as question and answer session. (W) (Basic) http://people.rit.edu/rhrsbi/Galapagos
a result of geographical separation  Define speciation. Pages/DarwinFinch.html
(allopatric speciation), and ecological o Discuss the importance in speciation of (i) reproductive isolation and (ii) http://www98.homepage.villanova.ed
and behavioural separation natural selection acting within a population in different ways on different u/robert.curry/Nesomimus/index.html
(sympatric speciation) groups. (W) (Basic) http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases
 Give examples (e.g. separating land masses millions of years ago and road /2011/10/111003080523.htm
Key concepts laying dividing up forests) illustrating ways that sub-populations are formed by http://www.the-
Natural selection, geographical separation and brainstorm other examples. (W) (Basic) scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/
Observation and experiment o Discuss how the different abilities of organisms to move from one area to 23704/title/Evidence-for-sympatric-
another are an important factor in the formation of new species. speciation/
o Remind learners that the process of allopatric speciation requires that the http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicp
populations remain separated and interbreeding is prevented. (W) (Basic) age/polyploidy-1552814
 Learners research one or two examples and use these to explain what is http://www.evolutionsbiologie.uni-
meant by allopatric speciation. (I) (Basic) konstanz.de/pdf1-182/P089.pdf
 Extension: learners research how the observations made of the four species http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrar
of mockingbirds in the Galapagos Islands are believed to have had a large y/news/090301_cichlidspeciation
influence on Darwin’s development of the concept of natural selection. (H)
(Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
 Introduce the idea of sympatric speciation: occurring within the same Bio Factsheet 142: Modern
geographic area by reducing gene flow between groups of the same Examples of Evolution in Action
population. Bio Factsheet 92: Isolation
o State that two of the many ways to do this is by ecological separation and Mechanisms
by behavioural separation and ask learners to suggest what this means or
to volunteer examples. (W) (Basic) Past Papers
o Learners research one example of each to explain the principles involved Paper 41, June 2011, Q8 (c)
and share their findings with the group. (W) (I) (Challenging) Paper 41, June 2012, Q1
 Learners research the evolution of cichlid fish in the great lakes of Africa, e.g.
Lake Victoria, and present arguments as to whether speciation has occurred
by allopatric speciation, sympatric speciation, or both. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners continue their work on Darwin’s finches and the founder effect to
explain how speciation has occurred by both allopatric and sympatric
speciation. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners write a paragraph comparing allopatric and sympatric speciation. (F)
17.3.d  Remind learners that isolating mechanisms provide a barrier to gene flow and Online
V3.1 117
explain the role of pre-zygotic and when successful interbreeding no longer occurs a new species is considered http://www.biologyaspoetry.com/term
post-zygotic isolating mechanisms in to have been formed. (W) (Basic) s/postzygotic_barrier.html
the evolution of new species  Learners write out definitions of the two types of reproductive isolating
mechanisms and then decide whether the examples from 17.3.c are pre- Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts zygotic or post-zygotic. (I) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 92: Isolation
Natural selection  Post-zygotic isolating mechanisms may need further discussion and summary Mechanisms
with individual notes.
o Discuss what is meant by a hybrid (hybridisation from 17.2.f is a different Past papers
context). Explain that generally a hybrid dies as an embryo or is sterile if it Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q2 (c)
survives, so a sub-population on the verge of becoming a separate
species is unlikely with interbreeding to incorporate back into the main
population – the gene pools are sufficiently different.
o Explain that hybrids that manage to produce fertile offspring tend to be
less fit than others and with natural selection will die out. (W) (I)
(Challenging)
 Provide descriptive examples of speciation on separate cards for learners to
produce two piles, pre-zygotic or post-zygotic and then compare with a
partner. (P) (I) (Basic)
 Learners produce a written outline of the overall role of isolating mechanisms
in speciation and then describe, using examples, the contribution of pre-
zygotic and post-zygotic isolating mechanisms.
o The account should highlight the differences between the two. A word list
or a hints sheet could be provided. (F)
17.2.e  Explain that in selective breeding, humans have applied knowledge of natural Online
describe how selective breeding selection to make ‘improvements’. (W) (Basic) http://www.ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/f
(artificial selection) has been used to  Discuss why selective breeding to improve the milk yield of dairy cattle must ulldocs/SmHDairy/chap5.html#Dairy
improve the milk yield of dairy cattle take place over several generations. (W) (Basic) %20cattle
o Learners suggest main stages involved in the selective breeding http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/
Key concepts programme, before presenting ideas to the group. (W) (G) (Basic) content/360/1459/1479.full#abstract-
Natural selection, o Learners research details, guided by prompts such as: ‘Explain whether 1
Observation and experiment one or many genes are involved’; ‘State what needs to be considered for http://babcock.wisc.edu/node/182
improved milk yield’; ‘Describe other desirable features for the cattle http://www.petermaas.nl/extinct/articl
involved’. (H) (Challenging) es/selectivebreeding.htm
 Learners describe (e.g. in a table) the similarities and differences between
V3.1 118
selective breeding and natural selection. (F) Bio Factsheet 187: Selective
 Learners use data for milk yield of different generations in a selective breeding Breeding of Cattle
programme to carry out a statistical comparison (t-test). (I) (Challenging)
 Learners discuss the balance between improving features and maintaining Past Papers
genetic diversity. (G) (Challenging) Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q8
17.2.f  Continue the theme of 17.2.e with a discussion about the need to supply an Online
outline the following examples of increasing global population and the improvement of crop plants. http://archaeology.about.com/od/dom
crop improvement by selective o Learners suggest the most important crop plants grown (the three most estications/qt/wheat.htm
breeding: important are maize wheat and rice – grain crops). http://www.dupont.com/corporate-
 the introduction of disease o Outline the difference between crop improvement by conventional means, functions/our-approach/global-
resistance to varieties of wheat selective breeding, and improvement by genetic modification. (W) (Basic) challenges/food.html
and rice  Learners may be able to name a disease to which wheat (e.g. stem rust) and http://irri.org/our-
 the incorporation of mutant alleles rice (e.g. sheath blight) are susceptible; discuss the need to breed crop plants work/research/better-rice-
for gibberellin synthesis into dwarf resistant to disease (e.g. disease lowers yield and some can leave harmful varieties/disease-and-pest-resistant-
varieties so increasing yield by toxins in the crop). rice
having a greater proportion of o Learners recall the steps involved in selective breeding and suggest http://www.lsuagcenter.com/en/crops
energy put into grain desirable features, e.g. resistant to infection, maintaining resistance for a _livestock/crops/rice/Diseases/
 inbreeding and hybridisation to long time, localising infection to one area of the plant, resistance to toxin http://www.agprofessional.com/resou
produce vigorous, uniform accumulation, seed (kernel) resistance, able to produce a high yield when rce-centers/wheat/disease/news/Do-
varieties of maize infected. (W) (Challenging) disease-resistant-wheat-varieties-
o Learners research the steps involved in introducing disease resistance pay-a-price-in-yield-229754951.html
Key concepts into wheat or rice (cover one crop each and share notes). (P) (Basic) http://www.businessinsider.com/10-
Natural selection,  State that the presence of gibberellins leads to stem elongation and crops-that-feed-the-world-2011-
Observation and experiment explanations will be covered in Unit 11 (15.2.d, 16.3.d). 9?op=1
o Explain that the sd-1 gene encodes an enzyme (GA20-oxidase) involved
in the later stages of gibberellin biosynthesis. Past Papers
o Learners suggest an outcome if mutations in this gene occur (very low Paper 43, June 2011, Q4 (a)
levels of gibberellins resulting in dwarf varieties). Paper 41, Nov 2013, Q5
o Explain that some varieties of crops such as rice and barley have these
semi-dwarf / dwarf varieties. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners write definitions of inbreeding and hybridisation and explain what is
meant by inbreeding depression, outbreeding, and hybrid vigour. (I) (Basic)
o Discuss the difficulties in maize in achieving the balance between
homozygosity and heterozygosity. (W) (Basic)
V3.1 119
o Learners list the advantages and disadvantages of inbreeding and

outbreeding in maize. (I) (Challenging)
o Learners explain how selective breeding has produced homozygous
maize plants that can be crossed with other homozygous plants, to
produce hybrids with combinations of desirable features. (I) (Challenging)
 Extension: learners research the ‘Green Revolution’ and debate the
advantages and disadvantages of this. (W) (Basic)
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Unit 8: Molecular biology and gene technology

The structure of proteins and the structure of DNA from Unit 1 should be well understood. In addition, from Unit 3, learners should be familiar with semi-
conservative replication of DNA and understand the principles of transcription, the genetic code and translation in the synthesis of proteins. Knowledge from Unit 7
of gene expression, including an understanding of how some mutations affect gene expression is also required.
Context
This unit provides learners with the opportunity to consider some of the latest developments in biology and appreciate the key concept of observation and
experiment. In this unit, learners will see how humans can make use of living systems and organisms to benefit themselves, such as in the development of
genetically modified plants and in improvements in genetic screening, in the treatment of genetic disorders and advancements in forensic science. Knowledge and
understanding of biological facts, principles and concepts from previous units will help their understanding of the techniques applied.
Outline
The lac operon is studied as an example of gene regulation and control in eukaryotes is touched upon with a discussion of the role of transcription factors. The
study of gene expression with the use of microarrays is covered. Recombinant DNA is explained and steps involved in genetic engineering are covered, including
the use of enzymes, plasmids, markers and control sequences, including promoters. Two main applications of genetic engineering, the production of proteins of
medical importance and the production of genetically modified crops and livestock are studied. Gel electrophoresis and the amplification of DNA by the polymerase
chain reaction are two techniques that are described and an application of these is considered with an outline of the technique associated with genetic
fingerprinting. Learners see that the pace of development of genetic technology can be partly attributed to bioinformatics. Other aspects of genetic technology that
are covered are the sequencing of genomes, screening for genetic conditions and gene therapy. The unit also includes a discussion on the social and ethical issues
and implications of genetic technology.
Teaching time
V3.1 121
16.3.b  Learners complete a short written test (prepared by you, with mark scheme) to Online
explain genetic control of protein remind them of previous knowledge and help understanding of this unit. http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcont
production in a prokaryote using the o Include relevant questions on: prokaryote structure (including plasmids ent/animations/content/lacoperon.ht
lac operon and genes for antibiotic resistance); definition of a gene; DNA structure ml
and replication; protein synthesis. (F) http://highered.mcgraw-
Key concepts o Go through the answers before proceeding. (W) (Basic) hill.com/sites/0072556781/student_vi
Biochemical processes,  Explain that in protein synthesis, gene expression describes the whole ew0/chapter12/animation_quiz_4.htm
DNA, the molecule of heredity process where DNA is transcribed to produce mRNA, which is translated to l
produce polypeptides (that form proteins). http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
o Discuss the need to control gene expression, as all genes cannot be net/BiologyPages/L/LacOperon.html
switched on at any one time. (W) (Basic)
 Explain the concept of an operon, then display a diagram of the arrangement Textbooks/Publications
in the lac operon and describe the gene products of gene Z and gene Y. Bio Factsheet 45: Gene Expression
o Discuss the roles of lactose permease and -galactosidase in lactose
uptake and metabolism, encouraging learners to contribute using AS
Level knowledge. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners participate in a group demonstration using a large model set-up.
o Sheets of coloured paper stuck together represent the operon (promoter,
operator, genes Z, Y and A); the operator gene has a shape cut out,
complementary to the shape of the repressor protein; a separate sheet of
paper represents the regulatory gene (located elsewhere on the genome);
use different shapes for each of glucose, lactose, RNA polymerase and
repressor protein.
o Discuss each gene and then place on top of them cards with their labels
(remove to test learners).
o Involve learners to describe the state of the operon when: no lactose is
present and glucose is present; when no glucose is present and lactose is
present. (W) (Challenging)
o Repeat, but this time allow learners to take charge and share out the
demonstration. (W) (I) (Challenging)
 Learners annotate a set of diagrams and give explanations. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners complete a gap-filling exercise that serves as their notes. (I) (Basic)
 Learners sort out a set of statements to show the sequence of events
occurring (F)
V3.1 122
Note
 The lac operon of Escherichia coli was the first example of genetic control
discovered and investigated.
 Details of cAMP and the catabolite activator protein are not required.
16.3.a  Learners make notes on the differences between: structural and regulatory Online
distinguish between structural and genes; repressible and inducible enzymes. (I) (Basic) http://textbookofbacteriology.net/regu
regulatory genes and between o Learners also explain that a repressor protein is the product of a lation.html
repressible and inducible enzymes regulatory gene. http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcont
o Learners determine whether the enzyme products of the lac operon ent/animations/content/lacoperon.ht
Key concepts structural genes are repressible or inducible enzymes (they are inducible). ml
Biochemical processes, (I) (Basic) http://highered.mcgraw-
DNA, the molecule of heredity hill.com/sites/0072556781/student_vi
ew0/chapter12/animation_quiz_4.htm
l
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
net/BiologyPages/L/LacOperon.html
16.3.c  Explain that RNA polymerase in eukaryotic cells cannot initiate transcription Online
explain the function of transcription alone: binding of transcription factors (proteins) to the DNA and to each other http://biotech.about.com/od/proteinen
factors in gene expression in allow RNA polymerase to bind; others bind to the RNA polymerase (the whole gineering/f/transcriptfact.htm
eukaryotes complex is termed the transcription initiation complex). (W) (Basic)
o Learners draw annotated diagrams to visualise the function of
Key concepts transcription factors. (I) (Basic)
Biochemical processes,  Extension: learners investigate more detail of transcription factors, e.g. how
DNA, the molecule of heredity inactive transcription factors can be activated. (I) (Challenging)
19.1.i  Discuss how each cell of a multicellular organism contains the same genes, Online
explain, in outline, how microarrays but some will be inactive and there will be no gene expression (link back to http://www.bio.davidson.edu/courses/
are used in the analysis of genomes 16.3.b). genomics/chip/chip.html
and in detecting mRNA in studies of o Learners suggest why detection of mRNA is carried out to measure gene http://www.genome.gov/glossary/inde
gene expression activity. (W) (Basic) x.cfm?id=125
 Explain, step-by-step, the principles behind the use of microarrays, with http://www.web-
Key concepts learners making notes. books.com/MoBio/Free/Chap9.htm
DNA, the molecule of heredity, http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content
V3.1 123
Observation and experiment o Researchers can now access a database of nucleotide sequences (often /labs/microarray/
called ‘gene sequences’) for different genes.
o Multiple copies of the sequences are placed by robotic machines (micro-
scale process) into separate areas on a solid surface, e.g. glass slide.
o Using reverse transcriptase, cDNA is synthesised using fluorescent
nucleotides from the mRNA collected, indirectly ‘labelling’ the genes that
are most active.
o cDNA added to the microarray surface ‘hybridises’ (complementary copy)
with their particular gene sequence.
o The intensity of the fluorescent-coloured areas can be detected using
scanners and the most active genes identified. (W) (Challenging)
 Discuss a use of microarrays for learners to research further, e.g. comparing
gene activity of healthy and diseased cells.
o E.g. use red fluorescent nucleotides to ‘label’ the cDNA of a healthy cell,
use green for that of the tumour cell. A combined image of the two scans
will show red, green and yellow areas: red = genes from healthy cell
expressed more than tumour cell; green = genes from the tumour cell
expressed more; yellow = both cells expressing the genes equally. (W) (H)
(Challenging)
19.1.a  Remind learners that, in Unit 7, ‘recombination’ and ‘recombinant’ are terms Online
define the term recombinant DNA used in the context of crossing over and the production of genetically different http://higheredbcs.wiley.com/legacy/c
gametes and offspring. (W) (Basic) ollege/voet/0470129301/animated_fi
Key concepts  Explain that there are many definitions of recombinant DNA: learners need the gs/ch03/3-26.html
DNA, the molecule of heredity idea that novel DNA is formed by joining together DNA/genes from different
sources.
o Explain that DNA can be added to plasmids, hence the term ‘recombinant
plasmid’, and transferred from one organism to another, hence
‘recombinant host’. (W) (Basic)
 Learners write a definition, qualifying with reference to recombinant plasmids
and recombinant hosts. (I) (Basic)
V3.1 124
19.1.b  Remind learners that genes code for proteins and in genetic engineering the Online
explain that genetic engineering desired product is a protein. http://www.learner.org/interactives/dn
involves the extraction of genes from o Learners suggest why it is necessary to use another organism to produce a/engineering.html
one organism, or the synthesis of the protein. (W) (Basic) http://www.biology.arizona.edu/molec
genes, in order to place them in  Talk learners through the outline construction of a large flow diagram: brief ular_bio/problem_sets/Recombinant_
another organism (of the same or explanations for each step will help for 19.1.c, 19.1.e, 19.1.f, 19.1.g and DNA_Technology/recombinant_dna.
another species) such that the 19.1.h, when they can add further notes (see below). (W) (I) (Basic) html
receiving organism expresses the
extract (‘cut out’) from donor
gene product Textbooks/Publications
Obtain desired gene, e.g. from one of: synthesise from mRNA extracted from donor Bio Factsheet 13: Genetic
Key concepts synthesise using genetic code (known amino acid engineering
DNA, the molecule of heredity, sequence or partial sequence and use a cDNA library)
Observation and experiment Method to insert gene into host organism Past Papers
Gene expressed in host organism
Harvest desired protein product
 Learners suggest why mRNA is sometimes used to obtain the gene (many
more copies of the mRNA in the cell than the genes; a host bacterial cell
cannot cut out introns from the RNA transcripts of eukaryotic DNA). (W)
(Challenging)
 Introduce the idea that DNA libraries are now available. (W) (Basic)
 Explain that a vector (carrier) is frequently used (often a plasmid) to get the
desired gene into the host. (W) (Basic)
o Discuss when gene cloning occurs: producing many initial copies of the
desired gene and as the host cell replicates. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners revise 17.2.a and give an account of the similarities and differences
between genetic engineering and selective breeding. (H) (Challenging)
 Learners investigate what is meant by a cDNA library. (I) (Challenging)
Note
 19.1.b can be amalgamated with 19.1.h.
V3.1 125
19.1.h  Outline the role of restriction endonucleases and DNA ligases. Online
explain the roles of restriction o Explain how different endonucleases cleave at different, specific http://highered.mcgraw-
endonucleases, reverse transcriptase sequences to obtain blunt or ‘sticky’ / overlapping ends. hill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=
and ligases in genetic engineering o Learners add the enzymes to their main flow-chart from 19.1.b and swf::535::535::/sites/dl/free/00724373
annotate. (W) (Basic) 16/120078/bio37.swf::Restriction%20
Key concepts  Provide learners with details of different restriction endonucleases. On Endonucleases
Biochemical processes, nucleotide sequence diagrams, learners indicate the cleavage sites and state http://www.geogene.com/genetic-
Observation and experiment whether blunt or sticky ends are produced and the number of fragments eng-basics.html
formed. (P) (I) (Challenging)
 Outline the role of reverse transcriptase. Past Papers
o Learners annotate their flow chart. Paper 42, June 2012, Q4 (a)(i)
o Explain where DNA polymerase would be required (amplifies the gene).
(W) (I) (Basic)
 Learners sequence a set of cards, each containing a single step involved in
genetic engineering. With a second set of cards containing more detail,
allocate these to the correct step. (F)
 Learners produce a summary table of names of enzymes involved in genetic
engineering and details of the reactions they catalyse. (H) (Basic)
 Extension: learners research the origins of these enzymes. (I) (Basic)
19.1.e  Discuss features of plasmids and ask learners to suggest advantages: found Online
describe the properties of plasmids in bacteria (will be taken up); small (easy to manipulate/easily taken up); http://www.addgene.org/mol_bio_refe
that allow them to be used in gene replicate semi-conservatively (identical copies); replicate independently within rence/plasmid_background/
cloning bacteria (so gene cloning occurs); can be removed from one bacterial species
and be taken up by another (greater flexibility); can be cut at specific locations
Key concepts by restriction endonucleases (for gene insertion). (W) (Challenging)
Cells as the units of life, o Learners add annotations in the relevant steps of their flow chart of 19.1.b.
DNA, the molecule of heredity, (I) (Basic)
Observation and experiment  Explain that once bacteria have taken up the plasmid, they are said to be
‘transformed’. (W) (Basic)
 Background: explain that plasmids are more easily taken using, for example,
electroporation or by using calcium ions and heat shock (the bacteria are said
to be ‘competent’). (W) (Basic)
Note
V3.1 126
 It is preferable to state that plasmids are taken up, rather than ‘placed in’
bacteria.
 Learners should appreciate that other organisms, such as yeasts, are useful
in genetic engineering, as they can carry plasmids.
19.1.f  Learners recall (16.3.b) that a promoter is a nucleotide sequence on the DNA Online
explain why promoters and other where RNA polymerase attaches to initiate transcription. http://www.addgene.org/mol_bio_refe
control sequences may have to be o Explain that the transcription start point (the first nucleotide to be rence/promoter_background/
transferred as well as the desired transcribed) is within the sequence and the promoter allows the RNA
gene polymerase to recognise which DNA strand is the template. Past Papers
o Remind learners of the involvement of transcription factors and that there Paper 42, June 2012, Q4 (a)(ii)
Key concepts are genes coding for these, and that other control sequences exist (no Paper 41, June 2013, Q2 (c)(ii)
DNA, the molecule of heredity, detail required). (W) (Basic)
Observation and experiment  With these discussed, learners suggest why, in genetic engineering,
promoters and other control sequences may need to be transferred with the
desired gene. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners make brief annotations to their summary flow-chart from 19.1.b. (I)
(Basic)
 Learners write a short paragraph to explain the role of promoters and why
they can be said to control the expression of a gene. (F)
 Extension: learners investigate how the early production of insulin by genetic
engineering used the machinery of the lac operon to control gene expression.
(I) (Challenging)
Note
 In bacteria, RNA polymerase recognises and binds to the promoter with the
aid of one main protein transcription factor but in eukaryotes binding is
enabled by a complex of transcription factors.
19.1.g  Learners recall the concepts involved in DNA uptake to produce recombinant Online
explain the use of genes for hosts (19.1.b). http://www.dnaftb.org/34/problem.ht
fluorescent or easily stained o Explain that a cut plasmid may (with DNA ligase present) re-circularise ml
substances as markers in gene and be taken up by a host bacterial cell, or a bacterial cell may not be http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/GFP
technology transformed (take up the plasmid). These bacteria would not have the /GFPh.htm
desired gene. http://www.conncoll.edu/ccacad/zim
V3.1 127
Key concepts o Agree that some method to identify the recombinant bacteria is desirable mer/GFP-ww/GFP-1.htm
DNA, the molecule of heredity, (‘screening for recombinants’) in order to avoid wasting money if all http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Fl
Observation and experiment bacterial forms were cultured together. (W) (Basic) uorescent_proteins
 Use images to explain how the gene encoding GFP, green fluorescent protein http://www.microscopyu.com/articles/
(most commonly used gene), is placed between the promoter and the desired livecellimaging/fpintro.html
gene. Transcription of both genes occurs and GFP and the desired product http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/te
result. chniques/fluorescence/fluorescentpro
o Discuss how UV light enables selection of host cells for large scale teins/fluorescentproteinshome.html
culturing, while non-recombinant bacteria will not fluoresce. (W) http://www.gmo-
(Challenging) compass.org/eng/safety/human_heal
o Learners add annotations to their flow-chart from 19.1.b about screening th/126.position_efsa_antibiotic_resist
for successful recombinants and write a paragraph of explanation. (I) ance_markers.html
(Challenging) http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/ar
 Learners research one example where genes for enzymes that produce ticles/31227.php
fluorescent or easily stained substances are now used as markers. Examples
are presented to the class. (W) (G) (P) (Basic) Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2012, Q3 (a)(ii)
Note Paper 41, June 2013, Q2 (b)
 Background: provide learners with a brief historical perspective on the use of
antibiotic resistance markers to enable screening and explain why these are
becoming less favoured.
19.2.c  Discuss the advantages of producing human proteins by genetic engineering / Online
explain the advantages of producing recombinant DNA techniques (‘genetic manipulation’ is also a term used). http://www.diabetes.co.uk/insulin/hu
human proteins by recombinant DNA o Discuss how some of the diseases were not previously treatable with the man-insulin.html
techniques (reference should be natural protein: could not be extracted or produced (e.g. adenosine http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/
made to some suitable examples, deaminase); expensive to produce and purify; required extraction from unilever/16-
such as insulin, factor VIII for the many blood donations (e.g. factor VIII); problems with the protein used for 18/proteins/Protch4pg3.html
treatment of haemophilia and treatment (e.g. insulin from pigs or other mammals). http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/aden
adenosine deaminase for treating o Discuss additional benefits such as: fewer/no allergic responses from osine-deaminase-deficiency
severe combined immunodeficiency contaminants; lower/no immune responses from non-self antigen
(SCID)) detection; no risk of disease from contaminating pathogens; Past Papers
ethically/religiously/morally more acceptable. Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q5 (b)
Key concepts o Include an outline of the benefits of using bacteria, yeast or mammalian
Cells as the units of life, cells in tissue culture. (W) (Basic)
Biochemical processes,  Learners research the genetically engineered protein products for treatment of
V3.1 128
DNA, the molecule of heredity, people with the conditions listed. Provide guidance.
Observation and experiment o State whether the protein could be extracted for treatment before genetic
engineering techniques.
o State the function of the protein and if the protein is deficient or absent.
o State how successful the treatment is and whether there are alternative
treatment methods. (H) (Challenging)
 Learners make outline notes following discussion on their research. Fill in any
gaps with further explanation.
o Explain that some people require the protein insulin to regulate their blood
glucose concentration (covered in Unit 10). (W) (Basic)
o Explain that factor VIII is a protein required in the cascade of reactions
involved in blood clotting and is used to treat haemophilia (16.2.f, Unit 7).
(W) (Basic)
o For SCID, explain that mutations of the ADA gene result in a lack of
adenosine deaminase: a build-up of the substrate (deoxyadenosine) is
toxic to immune system cells (background information: an autosomal
recessive disorder). (W) (Basic)
 Learners list the benefits, giving relevant examples where relevant. (F)
Note
 The benefits of using bacteria or yeast cells as hosts could be a useful
extension discussion.
19.3.a  Learners recall selective breeding in cattle and in crop plants (17.2.f) and Online
explain the significance of genetic discussions about the global demand for food (and energy). http://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/file
engineering in improving the quality o Learners suggest ways in which crops and livestock may be genetically s/serials/files/regulation/2003/4/v26n
and yield of crop plants and livestock modified to benefit populations. 1-4.pdf
TM
in solving the demand for food in the o Discuss why Golden rice providing vitamin A is considered an http://www.newscientist.com/article/d
world, e.g. Bt maize, vitamin A improvement in the quality of a crop plant. n3364-gm-crops-boost-yields-more-
TM
enhanced rice (Golden rice ) and o Explore further ideas that crops may be modified to give a higher yield: in-poor-
GM salmon two main ways are making crops resistant to herbicides and resistant to countries.html#.UvhpJ_s9BOo
pests (insects). http://www.europabio.org/do-gm-
Key concepts o Learners suggest why livestock improvements (far less common) are not crops-really-have-higher-yields
Observation and experiment as universally approved. Discuss the idea of livestock such as sheep, http://www.gmo-
cattle, hens and goats growing faster, larger and being more resistant to compass.org/eng/agri_biotechnology/
disease. breeding_aims/147.pest_resistant_cr
V3.1 129
o Debate the farming of GM salmon (not strictly ‘livestock’), which can grow ops.html
to a marketable size much quicker than non-GM salmon. (W) (Basic) http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/t
(Challenging) opic/gmanimals.htm
 Learners write an account explaining why crops genetically modified for
herbicide and pest resistance would lead to increased yields. (I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
 Learners state ways in which livestock can be modified, giving examples to Bio Factsheet 13: Genetic
help their answer. (I) (Basic) engineering
 Learners outline the advantages and disadvantages of crop improvement by Bio Factsheet 69: Genetic
conventional breeding techniques compared to genetic modification. (F) engineering in agriculture
 Extension: learners research examples of crop improvement by genetic Bio Factsheet 192: Investigating
modification (such as frost resistance, ability to fix nitrogen, increased time for weeds and crop yield.
fruit spoilage, drought resistance, etc.) and of livestock improvement. (H)
19.3.b  In groups, learners use resources to prepare annotated flow diagrams Online
outline the way in which the summarising one example of crop improvement from the list in the learning http://www.gmo-
production of crops such as maize, objective. compass.org/eng/grocery_shopping/
cotton, tobacco and oil seed rape, o Copies of the summary diagrams are made and shared with the rest of the crops/24.genetically_modified_rice.ht
may be increased by using varieties class. ml
that are genetically modified for  Learners research and produce summary notes about the use of http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowl
herbicide resistance and insect Agrobacterium tumefaciens as one of the most common vectors and other edge/library/use-and-impact-of-bt-
resistance methods such as electroporation and ‘gene guns’ to deliver genetic material maize-46975413
into host plant cells. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_ri
Key concepts  Learners find, analyse and evaluate data that compares the yields of GM ce
Observation and experiment crops with non-GM crops. (H) (Challenging) http://www.goldenrice.org/
Bio Factsheet 13: Genetic
engineering
engineering in agriculture
Bio Factsheet 192: Investigating
weeds and crop yield.
V3.1 130
19.3.c  Learners use guidelines to research some ethical and social implications of Online
discuss the ethical and social using GMOs, and then debate and discuss these points in class. (W) (H) http://technyou.education.csiro.au/mo
implications of using genetically (Basic) dule/ethics-food-and-
modified organisms (GMOs) in food  Learners produce summary points about the topic. (I) (Challenging) agriculture/page/204/issues
production http://www.i-sis.org.uk/GE-ethics.php
Note http://www.beep.ac.uk
Key concepts  Advise learners to look at the source of funding and editorial policy of http://www.salmonnation.com/fish/gef
Observation and experiment websites to gauge whether the information is objective and impartial. ish.html
http://www.oceanconservancy.org/ou
r-work/aquaculture/aquaculture-
genetically.html
engineering.
Bio Factsheet 106: Ethical issues in
A-level Biology
Bio Factsheet 137: GM Farm Scale
Evaluation Trials.
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q5 (b)(c)(d)
Paper 42, June 2012, Q4 (e)
19.1.c  Use a question and answer session to agree that: the desired gene used in Online
describe the principles of the the genetic engineering process needs to be cloned (19.1.b); DNA http://www.genome.gov/Glossary/ind
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to polymerase is required to replicate DNA (Unit 3); the DNA strands are held ex.cfm?id=159
clone and amplify DNA (the role of together strongly by many (individually) weak hydrogen bonds. (W) (Basic) http://www.web-
Taq polymerase should be  Explain that, outside the cell, heat (approximately 90°C) can be used to books.com/MoBio/Free/Ch9E.htm
emphasised) separate the DNA strands. http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/te
o Learners explain why heat stable polymerase enzymes are required. aching-resources/119-investigating-
Key concepts o Introduce Taq polymerase derived from the thermophilic bacterium plant-evolution-amplifying-dna-using-
Biochemical processes, Thermus aquaticus, and discuss how this enzyme’s thermostable pcr
DNA, the molecule of heredity, structure also allows it to have a long shelf life.
Observation and experiment o Explain what primers are before explaining their role in dictating the Textbooks/Publications
V3.1 131
correct section of DNA to be copied and enabling Taq polymerase Bio Factsheet 67: Modern techniques
attachment. (W) (Challenging) in biology: genetics.
 Using diagrams, provide an overview of PCR. Involve learners in explanations
of the benefits of Taq polymerase stability (heating and many cycles). (W)
(Basic)
o Learners label the diagrams and produce a two-column table: main stage
and corresponding explanations. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners match statements of the main stages with explanations of why they
are carried out, they then sequence them. (F)
 Learners match statements of the components involved to their role in the
process. (F)
Note
 Explanation of a primer can be limited to the idea of a short nucleotide
sequence that binds to the DNA template strand at a specific sequence, so
enabling chain elongation.
 T. aquaticus was discovered in 1969 in Yellowstone National Park in
Wyoming, USA, noted for its hot springs and geysers.
19.1.d  Show learners an electrophoresis kit (or a photograph of a kit), explaining the Practical booklet 12
describe and explain how gel principles and outlining the technique.
electrophoresis is used to analyse o Include discussion on: the composition of the gel (size of ‘pores’ formed Online
proteins and nucleic acids, and to by the fibrous matrix); ability to alter the voltage applied and/or the ‘run’ http://www.genome.gov/Glossary/?id
distinguish between the alleles of a time; methods used e.g. stains or fluorescent dyes to ‘see’ separated =56
gene (limited to the separation of bands (if not visible). http://www.life.uiuc.edu/molbio/geldig
polypeptides and the separation of o Prompt learners to suggest and explain the factors affecting movement est/electro.html#run
DNA fragments cut with restriction through the gel. Ensure they appreciate that separation of a mixture will http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/NCBE
endonucleases) be based on: size/length/mass; and charge (discuss resistance to flow). /MATERIALS/menu.html
(W) (Basic) http://www.bio-rad.com/
Key concepts  Learners explain why samples of DNA/RNA will move towards the anode http://www.edvotek.com/
Biochemical processes, (phosphate groups give a negative charge), and how restriction enzymes (see http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/physio/
DNA, the molecule of heredity, 19.1.h) will give specific different-sized fragments. vlab/Other_exps/endo/electrophoresi
Observation and experiment o Explain that the solution containing the DNA fragments can be treated so s.htm
the charge is the same for all; hence they are separated by size/length (all http://www.bio-rad.com/en-
fragments same shape). ca/applications-technologies/protein-
electrophoresis
V3.1 132
o Discuss how RNA molecules will be of different lengths and hence http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content
separation by size will work. (W) (Basic) /labs/gel/
 Learners use kits (or simulations) to carry out gel electrophoresis of DNA. (I) http://www.biotechlearn.org.nz/theme
(Challenging) s/dna_lab/gel_electrophoresis
 Using resources, learners draw an annotated diagram that helps to outline the www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/ncbe/protoc
principles behind the process, using nucleic acids as an example. (I) (Basic) ols/PDF/DiceSG.pdf
 Learners recall protein molecular structure to realise that a mixture can be http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/
different lengths, charges and shapes, hence requiring a different cgi-bin/wordpress/2011/03/genetic-
electrophoresis set-up to DNA. (W) (Basic) testing/
o Explain that a buffer can be used to provide a uniform negative charge
and unfold the proteins. Textbooks/Publications
 Learners research identification of a protein by protein blotting or antibody Bio Factsheet 67: Modern techniques
tagging. (H) (Challenging) in Biology: Genetics.
 Learners investigate the uses of gel electrophoresis in the analysis of proteins
and nucleic acids and a ‘class list’ made of each to display. (W) (H) (Basic) Past Papers
 Extension: learners research the advantages and disadvantages of the two Paper 41, June 2012, Q3 (b)
main gels, agarose and polyacrylamide. (I) (Challenging) Paper 42, June 2013, Q2 (b)
 Learners discuss the differences that may exist between alleles of a gene.
o Discuss how alleles of only slightly different length can be detected with
the correct gel composition.
o Explain that if alleles are the same or similar, undetectable length,
restriction enzymes could be used to obtain fragments: different fragments
with different sequences can be detected. An alternative is using a DNA
probe.
o Mention that there are DNA sequence ‘libraries’ to obtain known
sequences to act as markers.
o Use sickle cell anaemia to exemplify how differences between alleles can
sometimes be detected by sampling the protein products, e.g. the two
types of haemoglobin (confirms carrier status). (W) (Challenging
 Practical booklet 12 is a protocol for separating dyes by gel electrophoresis
that demonstrates the principles involved in separating DNA.
Note
 Generally, small agarose gels are used to separate DNA (lower voltage for
approximately 1-2 hours) whereas large polyacrylamide gels are required for
V3.1 133
proteins (higher voltages for about 4 hours). Different electrophoresis tanks

and power packs are required.
 Links to 19.2.d: genetic screening can involve gel electrophoresis, e.g.
identifying carriers. In some cases restriction enzymes are used, or probes to
locate specific base sequences.
o Cystic fibrosis: some mutant alleles have large deletions.
o Huntington’s disease: the mutant allele of the Huntington gene has tri-
nucleotide repeat sequences.
o Some cases of haemophilia: a mutant allele in the factor VIII gene has an
insertion that inactivates the gene.
19.2.g  Explain that pure DNA or DNA mixed with other biological materials (e.g. in a Online
outline the use of PCR and DNA tissue sample such as dried blood) is analysed and compared to existing https://koshland-science-
testing in forensic medicine and profiles or known markers. museum.org/sites/all/exhibits/exhibitd
criminal investigations o Explain what variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) are and detail na/index.jsp
their importance in an analysis, including: a particular VNTR occurs at a http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content
Key concepts specific locus; for a particular VNTR different individuals can have a /labs/pcr/
DNA, the molecule of heredity, different number of repeats (so different lengths of the DNA section); http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/shepp
Observation and experiment VNTRs that are very variable in different individuals can be used as ard/analyze.html
markers. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners suggest the role of PCR (amplify the quantity of each VNTR marker Past Papers
in the sample). (W) (Basic) Paper 41, June 2012, Q3 (a)
 Ensure learners understand that the chance that two individuals (except for
identical twins) have exactly matching DNA profiles (genetic fingerprints) for
these selected markers is virtually nil. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners use resources to extract the main points of the technique of genetic
fingerprinting and list as bullet points. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners carry out analyses of different results of genetic fingerprints or make
up their own worksheet containing simulated results from a crime scene to
swap within the class for another learner to analyse. (P) (I) (Basic)
 Learners explain the role of PCR in DNA fingerprinting and outline the
principles as applied to VNTRs:
o Very small samples of DNA can be analysed.
o Millions of DNA copies can be produced (so can run many tests on the
same original DNA sample).
V3.1 134
o Longer VNTRs will be impeded more by the gel (move a shorter distance
in the same time than the shorter VNTRs). (I) (Challenging)
19.2.a  Learners work out what the term bioinformatics means: biology and data, Online
define the term bioinformatics computer science and information technology merged into one (remind them http://www.ploscompbiol.org/article/in
about statistics). (W) (G) (Basic) fo%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pc
Key concepts  Explain that there are linked databases holding freely available, continually bi.1002789
Observation and experiment updated, information on: nucleotide sequences of genes (gene sequences); http://www.biotnet.org/training-
whole genome sequences; mutation sequences; amino acid sequences of materials/das-game
proteins; protein structures; phenotypic data. http://www.genecards.org/#
o Ideas for learners to consider: input, storage and retrieval of biological http://www.genome.gov/glossary/inde
information for analysis; data that can be searched is increasing x.cfm?id=17
exponentially. http://www.malacards.org/
o Learners define the term bioinformatics and list the principles involved. http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Education
(W) (I) (Challenging) -resources/Education-and-
 Demonstrate how to use BLAST (basic local alignment search tool), which learning/Big-Picture/All-
compares nucleotide or protein sequences to databases. When a match is issues/Genes-Genomes-and-
found, the statistical significance of the match is calculated. Health/WTDV027167.htm
o Show learners how a nucleotide sequence can be matched to an amino http://www.ebi.ac.uk/about
acid sequence and how these may match up to known genes belonging to http://www.bioinformaticsatschool.eu/
organisms. (W) (Challenging) http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicp
 Learners explore the world of bioinformatics for themselves if there is internet age/genomics-enables-scientists-to-
access and report back findings. (W) (H) (Challenging) study-genetic-variability-6526364
Note
 Suitable databases to explore are Ensembl (genome), GenBank (DNA
sequence), UniProt (protein sequence), PDB (protein structure) and COSMIC
(somatic mutations in cancer).
19.2.b  Give an outline of the human genome project (HGP). Online

outline the role of bioinformatics o With prompting, learners suggest the role of bioinformatics, such as in: http://www.bioinformatics.org/wiki/Bio
following the sequencing of targeting drug design to the individual; investigating evolutionary links by informatics_FAQ
genomes, such as those of humans comparing gene and protein sequence data; searching for the functions of http://www.genecards.org/#
and parasites, e.g. Plasmodium genes; identifying mutations; identifying genetic risk factors; gene therapy. http://www.genome.gov/glossary/inde
(details of methods of DNA (W) (Challenging) x.cfm?id=17
sequencing are not required) http://www.malacards.org/
V3.1 135
 Revise Plasmodium and the control of malaria, including problems with finding http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Education
Key concepts a vaccine (Unit 5). (W) (Basic) -resources/Education-and-
Natural selection, o Then open up a discussion about the role of bioinformatics following the learning/Big-Picture/All-
Observation and experiment sequencing of genomes of the species of Plasmodium. issues/Genes-Genomes-and-
o Learners suggest the benefits in identifying the genes involved in Health/WTDV027167.htm
antigenic variation and in evading the immune response (information http://www.ebi.ac.uk/about
gained about how some species are more invasive than others). http://www.bioinformaticsatschool.eu/
o Learners discuss how information could be used in the search for new http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicp
drugs and vaccines. (W) (G) (Challenging) age/genomics-enables-scientists-to-
 Learners write an account of the role of bioinformatics following the study-genetic-variability-6526364
sequencing of genomes, referring to the HGP and the Plasmodium genome http://www.sanger.ac.uk/resources/d
and making relevant links to other relevant learning objectives. (F) ownloads/protozoa/plasmodium-
falciparum.html
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
v419/n6906/full/nature01097.html
http://web.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/
Human_Genome/project/timeline.sht
ml
Human_Genome/project/info.shtml
Human_Genome/publicat/genegatew
ay/GeneGatewayHandout.pdf
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
net/BiologyPages/T/Taxonomy.html
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Education
-resources/Education-and-
learning/Big-Picture/All-
issues/Genes-Genomes-and-
Health/WTDV027173.htm
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Education
-resources/Education-and-
learning/Big-Picture/All-
issues/Genes-Genomes-and-
Health/Videos-genomes-and-genetic-
V3.1 136
testing/WTDV027199.htm
19.2.d  Learners suggest what is involved in genetic screening (using family history Online
outline the advantages of screening and, if the test is available, analysing tissue samples for DNA) and name http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/c
for genetic conditions (reference may conditions for which genetic screening is available. ysticfibrosis.html
be made to tests for specific genes o Ensure the conditions listed are included and explained. (W) http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/CFTR
such as those for breast cancer,  Explain what is meant by genetic counselling. (W) (Basic) http://www.ygyh.org/cf/whatisit.htm
BRCA1 and BRCA2, and genes for  Brainstorm advantages of screening for genetic conditions and complete the http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/
haemophilia, sickle cell anaemia, list if necessary. BBSRC/casestudies/cystic.pdf
Huntington’s disease and cystic o Provides information about increased risk of having genetic conditions. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content
fibrosis) o Identifies carriers. /disorders/screening/
o Early diagnosis, including identification of disorders in embryos. http://www.hdfoundation.org/html/hds
Key concepts o Identifies conditions in foetuses (early treatment may be possible and atest.php
DNA, the molecule of heredity, allows parents to prepare. http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec22/c
Natural selection, o Enables decisions to be made about having children or having follow-up h256/ch256b.html
Observation and experiment treatment. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners research and make outline notes on the genetic conditions named, Textbooks/Publications
then match up advantages from the brainstorm list to each condition. (I) Bio Factsheet 110: Genetic Disease
(Basic) in
 Extension: learners suggest some of the disadvantages of screening. (I) Humans.
(Challenging) Bio Factsheet 134: Cystic Fibrosis
Bio Factsheet 215: Genetic Testing
Note and Screening
 This topic needs careful handling.
 Background: some genetic conditions are more common in certain groups as
a result of common ancestry (sharing similar genetic make-up), e.g. cystic
fibrosis is most common in Caucasians; sickle cell anaemia is common in
West and East African, African-American and Mediterranean populations;
Huntington’s disease is more common in Europe and countries with European
links.
19.2.e  Explain that in gene therapy, the aim is for affected cells to take up the Online
outline how genetic diseases can be normal, non-mutated gene and produce the normal, functioning protein http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/c
treated with gene therapy and product. ysticfibrosis.html
V3.1 137
discuss the challenges in choosing o Prompt learners to suggest methods of delivery of the normal gene, such http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/CFTR
appropriate vectors, such as viruses, as viruses and liposomes (you may need to describe liposomes). (W) http://www.ygyh.org/cf/whatisit.htm
liposomes and naked DNA (Basic) http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/
(reference may be made to SCID,  Learners discuss in groups why viruses may be ideal vectors, and then share BBSRC/casestudies/cystic.pdf
inherited eye diseases and cystic ideas with the class. Features: small; can be manipulated to incorporate the http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content
fibrosis) gene, be harmless and not trigger an immune response; target particular cells /disorders/screening/
and enter, or inject the gene into the cell; have mechanisms to pass through http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec22/c
Key concepts the mucus lining cells; can integrate their nucleic acid into the target cell h256/ch256b.html
DNA, the molecule of heredity, genome. http://www.vision-
Observation and experiment o Explain that the ‘ideal’ virus is difficult to find as it will be almost impossible research.eu/index.php?id=696
to fit all the criteria. (W) (G) (Challenging) http://www.newscientist.com/article/d
 Learners research the advantages of the type of virus used in the gene n24879-gene-therapy-restores-sight-
therapy for eye disease and explain why the eye is a good candidate for gene in-people-with-eye-disease.html
therapy. (I) (Challenging) http://www.newscientist.com/article/m
 Learners research (also use knowledge of cell surface membrane structure) g22029413.200-bubble-kid-success-
why liposomes can be used as vectors. puts-gene-therapy-back-on-
o Learners explain how liposomes have been used in clinical trials for the track.html
treatment of cystic fibrosis. http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/genetics
o Extension: learners include an account of the problems faced in treating /sect4.htm
this condition. (I) (Challenging) http://www.genemedresearch.ox.ac.u
 Explain that SCID has been a successful candidate for gene therapy: the k/genetherapy/cfgt.html
gene for adenosine deaminase is introduced into T-lymphocytes removed http://www.extremetech.com/extreme
from children with SCID. The lymphocytes are cultured in tissue culture with a /171873-naked-dna-gene-therapy-
viral vector and then the cells injected back into the child. (W) (Basic) used-to-non-invasively-cure-heart-
 Extension: learners research the historical work done by French-Anderson, disease
Blaese and Rosenburg on SCID gene therapy and explain how the therapy http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/thera
was carried out. (H) (Basic) py/procedures
 Discuss any recent successes in naked DNA therapy. Explain that initial
results showed that direct injection into muscle has indicated some success in Textbooks/Publications
uptake; there has also been uptake by liver cells. (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 51: Gene therapy
Past Papers
Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q10 (a)
V3.1 138
19.2.f  Explain that there are social and ethical considerations (see Note) of using Online
discuss the social and ethical gene testing and gene therapy. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticl
considerations of using gene testing o Agree that not all genetic conditions are treatable. e/505222_4
and gene therapy in medicine o Discuss issues arising from: gene testing embryos by performing an http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/thert
(reference should be made to genetic embryo biopsy; couples deciding on IVF treatment for embryo testing and he/ethics
conditions for which treatments exist preselection for implantation.
and where none exist, also to IVF, o If not discussed in 19.2.d, explain briefly what is meant by therapeutic Textbooks/Publications
embryo biopsy and preselection and abortion. (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 51: Gene therapy
to therapeutic abortions)  Learners write their ideas under four headings on pieces of paper ‘Gene
testing – social consideration’; ‘Gene testing – ethical consideration’; ‘Gene Past Papers
Key concepts therapy - social consideration’; Gene therapy - ethical consideration’. Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q5
Observation and experiment o Learners justify their statements to a small group and, if agreed, add it to a
poster.
o Display the posters for learners to consider and make notes. (G) (I)
Note
 This needs to be treated with sensitivity.
 Social = related to human society, e.g. interdependence, mutual relationships,
cooperation for all to benefit.
 Ethics = set of agreed standards, determine what is acceptable, followed by a
group of individuals, regulated behaviour.
V3.1 139
Unit 9: Respiration
Learners should be familiar with the concept of energy transfer and understand that energy contained within biological compounds can be released for use by the
cell. They should have a sound understanding of what a molecule is, and understand chemical formulae and equations. It would be helpful if they understood the
concept of oxidation and reduction, at least at a simple level.
Context
This unit considers the key concept of biochemical processes and focuses on how the energy contained within food molecules such as glucose is transferred into
the universal energy currency of ATP for use in the cell. All unicellular and multicellular organisms use the organic compound ATP to drive the energy-requiring
processes that occur in cells. There are many direct links to other areas of the syllabus, such as: the structure and role of glucose and lipids from Unit 1;
mitochondrion structure and function from Unit 2; the role of enzymes in metabolic reactions from Unit 2; and ATP from Units 1 and 3. The unit has close links with
photosynthesis in Unit 11, which also covers the concept of energy transfer and ATP synthesis. Throughout the syllabus there are examples of the use of ATP for
biochemical processes.
Outline
This unit covers the need for energy in living organisms and the universal occurrence of ATP as energy currency. The four main stages of aerobic respiration,
glycolysis, the link reaction, the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation are described. A distinction is made between the synthesis of ATP by substrate-linked
reactions and by oxidative phosphorylation; the role of coenzymes in these stages is made clear. A comparison is made between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
in mammals and in yeast. An explanation of RQ is given and different respiratory substrates are considered. Learners use respirometers to make quantitative
studies of respiration and have an opportunity to improve planning and evaluative skills. This unit lends itself to sequential descriptions and the construction of flow
diagrams to illustrate the many different stages that occur within the overall process.
Teaching time
V3.1 140
12.1.a  Brainstorm ideas to construct a disorganised set of statements. Encourage Online

outline the need for energy in living learners to include examples from prokaryotes and eukaryotes. (W) (Basic) http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teache
organisms, as illustrated by anabolic o Learners give headings for main uses of energy in organisms, rs/Resources/cfb/index.htm
reactions, such as DNA replication accompanied by bullet-point notes.
and protein synthesis, active o Agree that some examples from the brainstorming session could be
transport, movement and the grouped, e.g. under ‘movement’. Bullet points could include: bacteria and
maintenance of body temperature flagellar movement (outline the difference between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic flagella); protoctists and amoeboid movement, synchronous
Key concepts rhythm of cilia and flagellar movement; discharge of spores in fungi;
Cells as the units of life, muscle contraction in animals; translocation of sugars or closure of flytrap
Biochemical processes (see 15.2.a) in plants.
o Learners recall Unit 1, Biological molecules, for relevant bullet points for
anabolic reactions. (I) (Basic)
Note
 Ensure that learners understand the meanings of the terms metabolism and
catabolism.
12.1.b  Use questioning to remind learners of the structure of an ATP molecule. Online
describe the features of ATP that Ensure learners realise that energy is released at each step of the complete http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
make it suitable as the universal hydrolysis of ATP: net/BiologyPages/A/ATP.html
energy currency ATP  ADP  AMP
(W) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts  Write out a list of features that make ATP suitable as the universal energy Bio Factsheet 129: ATP – what it is,
Biochemical processes currency. what it does
o Learners add brief notes to explain each feature, including a diagram
showing the one-step process of release of energy from ATP hydrolysis Past Papers
and synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi (inorganic phosphate). (I) (Basic) Paper 41, June 2011, Q7 (a)
12.2.a  Learners recall an overall equation for aerobic respiration: Online

list the four stages in aerobic glucose + oxygen  energy + water + carbon dioxide http://leavingbio.net/RESPIRATION-
respiration (glycolysis, link reaction, o State that ATP should be substituted for ‘energy’. %28ordinary%20level%29.htm
Krebs cycle and oxidative o Learners write out a balanced equation using the correct chemical http://leavingbio.net/respiration-
phosphorylation) and state where formulae (for completeness, mention heat energy). (W) (Basic) %28higher%20level%29.htm
each occurs in eukaryotic cells  Learners write out the overall equation for aerobic respiration and produce a
V3.1 141
large diagram (full page) of a cell (cytoplasm labelled), containing a (not-to- Past Papers
Key concepts scale) large labelled mitochondrion with visible cristae (1.2.b, Unit 2). Paper 41, June 2011, Q7 (b)(iii)
Cells as the units of life, o Learners write the heading of each of the four stages in the correct
Biochemical processes, locations and add to this later. (I) (Basic)
Natural selection
Note
 Glycolysis: can be shown later as glucose  pyruvate.
 Link reaction: pyruvate entering the mitochondrial matrix and the reaction with
coenzyme A, acetyl coenzyme A, enters the cycle.
 Krebs cycle: main stages of the cycle only, showing involvement of FAD and
NAD, decarboxylation and ATP production.
 Oxidative phosphorylation: NADH and FADH leaving the cycle to the crista,
ATP formation.
 Highlight to learners the similar biochemistry in different species of organisms
(link to the evidence for evolution in Unit 7).
12.2.b  Build up the idea that: (i) respiration is a series of enzyme-controlled Online
outline glycolysis as phosphorylation metabolic reactions, (ii) it takes place in all living cells, and (iii) energy http://glycolysis.co.uk/
of glucose and the subsequent contained in molecules such as glucose is used to make ATP molecules. (W) www.science.smith.edu/departments
splitting of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (Basic) /Biology/Bio231/glycolysis.html
(6C) into two triose phosphate  Explain that glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm (in virtually every organism) in http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcon
molecules, which are then further both anaerobic and aerobic respiration. (W) (Basic) tent/animations/content/cellularrespir
oxidised to pyruvate with a small  Learners copy out a skeleton flow diagram of glycolysis, with glucose, the two ation.html
yield of ATP and reduced NAD intermediates, and pyruvate shown (missing intermediate stages could be http://www.johnkyrk.com/glycolysis.h
signified by the correct number of arrows in between). tml
Key concepts o With question and answer prompts, learners build up their flow charts with http://highered.mcgraw-
Biochemical processes detail and explanatory annotations. Ensure they understand that: hill.com/sites/9834092339/student_vi
coenzyme NAD is required to act as an electron (hydrogen) carrier for the ew0/chapter7/how_glycolysis_works.
enzyme-catalysed reaction (see 12.1.d); NADH has different fates, html
depending on whether or not oxygen is available. http://resources.teachnet.ie/foneill/re
o Learners show clearly the tally of ATP use and production. spir.html
o The number of carbons for each of the molecules in the process is shown
in brackets. (W) (I) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Explain that in glycolysis ATP can be formed when another phosphorylated Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q6 (a)(b)
organic compound transfers a phosphate to ADP: so ATP is synthesised as a
V3.1 142
product in a substrate-linked reaction (see 12.1.c). (W) (Basic)

Note
 If able learners are given a more complete picture, stress that the additional
intermediate steps and compounds are not required learning.
 Mention that ‘substrate-level phosphorylation’ is an alternative term to
substrate-linked ATP synthesis.
12.2.c  Explain that pyruvate travels from the cytosol through the inner and outer Online
explain that, when oxygen is mitochondrial membranes to enter the matrix where the link reaction occurs. http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/
available, pyruvate is converted into (W) (Basic) boyer/0470003790/animations/tca/tc
acetyl (2C) coenzyme A in the link  Learners study and comment on the link reaction equation before making a.htm
reaction notes. They should note that: http://www.science.smith.edu/depart
o Coenzyme A transfers an acetyl group to the Krebs cycle (see 12.1.d). ments/Biology/Bio231/krebs.html
Key concepts o Carbon dioxide is given off, hence decarboxylation* occurs. http://www.johnkyrk.com/krebs.html
Biochemical processes, o NAD acts as an electron (hydrogen) carrier, hence dehydrogenation* http://highered.mcgraw-
Organisms in their environment occurs. hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_vi
o The reaction occurs twice for each original glucose molecule. (G) (I) ew0/chapter25/animation__how_the
(Basic) (Challenging) _krebs_cycle_works__quiz_1_.html
Note
 See 12.2.e also.
12.2.d  Build up the simple diagram showing the required steps in the Krebs cycle, Online
outline the Krebs cycle, explaining including the number of carbon atoms for the three named compounds. http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/
that oxaloacetate (a 4C compound) o Emphasise: its cyclic nature; enzyme-controlled reactions (no names boyer/0470003790/animations/tca/tc
acts as an acceptor of the 2C required); more steps are involved than is shown. (W) (I) (Basic) a.htm
fragment from acetyl coenzyme A to  Explain that two carbon dioxide molecules are released for one turn of the http://www.science.smith.edu/depart
form citrate (a 6C compound), which cycle and ask learners to decide where this is and add to the diagram. ments/Biology/Bio231/krebs.html
is reconverted to oxaloacetate in a o Tell learners where substrate-linked phosphorylation occurs (see 12.2.b http://www.johnkyrk.com/krebs.html
series of small steps and 12.1.c) so they can add ATP formation to their diagram (knowledge
of GTP not required). Past Papers
Key concepts o Learners volunteer the role of NAD and FAD, and then add the formation Paper 43, June 2011, Q6 (a)(b)
Biochemical processes of NADH and FADH to their cycle (see 12.2.d). (I) (Basic)
 Learners state and explain how many turns of the cycle occur for each
molecule of glucose. (I) (Basic)
V3.1 143
 Allow learners a short time to look at their diagrams, and then talk through the
steps while they draw the cycle. (F)
Note
 Learners should avoid websites that have far more detail than required.
12.2.e  Learners add annotations to the Krebs cycle:

explain that reactions in the Krebs o dehydrogenation occurs: the NADH and FADH contain hydrogen atoms
cycle involve decarboxylation and protons and electrons (from the respiratory substrate)
dehydrogenation and the reduction o decarboxylation of intermediates occurs: carbon dioxide is given off. (I)
of NAD and FAD (Basic)
 Give learners time to assimilate the information on their diagrams before
Key concepts testing them. (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Dehydrogenase and decarboxylase enzymes could be mentioned here (not
required learning).
12.1.c  Learners add an explanation of ATP synthesis by substrate-linked reactions Online

explain that ATP is synthesised in to their summary diagram of 12.2.a. (W) (Basic) http://sandwalk.blogspot.co.uk/2007/
substrate-linked reactions in 12/how-cells-make-atp-substrate-
glycolysis and in the Krebs cycle level.html
Key concepts
12.2.g  Learners label a basic diagram of the membrane carriers of the electron Online
explain that during oxidative transport chain (ETC) and the ATP synthase (synthetase) complex in the http://www.science.smith.edu/depart
phosphorylation: inner mitochondrial / crista membrane (include labels for the mitochondrial ments/Biology/Bio231/etc.html
 energetic electrons release matrix and the inter-membrane space).
energy as they pass through the  With prompting and guidance, learners show on their diagram the transfer of Textbooks/Publications
electron transport system hydrogen to the membrane from NADH and FADH and the release of the Bio Factsheet 12: Respiration
 the released energy is used to coenzymes for re-use in the Krebs cycle. (W) (Basic)
transfer protons across the inner  Learners contribute to build up the rest of the diagram. For the electron Past Papers
mitochondrial membrane transport chain include: Paper 42, June 2013, Q4 (a)(i)
 protons return to the mitochondrial o Hydrogen from NAD/FAD split into protons and electrons.
V3.1 144
matrix by facilitated diffusion o Oxidation-reduction reactions are involved (hence ‘oxidative’) as electrons
through ATP synthase providing are transported down the ETC (i.e. to lower energy levels).
energy for ATP synthesis (details o Energy provided by the electron transfer is used to pump protons from the
of ATP synthase are not required) matrix into the intermembrane space.
o Oxygen (final electron acceptor) + electrons + protons produce water as a
Key concepts waste product.
Biochemical processes  For chemiosmosis, use learner knowledge of AS Level to discuss:
o The relatively impermeability of the membrane to protons (so allowing a
build-up).
o Facilitated diffusion of protons through the enzyme complex down their
concentration (and electrical) gradient.
o The enzyme-catalysed synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic
phosphate by the movement of protons (proton-motive force). (W) (I)
(Challenging)
 Learners sort a set of statements into a correct sequence to outline oxidative
phosphorylation and then add an outline to their summary diagram of 12.2.a.
(P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
 Learners write a sequential account of the process. (F)
12.2.f  Assess understanding of 12.2.g by agreeing an outline summary with Online

outline the process of oxidative learners. http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini
phosphorylation including the role of o Oxidative phosphorylation is the last stage in the release of energy from /flashanimat/metabolism/mido%20e
oxygen as final electron acceptor (no the initial respiratory substrate and oxygen is the final electron acceptor. %20transport.swf
details of the carriers are required) o The two linked parts to the process are the events involving the electron
transport chain and the events linked with a process known as Past Papers
Key concepts chemiosmosis. Paper 43, June 2011, Q6 (c)
Biochemical processes o The sources of the ‘energetic’ electrons are NADH and FADH from the
Krebs cycle and NADH from the link reaction.
o ATP formation by oxidative phosphorylation is a process involving
oxidation-reduction reactions, where the energy needed for ATP
synthesis is from the transfer of electrons from a higher energy electron
donor to a lower energy electron acceptor.
 Learners add an outline of the link reaction, Krebs cycle and oxidative
phosphorylation to their summary diagram of 12.2.a. (I) (Basic)
Note
V3.1 145
 Carriers do not need identifying but explain that these are membrane
proteins.
 Learners should be able tackle the concepts involved in 12.2.h if they have
mastered the outline of 12.2.g.
 Chemiosmosis as a term is not specified in a learning objective, but learners
should be familiar with the term.
12.1.e (i) Only part of this learning objective is included here: explain that the synthesis of Online
explain that the synthesis of ATP ATP is associated with the electron transport chain on the membranes of http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/N
is associated with the electron mitochondria (see 12.2.g) BK21063/
transport chain on the membranes  With a brief written test, confirm learner knowledge and understanding of this
of mitochondria and chloroplasts learning objective (all details previously covered). (I) (Basic)
(see 12.2.g)  In preparation for Unit 11, explain that there is also an ETC located in the
thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. (W) (I) (Basic)
Key concepts
12.1.d  Explain that many enzymes require a non-protein (co-)factor, in their active Online
outline the roles of the coenzymes site to help in catalysis, and that organic cofactors that associate with the http://www.ebi.ac.uk/thornton-
NAD, FAD and coenzyme A in enzyme during catalysis and then dissociate are known as coenzymes. (W) srv/databases/CoFactor/index.php
respiration (Basic)
 Ensure learners now understand that NAD and FAD are electron (hydrogen)
Key concepts carriers, so become reduced and can give electrons to electron acceptors
Biochemical processes during respiration (becoming oxidised again).
o Learners should be clear that the oxidation of NADH and FADH releases
energy that can be used to synthesise ATP. (W) (Basic)
12.2.i  From electron micrographs of mitochondria, learners identify the outer and Online
describe the relationship between inner membrane, cristae and matrix. http://www.johnkyrk.com/mitochondri
structure and function of the o Learners check if 70S ribosomes and small circular DNA is visible. (P) (I) on.html
mitochondrion using diagrams and (Basic)
electron micrographs  Learners construct an annotated diagram summarising how the structure of a Textbooks/Publications
mitochondrion is adapted for its functions. (I) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 61: Chloroplasts and
mitochondria
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Key concepts
12.2.k  Use flow diagrams to explain the lactate pathway in mammals and the Online
explain the production of a small ethanol pathway in yeast, with learners providing the main outline of http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/ox
yield of ATP from respiration in glycolysis (glucose to pyruvate) and naming the location (cytoplasm). (W) debit.htm
anaerobic conditions in yeast and in (Basic)
mammalian muscle tissue, including  Explain that these pathways occur when oxygen is not available, with Textbooks/Publications
the concept of oxygen debt pyruvate and ethanol acting as the final electron acceptors to produce lactate King p.84
and ethanol as waste products. (W) (Basic) Siddiqui p.101
Key concepts  Learners suggest why pyruvate needs to be processed further when no more
Biochemical processes, ATP is produced (the regeneration of NAD to allow glycolysis to continue - Past Papers
Natural selection there is a very limited quantity of NAD in each cell). (W) (Basic) Paper 43, June 2013, Q4 (b)
 Learners add an outline to their summary diagram of 12.2.a after making their
own flow diagrams. (I) (Basic)
 Learners begin with oxidative phosphorylation and work backwards through
earlier stages to write down a series of statements showing the
consequences if oxygen is not available. (F) (Challenging)
 Learners research the concept of oxygen debt and write an explanation.
o Annotations can be added to the lactate pathway to show how, when
oxygen becomes available, lactate can be converted back to pyruvate,
which can then be converted to glucose and glycogen for storage, or
enter the Krebs cycle. (H) (Challenging)
 Extension practical: learners investigate the effect of different concentrations
of ethanol on rates of respiration in yeast. (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Mention to learners that anaerobic respiration in yeast is also known as
alcoholic or ethanol fermentation and that anaerobic respiration in
mammalian tissues is also known as lactic acid or lactate fermentation.
 Explain to learners that the reduction of pyruvate to lactate is common in
many bacteria. Highlight that these reactions are similar in widely different
species of organism.
V3.1 147
12.2.l  Remind learners of xerophytes and adaptation to survival in arid conditions Online
explain how rice is adapted to grow (7.2.f) and introduce rice as a plant adapted to survive with its roots http://plantsinaction.science.uq.edu.
with its roots submerged in water in submerged in water, which has little oxygen. (W) (Basic) au/edition1/?q=content/18-1-2-
terms of tolerance to ethanol from  Explain that an ethanol build-up is toxic to yeast cells and that plant cells also adaptive-responses-waterlogging
respiration in anaerobic conditions produce ethanol when in anaerobic conditions. www.biologymad.com/resources/Cro
and the presence of aerenchyma o Agree that continuous or prolonged anaerobic conditions as experienced p%20Plants.pps
by rice when it is growing in flooded fields means that root cells need to
Key concepts be tolerant to ethanol. (W) (Basic) Past Papers
Organisms in their environment  Check learner understanding of the terms used in the learning objective: Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q4 (a)(b)
submerged and tolerance. (W) (Basic) Paper 42, June 2013, Q10 (b)
 Learners use a light microscope to observe aerenchyma in root and stem
sections of prepared slides. (I) (Basic)
 To summarise, learners list and explain the features that make rice adapted
to grow with roots that are submerged in water, and explain why most plants
cannot survive when their roots are submerged in water. (F)
12.2.j  Learners suggest what is meant by respiration: brainstorm ideas such as: the Textbooks/Publications
distinguish between respiration in release of energy from food; the production of ATP; ATP for use by the cell; Jones, Fosbery, Taylor, Gregory,
aerobic and anaerobic conditions in the process occurs in the cell. has on page 205 (2007), or on page
mammalian tissue and in yeast cells, o Expand the discussion to distinguish between aerobic respiration and 277 (2013), a balance sheet of ATP
contrasting the relative energy respiration in anaerobic conditions. (W) (Basic) use and synthesis. This could be
released by each (a detailed account  Emphasise that most of the ATP is synthesised as a result of oxidative used to give learners an idea of the
of the total yield of ATP from the phosphorylation, requiring the reduced coenzymes from the link reaction and difference in relative energy
aerobic respiration of glucose is not Krebs cycle (compare with the 2ATPs produced without oxygen). (W) (Basic) released.
required)  Learners make notes comparing respiration in aerobic and anaerobic
conditions. (W) (Basic) Past Papers
Key concepts Paper 41, June 2011, Q7 (b)(ii)
Biochemical processes Note Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q6 (c)
 ‘Balance sheets’ are not required. There are different totals for ATP
production in aerobic respiration, varying from 32, to 36, to 38 in older text
books. In more recent texts, the estimate of ‘1NADH = 3ATP’ is now seen as
approximately 1NADH = 2.5ATP (also 1FADH = 1.5ATP).
12.2.h  Remind learners that yeast is not a plant but a fungus. Emphasise that yeast
carry out investigations to determine respires aerobically and in anaerobic conditions. (W) (Basic)
V3.1 148
the effect of factors such as  Explain that redox dyes are used as indicators of hydrogen transfer and in
temperature and substrate investigations can be used as artificial hydrogen acceptors to provide a visual
concentration on the rate of check on the rate of respiration (the reduction of NAD or FAD cannot be
respiration of yeast using a redox ‘seen’). (W) (Basic)
indicator (e.g. DCPIP or methylene o State that methylene blue is blue in the oxidised state (without hydrogens)
blue) and turns colourless as hydrogens are accepted and it becomes reduced.
(W) (Basic)
Key concepts o With this knowledge, small groups can be set the task of planning an
Biochemical processes, appropriate investigation to carry out. (G) (Challenging)
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment Note
 These investigations are a good opportunity to develop planning skills.
 Experiments with yeast and anaerobic respiration require the substrate
solution (e.g. glucose) to be boiled (to remove oxygen) and cooled.
12.1.f  Learners recall the overall equation for aerobic respiration and understand Online
explain the relative energy values of how it balances. (W) (Basic) http://mutuslab.cs.uwindsor.ca/schur
carbohydrate, lipid and protein as  Explain that many cells can use other respiratory substrates, such as other ko/animations/bombcal/animation4.h
respiratory substrates and explain sugars, lipids and proteins, and that different substrates have different energy tm
why lipids are particularly energy- values per unit mass. (W) (Basic)
rich  Reflect back to 12.1.e to remind learners about the importance of supplying
hydrogen to the ETC for electron flow and the release of energy for ATP
Key concepts production.
Biochemical processes  Learners consider ratios of C, H and O, to explain and note down the relative
energy values of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids, noting that lipids, with
proportionately more hydrogen per g of substrate, will yield more energy. (W)
(I) (Basic)
Note
 Knowledge of how the energy values are obtained is not required (see
learning resources / endorsed textbooks for background information).
12.1.g  Learners write out the definition of respiratory quotient and the formula to use Online
define the term respiratory quotient when calculating RQ values. http://www.biologymad.com/master.h
(RQ) and determine RQs from o Explain that volumes or moles or molecules can be used but for any one tml?http://www.biologymad.com/Pho
equations for respiration calculation they should not be mixed. tosynResp/PhotosynResp.htm
V3.1 149
o Learners calculate the RQ value for glucose. (W) (I) (Basic)

Key concepts  When provided with equations, learners calculate the RQs for named Textbooks/Publications
Biochemical processes, substrates. (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) In Jones, Fosbery, Taylor, Gregory,
Organisms in their environment o Learners construct a summary table for carbohydrates, proteins and lipids pages 208-209 (2007), or page 281
(approximate values). (I) (Basic) (2013), explains respiratory quotient
o Learner explain the link between high RQ values and anaerobic and has worked examples.
respiration. (I) (Basic)
 Learners try SAQ 15.8, in Jones, Fosbery, Taylor, Gregory (2007), to Past Papers
calculate an RQ for a fatty acid. (I) (Challenging) Paper 43, Nov 2012, Q8 (c)
12.2.m  Explain how to use a simple respirometer to determine the rate of oxygen Practical booklet 7
carry out investigations, using simple uptake and rate of carbon dioxide production. (W) (Basic)
respirometers, to measure the effect  Discuss the benefits of using thermostatically-controlled water baths to Online
of temperature on the respiration maintain a constant temperature. http://www.phschool.com/science/bio
rate of germinating seeds or small o Learners suggest other ways of maintaining a constant temperature, with logy_place/labbench/lab5/features.ht
invertebrates peer evaluation of the method. (P) (I) ml
 Practical booklet 7 involves using a simple respirometer and provides http://www.biologymad.com/master.h
Key concepts opportunity for data analysis and planning for Paper 5. Learners plan an tml?http://www.biologymad.com/Pho
Observation and experiment investigation to find the optimum temperature for respiration. Learners swap tosynResp/PhotosynResp.htm
and carry out a partners plan exactly as written, each to provide their partner
with an evaluation of the plan. (P) (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
King p.80-83
Note Siddiqui p.101-103
 You may wish to save time and also carry out the requirement of 12.1.h.
 Simple designs, using a single syringe and capillary tubing (as in Practical
booklet 7) are far more sensitive to temperature and require minimal
handling.
 The simple respirometers are more reliable in yielding results than the
modifications of the Barcroft respirometer, usually given in practical guides.
 Temperature compensation by having two tubes linked by a manometer
results in well controlled experiments, but introduces potentially leaky joints.
 A teacher demonstration of a temperature-compensated respirometer is
advisable, so learners see both types.
12.1.h  Learners carry out an investigation to measure RQ using the simple Practical booklet 7
V3.1 150
carry out investigations, using simple respirometers (planning skills may be developed here),
respirometers, to determine the RQ o e.g. learners measure carbon dioxide production and oxygen absorption Online
of germinating seeds or small by germinating seeds, and calculate RQ. This has the potential to develop http://www.biologymad.com/master.h
invertebrates (e.g. blowfly larvae) abilities evaluating investigations. (I) (Challenging) tml?http://www.biologymad.com/Pho
tosynResp/PhotosynResp.htm
Key concepts http://www.phschool.com/science/bio
Observation and experiment logy_place/labbench/lab5/features.ht
ml
King p.80-83
Siddiqui p.101-103
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Unit 10: Mammalian physiology, control and coordination

Learners should have a good understanding of cell structure and the structure of a cell surface membrane. They should have an appreciation of the role of the
various components, particularly the role of glycoproteins as receptors in cell signalling and of membrane transport proteins. They should understand the concept of
water potential and have good knowledge of transport mechanisms across membranes, including facilitated diffusion and active transport from Unit 2.
Context
This unit builds on the key concept of cells as the basic units of life to consider how mammals, as multicellular organisms, control and coordinate activities and how
homeostatic mechanisms enable a balance to be maintained. The maintenance of homeostatic mechanisms for healthy functioning, such as in controlling blood
glucose concentrations, extends learner understanding of non-infectious disease. Cell structure, cell membranes, transport across membranes and the mammalian
circulatory system are topics covered at AS Level that are an important foundation for the learning objectives studied in this unit. A study of dipsticks, biosensors
and the contraceptive pill highlights the dependence of humans on biotechnology: biotechnology results from observation, enquiry and experiment, a key concept.
The examples studied here extend learner knowledge from those already covered in Unit 8.
Outline
This unit begins by highlighting the importance of responding to external and internal stimuli with effective control and coordination by the nervous system and by
the endocrine system. The structure and function of the motor and sensory neurone is covered and there is a detailed study of the transmission of nerve impulses,
including transmission across the synapse and the neuromuscular junction, followed by a consideration of the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction.
Learners consider the involvement of the nervous and endocrine systems in homeostatic mechanisms and discuss the role of negative feedback.
Thermoregulation, osmoregulation and blood glucose regulation exemplify the importance of homeostasis in mammals. The production of urea and the role of the
kidney in the excretion of nitrogenous wastes are described. Detail of the control of blood glucose concentration and water content (by the kidney) illustrates the
concept of homeostasis. Biotechnological applications are included by considering the use of dipsticks and biosensors in the detection of glucose in the blood and
urine, and of protein and ketones in urine. The unit concludes with a study of the menstrual cycle and the role of hormones in the cycle, which leads to a description
of the contraceptive pill.
Teaching time
V3.1 152
15.1.a  Discuss the need for communication between organs in a multicellular CD-ROM
compare the nervous and endocrine organism and how activities need to be controlled and coordinated. (W) Bioscope – has images of nerves (LS
systems as communication systems (Basic) and TS).
that co-ordinate responses to  Use a brainstorm session to gauge learner knowledge and to discuss the
changes in the internal and external main features of each. As individuals make suggestions and agree whether Online
environment (see 14.1.a) and 14.1.b) they are referring to the nervous or endocrine system. (W) (Basic) http://www.udel.edu/Biology/Wags/hi
o Learners note down that the two systems are for control, coordination and stopage/colorpage/cp/cp.htm
Key concepts internal communication, and that they can interrelate and affect each http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-
Cells as the units of life, other. (W) (Basic) level/biology/nervous-and-hormonal-
Organisms in their environment  Learners research and give definitions of the terms: stimulus, receptor, control
effector, control centre and response. (I) (Basic)
 Learners list the features of an endocrine gland (an organ or tissue), with Textbooks/Publications
teacher guidance. (W) (I) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 38: Animal hormones
o Learners sketch endocrine glands onto a cut-out / diagram of a body and and hormone action.
name the hormones that they secrete. Fill in any gaps in knowledge, King p. 151-152
mentioning those particularly that are in this syllabus. (I) (Basic) Siddiqui p.164-167, 171
o Learners name the target cells / tissues of each hormone, consolidating
understanding of hormones acting at a distance from their origin and at Past Papers
particular sites of action. (W) (Basic) Paper 41, June 2011, Q9 (a)
 Focus on the nervous system and ask what the equivalent to the hormones
would be to enable coordination. Encourage learners to use the terms nerve
impulses or impulses. (W) (Basic)
 Continue the discussion for learners to name the brain as the main control
centre, and muscles and glands, including endocrine glands, as effectors.
 Divide the class into two. One half participates in a group discussion to
suggest examples of internal changes in organisms, stating for each one: the
organs / systems that are affected; receptor(s); communication method;
effector(s); and response(s). The other half suggests examples of changes in
external environment. The two groups come together to share ideas. (W) (G)
(Basic).
Note
 It will be noted that both systems involve negative feedback – a verbal
clarification of this mechanism is sufficient as learners will define the term
V3.1 153
later.
 Understanding of all terms will be consolidated as learners cover specific
examples within the unit.
15.1.b  Explain that nerves are composed of many specialised nerve cells, neurones, Online
describe the structure of a sensory held by connective tissue. (W) (Basic) http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/fac
neurone and a motor neurone  Learners draw, label and annotate a sensory and a motor neurone. (I) (Basic) ulty/farabee/biobk/BioBookNERV.htm
o Learners compare the diagrams with electron micrographs. (I) l#The%20Neuron
Key concepts (Challenging) http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
Cells as the units of life  Learners explain how the structure of the neurone is related to its function (or net/BiologyPages/N/Neurons.html
wait until after 15.1.d has been covered). (H) (Basic)
 Learners complete unlabelled and incomplete diagrams (the diagrams could Past Papers
lack nuclei, myelin sheaths and synaptic knobs). (F) Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q9 (a)
15.1.c  Explain the difference between a sensory receptor cell and a sense organ, Online
outline the roles of sensory receptor e.g. tongue = organ of taste; taste cells are chemoreceptors (sensory receptor http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/
cells in detecting stimuli and cells) found in clusters called taste buds. (W) (Basic) twopt.html
stimulating the transmission of nerve  Explain that the different forms of energy arriving at the sensory receptor get http://www.answers.com/topic/taste-
impulses in sensory neurones (a converted (transduced) into electrical energy of the nerve impulse. and-smell
suitable example is the o State that all sensory receptors are transducers. (W) (Basic)
chemoreceptor cell found in human  Learners research and list the different sensory receptors in humans and Textbooks/Publications
taste buds) name the forms of energy received by each receptor. (P) (I) (Basic) King p.180-183
 Describe the sensory neurone with a resting potential and explain how a
Key concepts stimulus leads to membrane depolarisation and impulse transmission. Past Papers
Cells as the units of life, o State that depolarisation causes an action potential to be generated and Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q11 (a)
Organisms in their environment explain that details are covered later. (W) (Challenging)
 Choose for example, chemoreceptors as sensory receptors and state that
they detect specific molecules or classes of molecule.
o Learners suggest internal and external stimuli that are detected by
chemoreceptors and give examples of responses (e.g. the difference
between harmful / toxic substances taken into the mouth and food). (W)
(Basic)
 Show learners a diagram of a sensory receptor cell / chemoreceptor and
explain that a taste cell has contact with a sensory neurone.
o Explain that the binding of molecules to receptors on the cell surface
V3.1 154
membrane (many microvilli) of the taste cell leads to depolarisation, which

is passed onto the sensory neurone and the control centre.
o Learners state the type of transduction that has occurred. (W)
(Challenging)
 Learners produce a diagram of a sensory receptor cell, showing synapses
with dendrites of a sensory neurone.
o Learners annotate the sequence of events occurring from the detection of
a stimulus to an impulse being transmitted along the sensory neurone. (I)
(Challenging)
 Introduce the terms receptor potential and all-or-nothing law/rule, either by
teacher-led discussion or by textbook/internet research. (W) (I) (Challenging)
 Practical: learners carry out experiments to investigate touch, temperature
and pain receptors in the skin. (P) (I) (Basic)
Note
 Explain to learners that some sensory receptors are also sensory neurones,
while others are specialist receptor cells that synapse with sensory neurones.
 Learners should feel confident applying the principles of the process to other
examples of sensory receptor cells.
15.1.d  Explain that a reflex arc is the neural pathway behind a reflex action. Online
describe the functions of sensory, o Introduce the relay neurone before asking learners to draw and annotate a http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcont
relay and motor neurones in a reflex reflex arc. (W) (I) (Basic) ent/animations/content/reflexarcs2.ht
arc  Practical: learners look at prepared slides of cross-sections of the spinal cord ml
to identify features. (I) (Basic) http://www.sciencejoywagon.com/exp
Key concepts  Practical: learners carry out an experiment on a particular reflex action. lrsci/media/reflex.htm
Cells as the units of life o For each, learners draw a reflex arc and annotate to show the function of http://www.intelligencetest.com/reflex
the neurones. (F) /index.htm
 Learners research examples of reflexes using the spinal cord and the brain,
detailing: stimulus; receptor; effector; and response. (H) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
o Learners share examples with the class. (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 58: Reflex action
Note
 Point out that some reflex actions (e.g. the pupil reflex) involve the brain rather
than the spinal cord.
V3.1 155
15.1.e  Describe an action potential as a rapid, temporary change in a membrane Online

describe and explain the potential, explaining that this acts as a ‘booster’ to ensure the impulse (see http://www.biology4all.com/resources
transmission of an action potential in 15.1.a) travels the distance. (W) (Basic) _library/details.asp?ResourceID=40
a myelinated neurone and its  Explain the potential difference across the neurone membrane (mention also http://www.biologymad.com/Nervous
initiation from a resting potential (the the presence of large anions inside the axon). System/nerveimpulses.htm
importance of sodium and potassium o Build on AS Level knowledge to discuss how the resting potential is http://outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/anim
ions in impulse transmission should maintained (membrane polarised) by the sodium-potassium pump. ations/actionpotential_short.swf
be emphasised) o Explain the presence of non-voltage gated channels and facilitated
+
diffusion of K outwards. Past Papers
Key concepts o Describe the voltage-gated channels (NaV and KV) specific to the two Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q11 (a)
Cells as the units of life, ions (which are closed). (W) (Challenging)
Biochemical processes  Learners set the scene by drawing an annotated diagram of the axon at rest /
polarised. (I) (Basic)
 Revisit understanding of ‘partially permeable’ and discuss ‘relatively
impermeable’ and ‘relatively permeable’.
o Explain that open voltage-gated channels will increase membrane
+ +
permeability to the ion concerned (Na or K ). (W) (Basic)
 Display diagrams showing the outside and the inside of a neurone – one at a
time or project an animation – to explain what occurs when depolarisation in
the previous section increases the membrane voltage above a threshold value
(relate back to all-or-nothing from 15.1.c). Include diagrams for:
o Depolarisation: explain how the open NaV channels stimulate more
channels to open (further depolarisation = positive feedback); action
potential = the large change in membrane potential.
o Repolarisation: Describe the changes occurring to NaV and KV channels
and movement of ions.
o (Temporary) undershoot: explain that the membrane is more permeable to
+
K than at rest, until their channels close.
o Refractory period: explain how closed voltage-gated channels and action
of the sodium-potassium pump restores the resting potential.
o At each stage, learners suggest permeability states to the different ions,
highlighting the slower-to-react KV channels and the importance of
inactivity of NaV channels. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners prepare the axes on graph paper and sketch the changes to
potential as each stage is discussed. (I) (Basic)
V3.1 156
o Learners annotate the graph, explaining what is occurring at different time

points: resting potential, rising and falling phases of action potential,
undershoot, refractory period. (F)

+
Discuss how Na entering the axon establishes a local circuit between this
and the negatively charged resting potential in the area ahead. (W)
(Challenging)
o Learners suggest how current flow changes membrane permeability to
+
Na to cause self-propagation of the action potential, and how/why this is
in one direction only. (W) (Challenging)
 Discuss the two phases of the refractory period. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners draw four diagrams of the same section of axon (e.g. draw a simple
cylinder to show the outside and inside of the neurone), headed ‘resting
potential’ ‘depolarisation’ ‘repolarisation’ ‘refractory period’.
+ +
o Learners draw on the location or movement of Na and K , giving a
summary under each diagram. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners explain the difference between the following: absolute refractory
period and relative refractory period; resting potential and action potential;
polarised and depolarised; impulse and action potential. (H) (Challenging)
Note
 There are no action potentials in short neurones as current flow is sufficient to
ensure the impulse travels the short distance.
15.1.f  Learners use resources to draw a labelled, annotated diagram showing Online
explain the importance of the myelin transmission of an action potential in a myelinated axon. http://www.bu.edu/histology/m/t_elect
sheath (saltatory conduction) in o Learners add explanations to show how saltatory conduction is brought r.htm
determining the speed of nerve about, noting the high concentration of voltage-gated channels at the http://www.bu.edu/histology/p/21201l
impulses and the refractory period in nodes. oa.htm
determining their frequency o Learners note how saltatory conduction has a great effect on speed of http://www.uni-
transmission of impulses. (I) (Challenging) mainz.de/FB/Medizin/Anatomie/work
Key concepts  Learners link the inactivated sodium voltage-gated channels during the falling shop/EM/EMSchwannE.html
Cells as the units of life phase and part of the undershoot of the action potential (see 15.1.e), to an
inability to trigger another action potential immediately if a second Past Papers
depolarisation arrives. Paper 41, June 2011, Q6 (c)
o Learners annotate their action potential graph. (W) (I) (Challenging)
V3.1 157
 Learners interpret diagrams and electron micrographs of an axon with a

myelin sheath, identifying Schwann cells and nodes of Ranvier.
o Learners study electron micrographs of unmyelinated axons and make
comparisons. (I) (Basic)
15.1.g  Learners copy out a definition of a synapse. Explain they will study a Online
describe the structure of a cholinergic cholinergic synapse, which is a chemical synapse. (W) (I) (Basic) http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcont
synapse and explain how it functions,  Learners draw and label a diagram of a synapse. (I) (Basic) ent/animations/content/synaptictrans
including the role of calcium ions  Learners compare electron micrographs and diagrams of synapses. (I) mission.html
(Basic) http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
Key concepts  Remind learners of links with AS Level before outlining events in synaptic net/BiologyPages/D/Drugs.html
Cells as the units of life, transmission: for example, mitochondria, exocytosis, diffusion, membrane
Biochemical processes proteins, hydrolysis catalysed by enzymes. (W) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
 One learner makes the first statement in the sequence of events in synaptic Bio Factsheet 20: Nerves and
transmission and chooses another learner to describe the next event, and so synapses
on. (G) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 155: Answering exam
 A learner chooses a diagram in the sequence and a partner describes what is questions on neurones and synapse
occurring and what will happen next. (P) (Basic)
 Learners rearrange a set of diagrams to arrive at the correct sequence of Past Papers
events in synaptic transmission. (F) (Basic) Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q9 (b)
o Learners add annotations to the sequenced diagrams and if necessary
make additional bullet points. (F) (Challenging)
 Extension: discuss the effects of drugs on the transmission across the
synapse and show learners how to apply knowledge and understanding to
new situations. (W) (Basic)
Note
 Explain that there are other types of chemical synapses, and mention
electrical synapses.
15.1.h  Learners suggest and note down which features ensure one-way transmission Online
outline the roles of synapses in the of impulses across a synapse (vesicles with transmitter substance only found http://www.skoool.ie/skoool/examcen
nervous system in allowing in the presynaptic neurone; specific receptor proteins only located on the tre_sc.asp?id=2879
transmission in one direction and in postsynaptic membrane). (W) (I) (Basic)
allowing connections between one  Discuss the fact that one neurone can have many synapses relating to it, thus Textbooks/Publications
V3.1 158
neurone and many others allowing interconnection of numerous nerve pathways. (W) (I) (Basic) King p.202-205.
(summation, facilitation and inhibitory  Background: discuss the benefits of interconnection (a stimulus can lead to a
synapses are not required) range of responses; can collect more information; excitatory and inhibitory Past Papers
synapses provide more flexibility in response, hence a wider range of Paper 41, Nov 2012, Q1 (b(i)
Key concepts behaviour. (W) (Basic)
Cells as the units of life  Extension: learners carry out some simple investigations into learning that
involves synapses. (P) (I) (Challenging)
15.1.i  Learners study one or more labelled diagrams and establish that: striated Online
describe the roles of neuromuscular muscle is voluntary; skeletal muscle, the multinucleate cells are also known as http://www.bu.edu/histology/p/21501
junctions, transverse system tubules muscle fibres and contain a bundle of myofibrils. ooa.htm
and sarcoplasmic reticulum in o Learners note that the cell surface membrane of the muscle fibre is http://www.getbodysmart.com/ap/mu
stimulating contraction in striated termed sarcolemma, and the cytoplasm is sarcoplasm. scletissue/fibers/sr/tutorial.html
muscle o Explain that the sarcoplasmic reticulum is in contact with the myofibrils
and is similar to SER (Unit 1) and that transverse system tubules are Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts infoldings of the cell surface membrane. (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 190: Neuromuscular
Cells as the units of life,  Learners label a diagram of a neuromuscular junction, adding labels using junctions
Biochemical processes resources and knowledge of synaptic transmission.
o Learners note that the neuromuscular junction is a form of synapse that is
necessary to allow the effector to respond. (I) (Basic)
 Learners sort cards containing details of the sequence of events occurring
following depolarisation at the synaptic terminal of the motor neurone (end
with calcium ion release by the sarcoplasmic reticulum – see 15.1.k).
o Learners make notes, highlighting roles of the named items in the learning
objective. (P) (I) (Challenging)
 Extension: learners research myasthenia gravis (Unit 11) and compare a
normal and a myasthenic neuromuscular junction. (H) (Challenging)
15.1.j  Discuss the idea of a sarcomere (see 15.1.i diagrams) as the basic unit of Online
describe the ultrastructure of striated contraction, a repeating unit of a pattern made by thick and thin protein http://www.bu.edu/histology/p/21601
muscle with particular reference to filaments. (W) (Basic) ooa.htm
sarcomere structure  Learners label and annotate diagrams of the same sarcomere (i) relaxed, (ii)
contracting, and (iii) fully contracted, to prepare for 15.1.k.
Key concepts o Learners compare electron micrographs with their diagram. (I) (Basic)
V3.1 159
15.1.k  Explain the sliding filament model while learners add labels to prepared Textbooks/Publications
explain the sliding filament model of diagrams. Bio Factsheet 46: Muscles.
muscular contraction including the o Discuss the role of the released calcium ions in binding to sites on
roles of troponin, tropomyosin, troponin and shifting the position of tropomyosin to expose the myosin
calcium ions and ATP binding sites. (W) (Basic)
 Learners annotate their diagrams from 15.1.j. (I) (Challenging)
Key concepts  As a whole group, the first member states the first event occurring,
Biochemical processes ‘depolarisation of the membrane of the synaptic terminal’ and then chooses
the next member of the group to continue the ‘story’. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners produce a written account, or a flow chart diagram, summarising the
sequence of events occurring from the arrival of an action potential at the
synaptic terminal of the motor neurone to the contraction of the sarcomere. (F)
14.1.a  Learners write an explanation of what is meant by homeostasis. Online

discuss the importance of o Explain that they should think of main ideas and use appropriate http://www.biologymad.com/master.h
homeostasis in mammals and terminology (e.g. give choice as below). tml?http://www.biologymad.com/Hom
explain the principles of homeostasis  Maintenance of, an internal / a cellular, environment … eostasis/Homeostasis.htm
in terms of internal and external  at a constant level / set point / norm / normal level / stable level or
stimuli, receptors, central control, co- within normal limits …
ordination systems, effectors  despite changes / fluctuations in the internal or external environment
(muscles and glands) …
 using negative feedback control mechanisms …
Key concepts  so that cells can function efficiently. (I) (Basic)
Cells as the units of life,  Learners suggest the different parameters or physiological factors that should
Organisms in their environment be kept at / around a set point (e.g. temperature, blood glucose concentration,
blood pH / carbon dioxide concentration, water balance / water potential,
metabolic wastes) and explain the importance of maintaining the balance.
o Encourage use of the terms negative feedback (defined in 14.1.b)
receptors and effectors. (W) (Basic)
 Learners use separate cards (limit 10-12) to write out definitions and features
of the terms stimulus, receptor, effector, control centre, response.
o Learners swap with a partner, who can write down the relevant term that
is being described. (P) (I) (Challenging)
14.1.b  Learners write out the simple definition using resources and then qualify Online
V3.1 160
define the term negative feedback further after discussion: http://www.biology-

and explain how it is involved in o Physiological processes or a changing external environment can cause online.org/4/1_physiological_homeos
homeostatic mechanisms variation from the set point. tasis.htm
o A mechanism brings the internal environment back to the set point, or http://scienceaid.co.uk/biology/huma
Key concepts small oscillations about the set point. ns/homeostasis.html
Cells as the units of life o Negative feedback always involves a receptor and effector and often http://science.jrank.org/pages/3365/H
involves a control centre. (W) (I) (Challenging) omeostasis.html
 Using a named example, learners draw a flow chart to summarise
homeostatic control and negative feedback, showing the named receptor(s), Textbooks/Publications
effector(s) and control centre (if present). (H) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 28: Feedback control
 Learners are provided with a paragraph describing a named example of mechanisms
homeostatic control and construct an annotated diagram as a summary. (F) Bio Factsheet 161: Negative
Feedback Mechanisms
14.1.c  Learners write a paragraph explaining what the two systems have in common Online
outline the roles of the nervous and then construct a table of the differences. (I) (Challenging) http://www.abpischools.org.uk/page/
system and endocrine system in co-  Learners to research the difference between: excretion and secretion; an modules/homeostasis_sugar/sugar2.
ordinating homeostatic mechanisms, endocrine gland and an exocrine gland. (H) (Basic) cfm
including thermoregulation,  Using resources, learners outline the involvement of the nervous system and
osmoregulation and the control of endocrine system in each of the named mechanisms, including naming, and
blood glucose concentration describing the role of, any hormones. (I) (Basic)
Key concepts Note

Cells as the units of life,  There are close links to 15.1.a.
Biochemical processes  The research on osmoregulation and blood glucose concentration is useful for
later studies.
14.1.d  Learners suggest the distinction between excretion and egestion. (W) (Basic) Online
describe the deamination of amino  Describe how deamination removes the toxic part of an amino acid molecule, http://www.ilng.in/pdf/mtg_bio_final.p
acids and outline the formation of forming highly toxic ammonia, and leaves a useful keto acid (chemical energy df
urea in the urea cycle (biochemical for respiration or conversion for energy storage). http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
detail of the urea cycle is not o Explain that in many terrestrial animals the ammonia is immediately net/BiologyPages/U/UreaCycle.html
required) converted to the less toxic urea. (W) (Basic)
 Learners annotate an outline diagram of deamination and the urea (ornithine) Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts cycle as you provide additional information, including: takes place in the liver; Bio Factsheet 59: Excretion.
V3.1 161
enzyme controlled; ATP required; urea transported dissolved in the blood. (I)
(Basic)
 Extension: learners draw a molecule of urea highlighting that it is a small
organic compound (useful for later work on the kidney). (W) (Basic)
Note
 Explain that amino acids are not stored in the body.
14.1.e  Agree with learners the location of their kidneys. (W) (Basic) CD-ROM
describe the gross structure of the  Show learners, on a whole kidney, what is meant by transverse and Bioscope – has images of kidney
kidney and the detailed structure of longitudinal sections before learners identify structures from images. sections.
the nephron with its associated blood o Learners hold up to the light the prepared slides of rat kidney to show the
vessels using photomicrographs and shape of the entire kidney in LS or TS, and the areas of cortex and Online
electron micrographs medulla. (W) (I) (Challenging) http://www.histology.leeds.ac.uk/urin
 Learners dissect (e.g. from a sheep), or use images of, a whole kidney to ary/kidney.php
Key concepts make annotated drawings of the external appearance and a section through http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/
Cells as the units of life the kidney. (I) (Challenging) RENAHTML/RENALIDX.html
 Go through a diagram of nephron structure, including the associated blood http://www.cie.org.uk/cambridge-
vessels. Refer also to the high blood pressure in the renal artery. for/teachers/order-publications/
o Explain that the venous system does not begin immediately after the
glomerulus, and that there is a dense capillary network serving the Textbooks/Publications
nephrons. (W) (Basic) King p.155-156
o Learners label and annotate the diagram. (I) (Basic) Siddiqui p.191-194
Bio Factsheet 1: The kidney:
Note excretion and osmoregulation
 If a kidney is dissected, learners can trace the renal artery, renal vein and
ureter, and follow the blood vessels into the cortex. Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2012, Q10 (a)
14.1.f  For an overview, learners annotate a large diagram as you outline the Online
describe how the processes of processes occurring in each region. (W) (I) (Basic) http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
ultrafiltration and selective  Explain how sufficient pressure is present for ultrafiltration. net/BiologyPages/K/Kidney.html
reabsorption are involved with the o Discuss how the presence of the plasma proteins remaining in the blood www.biologyinmotion.com/nephron/in
formation of urine in the nephron has some effect on water potential and the filtration process. (W) (Basic) dex.html
 Learners annotate diagrams to explain how the structure of the Bowman’s http://www.biologymad.com/resource
V3.1 162
Key concepts capsule and glomerulus allows the process of ultrafiltration to occur. s/kidney.swf
Cells as the units of life, o Explain the role of the basement membrane as the true dialysing filter. (I) http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcont
Biochemical processes (Challenging) ent/animations/content/kidney.html
 Learners make a list of the components of glomerular filtrate and list the
components of blood that are too large for ultrafiltration. (I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
 Learners interpret tables showing the concentration of various substances in Bio Factsheet 1: The kidney:
the blood plasma and the glomerular filtrate to make comparisons. (I) (Basic) excretion and osmoregulation
 Learners annotate diagrams of selective reabsorption in the proximal Bio Factsheet 59: Excretion
convoluted tubule (PCT), with teacher-led prompts Bio Factsheet 150: Answering Exam
o To consolidate, learners make bullet point notes using resources. (I) Questions on the Kidney
(Challenging)
 Learners produce a summary listing the mechanisms of transport used in Past Papers
selective reabsorption and the substances that are transported. (I) (Basic) Paper 41, June 2012, Q10 (b)
 Learners explain how the structure of the cuboidal epithelial cells of the PCT
are suited to their function. (H) (F) (Challenging)
 Background: learners research the principles behind kidney dialysis. (I)
(Challenging)
Note
 For the overview diagram, explain that in the loop of Henle most water is
reabsorbed, and that the outward movement of sodium (and chloride) ions
into the interstitial fluid occurs to create a very low water potential. No details
of the mechanism or the countercurrent multiplier are required.
14.1.g  Learners recall from 14.1.c and AS Level why it is important to control the Online
describe the roles of the water content of the blood (refer to water potential gradients and osmosis). http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
hypothalamus, posterior pituitary, o Learners discuss the consequences and the conflict between maintaining net/BiologyPages/K/Kidney.html
ADH and collecting ducts in a constant volume of blood and maintaining constant water potential, e.g. www.biologyinmotion.com/nephron/in
osmoregulation when someone has a meal high in salt. (W) (Basic) dex.html
 Learners rearrange a set of linked, sequential statements to give a description http://www.biologymad.com/resource
Key concepts of the roles in osmoregulation of the hypothalamus, posterior pituitary; ADH s/kidney.swf
Cells as the units of life, and collecting duct (CD). Include one statement to show the role of the distal http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcont
Biochemical processes convoluted tubule (DCT). ent/animations/content/kidney.html
o Reminded learners that the surrounding (interstitial) fluid has a very low
water potential. (P) (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
V3.1 163
o Learners use the statements as the basis for their notes. (I) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 1: The kidney:
 Learners are later given only a few of these statements to sequence and fill in excretion and osmoregulation
the missing details. (F) Bio Factsheet 59: Excretion
 Learners produce a flow chart to show the negative feedback control of water Bio Factsheet 150: Answering Exam
in the blood. (H) (Basic) Questions on the Kidney
 As a summary, learners interpret data from tables or graphs to explain and
relate concentrations of different substances in each part of the nephron. (I)
(Challenging).
14.1.h  Learners suggest (i) why it is important for blood glucose concentration to be Online
explain how the blood glucose kept relatively constant, and (ii) why, in healthy people, oscillations around the http://www.biologyreference.com/Bl-
concentration is regulated by norm concentration is inevitable. (W) (Basic) Ce/Blood-Sugar-Regulation.html
negative feedback control  Using resources, learners construct a table similar to the incomplete table http://www.mydr.com.au/gastrointesti
mechanisms, with reference to below. (I) (Basic) nal-health/pancreas-and-insulin
insulin and glucagon norm/set point of 90-120mg of glucose
-3 Textbooks/Publications
100cm blood
Key concepts increases above decreases below Bio Factsheet 145: Blood sugar and
Cells as the units of life, stimulus detected by beta () cells alpha () cells its control
Biochemical processes pancreas pancreas
hormone released insulin glucagon Past Papers
main target tissues of liver and muscles liver Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q7
hormone (+adipose tissue)
main effects of stimulates uptake of stimulates
hormone glucose breakdown of
……………….. glycogen to glucose
…………………… …………………….
final outcome blood glucose blood glucose

concentration concentration
decreases increases
 Learners describe the sequence of events occurring in the body after having a
carbohydrate-rich meal (illustrating homeostasis). (H) (Basic)
 Learners construct a flow chart to show negative feedback control of blood
glucose concentration involving insulin and glucagon.
V3.1 164
o Learners add annotations or bullet points and include the terms

homeostasis, stimulus, receptor, effector and negative feedback. (F)
 Extension: learners investigate the effect of diabetes mellitus on the control of
blood glucose concentration. Links: use of dipsticks, 14.1.k; insulin production
by genetic engineering, 19.2.c. (H) (Basic)
Note
 Accurate spelling is important: both glucagon and glycogen are terms used in
this topic.
14.1.i  Use a question and answer session to remind learners of membrane proteins Online
outline the role of cyclic AMP as a that function as receptors and enzymes. http://courses.washington.edu/conj/g
second messenger with reference to o Explain that liver cells have different receptors to bind adrenaline and protein/cyclicamp.htm
the stimulation of liver cells by glucagon. http://highered.mcgraw-
adrenaline and glucagon o Learners suggest why the hormones are unable to trigger directly hill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=
reactions within the cell (hydrophilic, do not enter cell). swf::535::535::/sites/dl/free/00724373
Key concepts o Use a diagram to outline how binding causes production in the cytoplasm 16/120109/bio48.swf::Action%20of%
Biochemical processes of cyclic AMP, which then stimulates the enzymatic conversion of 20Epinephrine%20on%20a%20Liver
glycogen to glucose. (W) (Basic) %20Cell
 Learners write a paragraph to explain the difference between first and second
messengers. (F)
Note
 Muscle cells have receptors for adrenaline but not for glucagon.
 Names of the specific receptors are not required.
 Notes are not necessary at this point as a summary of 14.1.j will suffice
14.1.j  Discuss the role of adrenaline so learners understand the need for a higher- Online
describe the three main stages of cell than-normal blood glucose concentration. (W) (Basic) http://highered.mcgraw-
signalling in the control of blood  Discuss the sequential process using diagrams. (W) (Challenging) hill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=
glucose by adrenaline as follows:  Learners annotate copies of the diagrams, highlighting how one event triggers swf::535::535::/sites/dl/free/00724373
 hormone-receptor interaction at the next: 16/120109/bio48.swf::Action%20of%
the cell surface (see 4.1c)) o Binding of adrenaline and activation of G (membrane) protein. 20Epinephrine%20on%20a%20Liver
 formation of cyclic AMP which o Enzyme-catalysed formation of cyclic AMP at the membrane and %20Cell
binds to kinase proteins consequential activation of kinase proteins. http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/fac
 an enzyme cascade involving o Phosphorylation of enzymes involved in carbohydrate and lipid ulty/farabee/BIOBK/biobookendocr.ht
V3.1 165
activation of enzymes by metabolism, e.g. for the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate. ml

phosphorylation to amplify the (I) (Challenging) http://courses.washington.edu/conj/g
signal  Learners re-order statements to show the sequential process (F) protein/cyclicamp.htm
Key concepts
14.1.k  Remind learners how a dipstick is used to detect glucose and then explain the Online
explain the principles of operation of principles of operation before learners make notes. http://www.southernbiological.com/kit
dip sticks containing glucose oxidase o Learners write out a worded reaction and explain why a reaction catalysed s-and-equipment/specialised-
and peroxidase enzymes, and by glucose oxidase will confirm the presence of glucose (enzyme laboratory-and-field-equipment/urine-
biosensors that can be used for specificity, Unit 1). testing/g10-41-diastix/
quantitative measurements of o Explain that peroxidases are used so that the hydrogen peroxide product
glucose in blood and urine reacts with a chemical (chromogen) that produces a coloured product. (W) Textbooks/Publications
(I) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 157: Diabetes –
Key concepts  Practical: if available, learners compare Clinistix  to Diastix. (W) (Basic) Management or Cure?
Biochemical processes,  Outline the operation of the biosensor by incorporating questions to link to AS Bio Factsheet 167: Biosensors
Observation and experiment Level topics: partially permeable membrane, diffusion of glucose molecules
(from the blood sample), immobilised enzymes and specificity. Past Papers
o Discuss how the reaction needs to be detected, e.g. use of electrodes; a Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)
decrease in oxygen; increase in hydrogen peroxide; production of gluconic
acid.
o Learners explain how the digital read-out is proportional to the
concentration of glucose in the sample. (W) (Challenging)
 Discuss how dipsticks and portable devices to detect glucose and measure
concentrations are considered great improvements for people with diabetes
(compared to times before glucose biosensors and the Benedict’s tests. (W)
(Basic)
 Learners compare the use of glucose dipsticks and glucose biosensors,
explaining advantages of each. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners draw a diagram to show the main parts of a biosensor and annotate
to show the principles of operation. (F)
Note
V3.1 166
 Link with previous work on insulin (14.1.h) and a practical for immobilised
enzymes (3.2.d).
 Note that some textbooks state that the oxidation of glucose produces,
gluconolactone, which is an intermediate of gluconic acid.
 Discuss ideas and developments in the commercial production of glucose
biosensors, e.g. devices that can control and regulate insulin doses.
 Learners should be able to use the principles of operation to apply to a design
that they may not have come across.
14.1.l  Learners reflect back to14.1.f and explain why glucose and proteins would not Online
explain how urine analysis is used in normally be found in urine in detectable levels. http://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/urine-
diagnosis with reference to glucose,  Explain that ketones are products of carbohydrate, protein and lipid dipstick-analysis
protein and ketones metabolism, but high levels in urine may indicate ill health, such as in http://www.medicinenet.com/urine_te
uncontrolled type I diabetes. sts_for_diabetes/article.htm
Key concepts  Explain that a urine analysis could indicate a condition: glycosuria and
Biochemical processes, diabetes mellitus; proteinuria / albuminuria / microalbuminuria and renal Past Papers
Observation and experiment disease or damage e.g. that may have been caused as a result of long-term Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q2 (a)
type II diabetes. (W) (Basic)
o Learners make outline notes on each of the three named urine
compounds.
o Notes to include the diagnostic role of urine dipsticks (specific for each or
multiple combination strips testing for all three). (I) (Basic)
Note
 Very low concentrations are excreted by healthy people, levels detected by
urine dipsticks are indicative of possible health problems.
 Details of other tests that can be performed on urine are not required.
15.1.l  Learners review the endocrine system and hormones with a short written test. Online
explain the roles of the hormones  Discuss the different origins of the named hormones involved in the menstrual http://www.biologymad.com/master.h
FSH, LH, oestrogen and cycle, explaining target tissues differ. tml?http://www.biologymad.com/Hor
progesterone in controlling changes o Emphasise for later their importance in synchronising activities of the mones/Hormones.htm
in the ovary and uterus during the ovary and uterus. (W) (Basic) http://highered.mcgraw-
human menstrual cycle  Use diagrams to describe the maturation of the follicle in the ovary, ovulation hill.com/sites/0072495855/learner_vi
and the formation of the corpus luteum. ew0/chapter28/animation__positive_
V3.1 167
Key concepts o Describe the events occurring in the uterus. (W) (Basic) and_negative_feedback__quiz_1_.ht
Cells as the units of life,  Learners draw a large outline graph. The x-axis being time (to 28 days – ml
Biochemical processes explain that cycles may be longer or shorter), y-axis being hormone http://highered.mcgraw-
concentration (arbitrary units). hill.com/sites/0072495855/learner_vi
o Learners sketch diagrams of (i) the physical changes in the uterus over 28 ew0/chapter28/animation__maturatio
days (above the graph), and (ii) the changes occurring in the ovary (below n_of_the_follicle_and_oocyte.html
the graph). (I) (Basic)
o Using description and question and answers build up the graph to show Textbooks/Publications
the changing concentrations of the hormones over the 28 days (use a Bio Factsheet 57: Oestrous cycles.
method to distinguish oestrogen and progesterone, the sex hormones, Includes the menstrual cycle
from FSH and LH, the two pituitary hormones.
o Discuss the feedback mechanisms that occur to enable the cycle to be Past Papers
controlled, learners annotate or add bullet point notes. (W) (I) Paper 41, June 2012, Q5 (a)
(Challenging) Paper 42, Nov 2013, Q4
 Extension: learners investigate the role of gonadotrophin releasing hormone
(GnRH) in the control of the menstrual cycle. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners discuss the changes to the graph(s) for shorter / longer cycles,
explaining the reasons for their choices. (G) (Challenging)
 Learners describe specific examples within the cycle of positive and negative
feedback mechanisms. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners complete unlabelled diagrams and graphs showing the events in the
menstrual cycle. (F)
Note
 It may be beneficial for learners to know the full names of FSH and LH: they
are not required learning.
15.1.m  Learners research how the combined oral contraceptive pill prevents Online
outline the biological basis of pregnancy and compare this with the progesterone /progestin-only pill. (H) http://www.patient.co.uk/search.asp?
contraceptive pills containing (Basic) searchTerm=contraceptive+pill&colle
oestrogen and/or progesterone  Learners consider how concentrations of oestrogen and progesterone differ in ctions=Condition_Leaflets
women who are taking the contraceptive pill. http://hcd2.bupa.co.uk/fact_sheets/ht
Key concepts o Learners explain the effects of these differences in terms of the feedback ml/hormonal_contraception.html
Observation and experiment mechanisms discussed in 15.1.l. (I) (Challenging)
Past Papers
Note Paper 43, June 2011, Q3 (b)
V3.1 168
 The role of oestrogen and/or progesterone in controlling fertility is an

extension of learners’ knowledge and understanding of the menstrual cycle.
V3.1 169
Unit 11: Plant physiology and biochemistry

As with respiration, learners should be familiar with the concept of energy transfer, for example from light energy to chemical energy. They should have a sound
understanding of what a molecule is, and understand chemical formulae and equations. It would be helpful if they understood the concept of oxidation and
reduction, at least at a simple level. Knowledge from AS Level of plant cell structure and of gene expression will help understanding of the role of gibberellin in cell
elongation. It would be helpful if learners had an appreciation of the importance of communication, control and coordination in multicellular organisms.
Context
This unit considers another aspect of the key concept of biological processes and studies the transfer of energy from light energy to the energy contained in organic
compounds in living organisms. It has close links to Unit 9, Respiration, and revisits the concepts involved in the synthesis of ATP by chemiosmosis. It builds on
material covered at AS Level: enzymes and biological molecules, especially glucose and starch, from Unit 1; plant cell structure and chloroplast structure and
function from Unit 2; and leaf structure, including stomata from Unit 4. Having considered mammalian physiology in Unit 10, the plant hormones abscisic acid and
gibberellin are used to exemplify communication, control and coordination in plants. Learners first come across gibberellin when studying selective breeding in Unit
7. This unit could be taught before Unit 9, Respiration, if it is felt more logical to introduce learners first to the process involved with the initial input of energy into the
ecosystem.
Outline
The unit begins with an overview of photosynthesis, highlighting the transfer of energy and the link between the light dependent and light independent stages. The
light absorbing pigments are introduced and linked to the concepts involved with absorption and action spectra: learners can also separate photosynthetic pigments
by chromatography. The light dependent and light independent stages of photosynthesis are described. The concept of limiting factors is introduced and learners
have the opportunity of investigating factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis. A consideration of how this knowledge can be applied to crop plants is included.
More detail is provided of the ways in which the structure of a chloroplast is suited to its functions. Learners also consider how some plants have evolved to cope
with life in hot environments. Response to an external stimulus is exemplified by a study of the Venus fly trap. Stomatal closure and opening, including the role of
abscisic acid, the role of auxin in cell elongation and the effect on gene activation of gibberellin is covered. There are numerous practical opportunities within this
unit to develop skills relating to planning, data analysis and the evaluation of investigations.
Teaching time
V3.1 170
13.1.b  Project or show an image or diagram of a chloroplast and check learner Online
state the sites of the light dependent knowledge from Unit 1 by a question and answer session. http://resources.teachnet.ie/foneill/ph
and the light independent stages in o Learners explain why the thylakoid membranes are the location of ATP oto.html
the chloroplast synthesis (refer back to mitochondrial membranes: site of ATP synthase,
location for photosynthetic pigments).
Key concepts o Learners suggest why the stroma is the site of the Calvin cycle (enzyme
Cells as the units of life, reactions). (W) (Challenging)
Note
 A review may be necessary of the anatomy of the leaf, so that learners can
visualise mesophyll tissue and mesophyll cells containing chloroplasts.
 13.3.a may be taught first to give a visual overview of where the processes of
photosynthesis occur.
13.1.c  Allow learners to state the role of chlorophyll before raising the level of Online
describe the role of chloroplast understanding to explain that the light energy needs to be transferred. Explain http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/te
pigments (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll that: aching-resources/283-
b, carotene and xanthophyll) in light o Absorption occurs in areas of the thylakoid membrane that contain photosynthesis-how-does-
absorption in the grana photosystems. chlorophyll-absorb-light-energy
o Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are two types of chlorophyll molecule in a http://phototroph.blogspot.ca/
Key concepts typical photosystem, along with other photosynthetic pigments, e.g.
Cells as the units of life carotenes and xanthophylls. Textbook/Publications
o Each type of pigment absorbs certain wavelengths of light and reflects Bio Factsheet 63: Pigments in plants
others (mention the antenna complex).
o Absorbed energy is passed on to a special pair of chlorophyll molecules
that can pass on energetic/excited electrons to electron acceptors. (W)
(Challenging)
 Learners label and annotate an unlabelled diagrammatic version of a
photosystem as you talk them through the various components.
o Learners note that: the special pair act as the reaction centre and the
others as accessory pigments; in Photosystem I (PI) the pair have a
characteristic absorption wavelength of 700 nm (P700), and in PII of 680
nm (P680).
o Refer to the higher energy state of the electrons as photoactivation of
chlorophyll. (I) (Challenging)
V3.1 171
Note
 Explain that xanthophylls and carotenes are carotenoids.
 This overlaps with 13.1.f so details of the photosystems may be taught there.
13.1.d  Background practical to help understanding: learners follow, or have Online

interpret absorption and action demonstrated or described, a protocol to measure an absorption spectrum to http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
spectra of chloroplast pigments see how the curve on the graph is obtained. net/BiologyPages/A/ActionSpectrum.
o Explain that absorption is measured using a spectrophotometer). (W) (P) html
Key concepts (I)
Cells as the units of life,  Learners study separate absorption graphs for each of the chloroplast Textbooks/Publication
Organisms in their environment, pigments (i.e. each has a characteristic absorption spectrum): check Siddiqui p.91
Observation and experiment understanding with a worksheet. (I) (Basic)
 Provide learners with a ‘classic’ absorption spectrum graph (includes the main Past papers
pigments) and a set of questions assessing ability to extract data and show Paper 51, Nov 2011, Q1 (a)(b)
understanding.
o Learners suggest the advantages to plants of having different pigments
(extends the range of light wavelengths absorbed). (F)
 Explain how the graph for the action spectrum of photosynthesis is obtained.
(W) (Basic)
 Show learners a ‘classic’ action spectrum with peaks in the red and blue
regions and sketch an absorption spectrum graph of pigment ‘X’ (actually
chlorophyll a) and a separate one for a pigment ‘Y’ (peaking in the green
region).
o Learners suggest, with a reason, which is most likely to be involved in light
absorption for photosynthesis, so that the correlation between absorption
and action spectra is seen. (W) (Basic)
 Explain that there are more pigments involved than those usually shown, so
the absorption spectrum graph is only similar to the action spectrum graph.
o Explain that there are different carotenes and xanthophylls and different
plants have a characteristic set of pigments. (W) (Basic)
Note
 Check that the absorption spectrum is well understood before moving onto the
action spectrum, ensuring that learners make the association between the
two.
V3.1 172
13.1.e  Practical: learners could carry out the separation for pigments of one plant, Practical booklet 8
use chromatography to separate and and compare results with others that have used different plants.
identify chloroplast pigments and o Learners make measurements and calculate Rf values, comparing with Online
carry out an investigation to compare published values to make identifications. (G) (I) (Basic) http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/te
the chloroplast pigments in different  Practical booklet 8 is a protocol for separating chloroplast pigments by paper aching-resources/181-learner-sheet-
plants (reference should be made to chromatography. Colours fade relatively quickly so measurements should be 10-thin-layer-chromatography-for-
Rf values in identification) made as soon as possible (or take photographs) after removing photosynthetic-pigments
chromatograms from the solvent.
Key concepts Textbook/Publications
Observation and experiment King p.113-114
Siddiqui p.90-91
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q10 (b)
Paper 51, Nov 2011, Q1 (c)(d)(e)
Paper 53, Nov 2011, Q1 (d)(ii)
13.1.f  Use a diagram to ask learners questions about what happens in a Online
describe the light dependent stage as photosystem (13.1.c). http://cnx.org/content/m48011/latest/
the photoactivation of chlorophyll o Ensure learners know that excitation of energetic electrons results in a http://www.life.illinois.edu/govindjee/t
resulting in the photolysis of water transfer to an acceptor. extzsch.htm
and the transfer of energy to ATP o Explain that the absorption of light energy in PII also triggers the http://www.johnkyrk.com/photosynthe
and reduced NADP (cyclic and non- photolysis of water by an enzyme (termed the oxygen evolving complex, sis.html
cyclic photophosphorylation should closely located to the reaction centre). (W) (Basic)
be described in outline only)  With verbal prompts, learners build up the ‘Z-scheme’ to produce an outline of Textbook/Publications
non-cyclic photophosphorylation and include explanations. Bio Factsheet 02: The essential
Key concepts o Sketch a ‘rising’ letter ‘N’, then add PII, then PI (represent guide to photosynthesis.
Biochemical processes energy levels). PI Bio Factsheet 153: The Light
o Add circles for the electron transport chain carriers (or label PII Dependent Stage of Photosynthesis
ETC) and add arrows to show the electron pathway.
o Add arrows to show the production of ATP as electrons flow down the Past Papers
ETC. Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q7 (a)
o Show the photolysis of water, with electrons replacing the gap in PII,
oxygen evolved.
o Show the electrons accepted by NADP to produced reduced NADP.
o Add the title non-cyclic photophosphorylation (noted for 13.1.a later). (I)
V3.1 173
(Basic)
 Learners repeat the construction of the Z-scheme and add explanatory notes
without help. (F)
o Describe cyclic photophosphorylation.
o Learners suggest why only ATP can be synthesised.
o Learners add this in a different colour to their Z-scheme. (I) (Basic)
 Learners revise work on chemiosmosis (Unit 9) to give an account of ATP
synthesis at the thylakoid membrane. A partially labelled diagram showing a
section through the thylakoid membrane with electron carriers of the ETC and
the ATP synthase complex can be used as stimulus. (H) (Challenging)
12.1.e (ii) Only part of this learning objective is included here: explain that the synthesis of Online
explain that the synthesis of ATP ATP is associated with the electron transport chain on the membranes of http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/N
is associated with the electron chloroplasts (see 12.2.g) BK21063/
transport chain on the membranes  Learners complete a short written test to remind them of previous work
of mitochondria and chloroplasts o Chloroplasts are cellular structures where ATP is formed. Textbook/Publications
(see 12.2.g) o ATP is an energy transfer molecule. Bio Factsheet 153: The Light
o The initial energy input for chloroplasts is light energy and for Dependent Stage of Photosynthesis
Key concepts mitochondria, energy-containing organic compounds.
Cells as the units of life, o The ETC involves thylakoid membrane proteins capable of accepting and Past papers
Biochemical processes donating electrons. (F) Paper 41, June 2013, Q10 (b)
13.1.a  In groups learners construct a large, poster-sized concept map / spider Online
explain that energy transferred as diagram with photosynthesis as a topic. (G) (Basic) http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/te
ATP and reduced NADP from the  Discuss and agree as a class the main points and improve ideas to A Level aching-resources/134-
light dependent stage is used during standard. Learners then make notes in diagrammatic or bullet-point form. photosynthesis-a-survival-guide-
the light independent stage (Calvin o An overall equation for photosynthesis (word equation changed to teaching-resources
cycle) of photosynthesis to produce chemical formulae, balanced). http://photoscience.la.asu.edu/photos
complex organic molecules o Two main stages, occurring in the chloroplasts of mesophyll cells and both yn/study.html
involving enzymes. http://www.johnkyrk.com/photosynthe
Key concepts o In the light dependent stage, light energy is transferred to ATP and the sisdark.html
Biochemical processes, reduced coenzyme, NADP. http://www.biologymad.com/master.h
Organisms in their environment o Oxygen (waste product) from this stage can be used for aerobic tml?http://www.biologymad.com/a2bi
respiration (in plant or released into the atmosphere to other organisms). ology.htm
o In the light independent stage (also termed the Calvin cycle), carbon http://faculty.fmcc.suny.edu/mcdarby/
Animals&PlantsBook/Plants/01-
V3.1 174
dioxide, ATP and NADPH are used for the production of complex organic Photosynthesis.htm
molecules, such as glucose and starch. (W) (I) (Challenging)
Past papers
Note
Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q7 (b)
 Learners should understand the terms ‘autotroph’, ‘photoautotroph’ and
‘producer’.
 Avoid using the terms ‘light reaction’ and ‘dark reaction’.
13.1.g  Discuss why the light dependent stage of photosynthesis needs to occur when Online
outline the three main stages of the no glucose has yet been made (allows the transfer of light energy to ATP and http://www.science.smith.edu/depart
Calvin cycle: reduced NADP). ments/Biology/Bio231/calvin.html
 fixation of carbon dioxide by o Learners write out the overall equation of photosynthesis to spot that http://www.wiley.com/college/boyer/0
combination with ribulose carbon dioxide has not yet been involved (sets the scene for the Calvin 470003790/animations/photosynthesi
bisphosphate (RuBP), a 5C cycle). (W) (Basic) s/photosynthesis.htm
compound, to yield two molecules  Learners link together a set of statements, based around the ideas in the http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/ch
of GP (PGA), a 3C compound learning objectives and including rubisco, to describe the Calvin cycle. emistry/laureates/1961/calvin-
 the reduction of GP to triose o Provide curved arrows, so that they can create a cycle with their lecture.pdf
phosphate (TP) involving ATP and statements. (P) (I) (Challenging)
reduced NADP  Discuss their cycles. Textbooks/Publications
 the regeneration of ribulose o Emphasise the roles of reduced NADP and ATP (include the concept of Bio Factsheet 02: The essential
bisphosphate (RuBP) using ATP recycling to the light dependent stage). guide to photosynthesis.
o Explain that the steps are catalysed by enzymes. Bio Factsheet 227: RuBP
Key concepts o Show how 6 carbon dioxide molecules are required to produce 1 glucose carboxylase – the most important
Biochemical processes molecule, so that the overall equation for photosynthesis makes sense. enzyme on the planet?
o Learners then produce their own annotated Calvin cycle. (W) (I)
 Background: learners investigate the experiments carried out by Calvin and Paper 41, June 2011, Q10 (b)
his colleagues using the ‘lollipop’ apparatus. (I) (Challenging) Paper 43, June 2011, Q10 (b)
 Learners annotate fully a skeleton outline of the Calvin cycle (provide a variety
so that each contains different information – could be differentiated). (F)
Note
 For ‘error-free learning’, use only the syllabus names and abbreviations:
o GP (glycerate 3-phosphate) or PGA (3PG / 3-phosphoglycerate /
3-phosphoglyceric acid)
V3.1 175
o TP (triose phosphate). Avoid other common names: glyceraldehyde

3-phosphate (GALP); 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL)
o Explain that other acceptable names are used.
 No names of enzymes, other than rubisco, are required.
13.1.h  Agree that GP is the raw material for producing carbohydrates, lipids and
describe, in outline, the conversion of amino acids (no details of pathways required).
Calvin cycle intermediates to o Learners add this information to their Calvin cycle. (I) (Basic)
carbohydrates, lipids and amino  Briefly discuss how two molecules of GP can produce a hexose sugar. (W)
acids and their uses in the plant cell (Basic)
 Discuss, using question and answer, the use of hexose sugars (glucose and
Key concepts fructose, Unit 1), including:
Biochemical processes o Immediate use to release energy as respiratory substrates.
o Synthesis of sucrose for transport to sinks (revise plant transport, Unit 4).
o Conversion to starch or lipid for energy storage.
o Production of structural compounds (cellulose).
o Learners suggest what else is required to synthesise amino acids for
proteins (uptake of nitrate and sulfate ions in the roots). (W) (Basic)
 Learners produce an outline set of notes from the discussion. (I) (Basic)
13.3.a  Place the chloroplast into context as a summary. Online

describe the relationship between o Learners identify: the photosynthetic organism (plant); the organ of http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/ima
structure and function in the photosynthesis (leaf); the main photosynthetic tissue (palisade ge-gallery/show/PL0130/
chloroplast using diagrams and mesophyll); the organelle of photosynthesis (chloroplast); the structures of http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/fes
electron micrographs the chloroplast. (W) (Basic) em/applets/chloroplast/
 Learners draw a labelled diagram of a chloroplast, annotating (or write a http://faculty.uca.edu/johnc/Chloropla
Key concepts summary) to show how the chloroplast is adapted for photosynthesis. st_and_microbodies.jpg
Cells as the units of life, o Note the requirement for membranes and intermembrane spaces to
Biochemical processes generate ATP as electrons pass along a chain of electron carriers. Textbook/Publications
o Note the locations of the light dependent stage and the light independent Bio Factsheet 198: Chloroplasts –
stage. (I) (Challenging) structure and function
 Learners interpret photomicrographs and electron micrographs of Bio Factsheet 61: Chloroplasts and
chloroplasts, drawing labelled diagrams. (I) (Basic) mitochondria
Past Papers
V3.1 176
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q10 (a)
13.2.a  Show learners a number of definitions of the term limiting factor. As a group
explain the term limiting factor in produce an explanation to note down that is in the context of photosynthesis.
relation to photosynthesis (W) (I) (Basic)
 Learners draw a generalised graph showing the rate of photosynthesis on the
Key concepts y-axis and the factor on the x-axis.
Biochemical processes, o Label the graph with the regions where the factor directly affects the rate
Organisms in their environment of photosynthesis and those where other factors become limiting. (I)
(Basic)
13.2.b  Learners suggest the factors that may affect the rate of photosynthesis, and Online
explain the effects of changes in light discuss ways in which the rate could be measured. (W) (Basic) http://www.biology4all.com/resources
intensity, carbon dioxide  Learners suggest the parts of the photosynthetic process that involve _library/details.asp?ResourceID=43
concentration and temperature on enzymes, and hence affect photosynthetic rate. http://resources.teachnet.ie/foneill/ex
the rate of photosynthesis o Light dependent stage: photolysis of water; synthesis of ATP (ATP per.htm
synthase); transfer of electrons to NADP for reduction. http://www.assessnet.org.uk/e-
Key concepts o Light independent stage: each of the steps of the Calvin cycle (the bulk of learning/
Biochemical processes, enzyme-catalysed reactions occur here).
Organisms in their environment,  Learners use their notes on chloroplast pigments and the two stages of Textbook/Publications
Observation and experiment photosynthesis to suggest how changes in carbon dioxide concentration and King p.115-117, 149
light intensity will affect the rate of photosynthesis. Siddiqui p.86-89, 94
o Include an explanation as to why the light independent stage will not Bio Factsheet 136: Practical
operate when there is no light. (I) (Basic) (Challenging) Investigations for Photosynthesis
 To link back to 13.2.a learners interpret graphs showing the effects of limiting Bio Factsheet 25: Tackling data
factors, explaining why the rate of photosynthesis changes and using interpretation questions II:
extracted date to support their answer. (I) (Challenging) photosynthesis (limiting factors)
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2012, Q8 (a)(b)
13.2.c  Explain that knowledge of limiting factors can be used to control the growing Online
explain how an understanding of conditions of commercial crops, especially in protected environments. (W) http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebit
limiting factors is used to increase (Basic) esize/science/add_aqa/photosynthesi
crop yields in protected  Brainstorm ideas as to what growers can do to increase crop yields in s/photosynthesisrev3.shtml
environments, such as glasshouses glasshouses. Include: http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/
V3.1 177
o Artificial light (photosynthesis for more hours of the day; increase light crops/facts/00-077.htm
Key concepts intensity on days with little sunlight).
Biochemical processes, o Use of paraffin lamps (carbon dioxide and heat). (W) (Basic)
Observation and experiment o Learners make notes and explain how these will improve yield. (F)
13.2.d  From 13.2.b learners will know that the production of oxygen can be used to Practical booklet 9
carry out an investigation to measure the rate of photosynthesis.
determine the effect of light intensity o Learners suggest why the rate of production of NADP in the light Online
or light wavelength on the rate of dependent stage correlates with the rate of photosynthesis. http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/pra
photosynthesis using a redox o Explain that a way of measuring this could be to use a different electron ctical-biology/investigating-light-
indicator (e.g. DCPIP) and a acceptor, DCPIP, which can be visualised (blue dye that becomes dependent-reaction-photosynthesis
suspension of chloroplasts (the Hill colourless when reduced). (W) (Basic) http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/te
reaction) o Learners suggest how DCPIP can be used to measure rate. (W) aching-resources/157-measuring-
(Challenging) the-rate-of-photosynthesis
Key concepts  Learners carry out a version of the Hill reaction practical or watch it
Biochemical processes, demonstrated and then explain a set of results. Ensure that both Textbook/Publications
Observation and experiment investigations, light intensity and light wavelength, are covered. (P) (I) (H) Siddiqui p.93-93
(Challenging)
 Discuss the findings of the original investigation performed by Robin Hill: Past paper
oxygen is evolved in the absence of carbon dioxide; the electrons transferred Paper 53, Nov 2011, Q1 (a)(b)(c)
to the electron acceptor originate from water. (W) (Challenging)
 Practical booklet 9 (Hill reaction) uses melting point tubes as reaction
vessels and does not use a centrifuge. Learners can investigate the effect of
both light wavelength and light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis. Pooled
data for analysis may be collected as preparation for Paper 5. Learners can
also use the technique to devise plans that can be peer reviewed (see 12.2.h
and 12.2.m).
13.2.e  Practical: learners investigate the effect of light intensity, light wavelength, Online
carry out investigations on the effects carbon dioxide concentration and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis. http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/te
of light intensity, carbon dioxide and o Learners design and carry out at least one investigation of their own, once aching-resources/190-using-
temperature on the rate of a technique has been shown to them. (I) (Challenging) pondweed-to-experiment-with-
photosynthesis using whole plants, o Learners explain how the plan can be modified to investigate the effect of photosynthesis-
e.g. aquatic plants such as Elodea limiting factors. (I) (Challenging) http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/te
and Cabomba aching-resources/284-investigating-
Note photosynthesis-with-leaf-discs
V3.1 178
Key concepts  Carbon dioxide concentration can be varied by using an aquatic (water) plant http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/te
Observation and experiment in varying concentrations of solutions containing sodium hydrogen carbonate aching-resources/285-learner-sheet-
(sodium bicarbonate). 20-starch-production-in-plants-
during-photosynthesis
13.3.b  Learners review C3 photosynthesis by completing worksheets with gaps or by Online

explain how the anatomy and rearranging cards describing stages and then suggest why the term C3 plant http://www.icrisat.org/crop-
physiology of the leaves of C4 plants, is used. (W) (P) (I) (F) (Basic) sorghum.htm
such as maize or sorghum, are  Explain that rubisco can also catalyse the oxygenation of RuBP. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorghum
adapted for high rates of carbon o Use diagrams, and remind learners of enzyme inhibition (AS Level) to http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
fixation at high temperatures in terms prompt them to suggest why the reaction is favoured in high oxygen net/BiologyPages/C/C4plants.html
of: concentrations. http://www.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes
 the spatial separation of initial o Learners suggest the conditions when oxygen concentrations will be high /photosynthesis.htm
carbon fixation from the light (high light intensity and high temperatures increase rate of light dependent www.biologymad.com/resources/Cro
dependent stage (biochemical stage). (W) (Basic) p%20Plants.pps
details of the C4 pathway are o Learners write an explanation of photorespiration. (I) (Basic)
required in outline only) (Challenging) Past Papers
 the high optimum temperatures of  Explain that C4 plants are traditionally from hotter environments. (W) (Basic) Paper 43, June 2011, Q4
the enzymes involved  Describe, using diagrams, the structural and functional features of maize or
sorghum as examples of C4 plants. (W) (Challenging)
Key concepts o Learners suggest how the features adapt the plants to reduce the effects
Biochemical processes, of photorespiration and allow high rates of carbon fixation.
Natural selection, o Learners label and annotate a diagram of a section through the leaf of a
Organisms in their environment C4 plant.
o Learners produce a comparison table of C3 (see 13.3.a) and C4 leaf
structure. (W) (I) (Challenging)
 Discuss the effect of higher temperatures on C3 enzymes versus C4
enzymes. (W) (Basic)
o Learners use their graph(s) from 13.2.b (temperature v rate of
photosynthesis), to sketch in a curve for a C4 plant. (I) (Basic)
 Extension: learners consider the effects of global warming on the distribution
of C4 plants. (I) (Challenging)
15.2.a  Display photographs of the Venus fly trap plant and its modified leaves. Online
describe the rapid response of the o Leaners brainstorm uses of nitrogen in plants. http://plantsinmotion.bio.indiana.edu/
V3.1 179
Venus fly trap to stimulation of hairs o Discuss the need for a source of nitrogen in addition to the products of plantmotion/movements/nastic/nastic
on the lobes of modified leaves and photosynthesis. .html
explain how the closure of the trap is o Explain that the plant requires supplemental nitrogen owing to low levels http://www.botany.org/Carnivorous_P
achieved of nitrogen in the bog habitats where it is found. (W) (Basic) lants/venus_flytrap.php
 Explain to learners that the equivalent of an action potential occurs to cause
Key concepts the snapping shut of the trap to catch insects.
Cells as the units of life, o Briefly review learner understanding of stimulus, receptor and action
Organisms in their environment potential (Unit 10). (W) (Basic)
 Learners sequence a set of statements as the basis to make notes. Ideas to
include:
o Stimulus = insect movement (mechanical).
o Receptors = hair cells (upper leaf surface).
o Touching two times in succession, i.e. the presence of an insect, results in
depolarisation of the hair cell membrane (owing to an influx of positive
ions).
o If the depolarisation is large enough, action potentials spread across from
receptor cells to reach cells on the outside surface.
o One possible mechanism of closure of the trap:
+
 H is pumped out of cells on the outside surface into the cell walls
+
 The low pH causes cell wall loosening and movement out of H leads
2+
to influx of Ca
 Water follows osmotically and the cells swell to snap the trap shut. (I)
(Challenging)
 Background: learners investigate how carnivorous plants like the Venus flytrap
digest and absorb their insect catch. (I) (Basic)
V3.1 180
14.2.a  Learners link stomatal opening and closure to transpiration (Unit 4) and Online
explain that stomata have daily photosynthesis. http://www.tiem.utk.edu/~gross/bioed
rhythms of opening and closing and o Discuss the environmental stimuli for opening and closure (learners recall /webmodules/circadianrhythm.html
also respond to changes in factors affecting transpiration rate).
environmental conditions to allow o Explain the ‘internal clock’ of guard cells and the daily rhythm of opening
diffusion of carbon dioxide and during the day and closing during the night. (W) (Basic)
regulate water loss by transpiration  Provide graphs showing daily rhythms of opening and closing, with the effects
of changing environmental conditions on particular days.
Key concepts o Learners describe and explain the graph, using this as the basis of their
Cells as the units of life, notes. (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Mention the term circadian rhythm (not required learning).
 Very high wind speeds may also cause stomatal closure – some books do not
show this on typical graphs.
14.2.b  Learners draw and label a diagram of guard cells, making a note of their Online
describe the structure and function of function. (I) (Basic) http://www.phschool.com/science/biol
guard cells and explain the  Learners use an outline diagram of the events occurring for stomatal opening ogy_place/labbench/lab9/stomamov.
mechanism by which they open and and complete a worksheet to describe and explain the mechanism involved html
close stomata (uses much knowledge from AS Level). (I) (Challenging) http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/te
 Learners use knowledge of the mechanism of stomatal opening to write out aching-resources/104-stomata-
Key concepts and explain the sequence of events occurring for stomatal closure. (F) function-guard-cells-and-transpiration
Cells as the units of life,  Learners use prepared slides (see 7.2.e, Unit 4) to observe guard cells and
Biochemical processes stomata. (I) (Basic)
 Learners observe stomatal opening and closure in temporary slides made of
epidermal strips in solutions of different water potential. (I) (Basic)
14.2.c  Describe the role of abscisic acid (ABA) as a 'stress hormone' to help plants Online
describe the role of abscisic acid in survive difficult environmental conditions such as drought. (W) (Basic) http://labs.biology.ucsd.edu/schroede
the closure of stomata during times  Explain to learners that calcium ions are important in plant cell signalling. (W) r/clickablegc.html#figure1
of water stress (the role of calcium (Basic) http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
ions as a second messenger should  Learners make summary bullet-point notes based on the following ideas: net/BiologyPages/A/ABA.html
be emphasised) o Guard cells have receptors for ABA: the presence of ABA results in high http://www.plant-
concentrations of calcium ions within the cytoplasm. hormones.info/abscisicacid.htm
Key concepts o ABA can inhibit the proton pump used to pump out protons, preventing the
V3.1 181
Biochemical processes, inward flux of potassium ions. Textbooks/Publications

Organisms in their environment o The presence of both ABA and calcium ions leads to changes in the Bio Factsheet 48: Tackling exam
membrane that causes the opening of potassium ion channels. questions: plant growth substances
o The calcium ions, therefore, can be considered as a second messenger. Bio Factsheet 111: Plant Growth
o Movement out of potassium ions from the cell will cause stomatal closure Substances
(see 14.2.b). (I) (Challenging)
Past Papers
Note
Paper 43, June 2011, Q11 (a)
 Not all the details of ABA and calcium ion involvement in stomatal closure are
known: it is worth checking for updates.
 The changes in the membrane are depolarisation as a result of activation of
anion channels in the membrane (details not required).
 As abscisic acid can enter cells, receptors could be membrane-bound or
internally located.
15.2.b  Discuss how cell division and cell elongation will lead to plant growth and Online
explain the role of auxin in elongation stem elongation. http://croptechnology.unl.edu/pages/i
growth by stimulating proton pumping o Explain that auxin is a plant hormone involved in cell elongation. (W) nformationmodule.php?idinformation
to acidify cell walls (Basic) module=998688536&topicorder=6&m
 Discuss details of cell wall structure before outlining the sequence of events axto=11&minto=1
Key concepts that occur (learners recall AS Level knowledge). Learners make notes to http://home.earthlink.net/~dayvdanls/
Cells as the units of life, include: plant_grow.htm
Biochemical processes o Auxin increases the activity of proton pumps (ATP required) and protons http://www.personal.psu.edu/fsl/ExpC
are pumped out of the cell into the cell wall. entral/
o The decrease in pH activates expansins (proteins) involved in loosening
cell wall structure.
o Water moves in by osmosis, increasing turgor and allowing cells to
elongate. (W) (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Auxins are a class of hormones, rather than one particular plant hormone. At
this level the use of ‘auxin’ is acceptable. The same applies to gibberellins.
15.2.c  Introduce gibberellin as a hormone that promotes germination by breaking Practical booklet 10
describe the role of gibberellin in the seed dormancy.
germination of wheat or barley o Agree what is meant by ‘germination’. (W) (Basic) Online
V3.1 182
 Learners annotate a diagram of a section through a wheat or barley grain, http://www.indiana.edu/~oso/animati

Key concepts showing the sequential events occurring once water is imbibed. Use ons/barley.html
Biochemical processes, questioning and include:
Observation and experiment o Diffusion, e.g. of gibberellin from embryo to aleurone layer; Textbooks/Publications
o Transcription and translation (in aleurone layer cells for production of King p.240-241
digestive hormones);
o Hydrolysis of starch and protein (by digestive enzymes) and use of Past Papers
products for respiration and growth of seedling. (I) (Challenging) Paper 43, June 2011, Q11 (b)
 Learners organise a set of statements to show the correct sequence of events Paper 41, Nov 2013, Q9
in seed germination. (F)
 Practical booklet 10: learners carry out practical to investigate the effect of
different concentrations of gibberellic acid on stimulating amylase activity in
germinating seeds.
o The results can be analysed using the t-test (see 17.1.c). (P) (I) (Basic)
15.2.d  Remind learners of 15.2.b and explain that in stem elongation, gibberellin Online
explain the role of gibberellin in stem causes both cell division and cell elongation. (I) (Basic) http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biol
elongation including the role of the  Learners recall basic points: the definition of an allele (Unit 3); genes code for ogy/biology-iv/plant-growth-
dominant allele, Le, that codes for a polypeptides / proteins; enzymes are proteins; the definitions of dominant and movements/gibberellins.php
functioning enzyme in the gibberellin recessive (alleles). (W) (Basic) http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
synthesis pathway, and the recessive  Explain that there is a gene responsible for expressing an enzyme that is net/BiologyPages/G/Gibberellins.html
allele, le, that codes for a non- important in the synthesis of active gibberellin. http://www.plant-hormones.info/
functional enzyme o State that there is a dominant allele for the functioning enzyme and a
recessive allele for a non-functioning enzyme. (W) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts  Learners use knowledge of genetics and of the role of gibberellin to explain King p.244
Cells as the units of life, how plants that are LeLe and Lele will have tall stems, whereas plants that are Bio Factsheet 118: Germination
DNA, the molecule of heredity lele will have short stems. (F) Bio Factsheet 133: Comparing
 Learners carry out practical work to investigate the effect of gibberellic acid on Chemical Communication in Plants
stem (hypocotyl) elongation and on seed germination (barley) (see 15.2.c). and Animals
Note Past Papers

 This could be amalgamated with 16.3.d. Paper 43, Nov 2012, Q10 (b)
16.3.d  Explain that DELLA proteins are regulators of growth: they bind to Practical booklet 10
explain how gibberellin activates transcription factors necessary for expression of genes coding for growth
genes by causing the breakdown of proteins. Online
V3.1 183
DELLA protein repressors, which o Learners explain how the DELLA proteins can be considered repressors. http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultra
normally inhibit factors that promote (W) (Basic) net/BiologyPages/G/Gibberellins.html
transcription  Explain that gibberellin can bind to intracellular receptor proteins (GID1) and
that this leads to a complex with DELLA proteins, making them susceptible to
Key concepts degradation by the cell.
Biochemical processes, o Learners suggest the consequences of this breakdown. (W)
DNA, the molecule of heredity, (Challenging)
Observation and experiment  Learners describe the sequence of events that lead to an event such as stem
elongation in the presence of gibberellins. (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Learners could be directed to use this information on the mode of action of
gibberellins in their interpretations of results from practical booklet 10 (see
15.2.c).
V3.1 184
© Cambridge International Examinations 2014
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9700 Scheme of Work (For Examination From 2016)

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9700 Scheme of Work (For Examination From 2016)

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Scheme of Work

Cambridge International AS & A Level

Recommended prior knowledge

All organisms interact with their biotic and abiotic environment.

Suggested teaching order

The units within this scheme of work are:

Suggested time allocation (%)

Excretion of nitrogenous waste and osmoregulation 14.1.d, 14.1.e, 14.1.f, 14.1.g

Suggested teaching order

http://www.s-cool.co.uk/alevel/biology.html S-cool: revision website

Unit 1: Biological molecules

Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities Learning resources

Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities Learning resources

 Further discussion (W) (Basic)

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practical notes regarding the development of certain skills for Paper 3.

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2.2.f  Draw the general formula for a fatty acid. Online

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Key concepts otes.html

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Bio Factsheet 173: How to identify

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6.1.b  Discuss phosphodiester bond (strong, covalent) formation by condensation Online

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explain that the maximum rate of (W) (I) (Basic) http://www.worthington-

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Unit 2: Cells as the basic units of life

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1.2.e  Learners examine photomicrographs, electron micrographs and diagrams of

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involving water potential will be set) Textbooks/Publications

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Unit 3: DNA and the mitotic cell cycle

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in permitting continued replication nucleotides. (W) (Basic) nt/chromosomes/telomeres/

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relevant genes. (W) (Challenging) Past Papers

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Unit 4: Transport and gas exchange

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