(2)}- Baseband Pulse Transmission 2.1 Introduction Definition of baseband transmission : When the signal is transmitted over the channel, without any modulation, it is called baseband transmission. Problems occurred in baseband transmission : One of the major problem occurred in baseband transmission is intersymbol interference. This interference takes place due to dispersive nature of the channel. Corrective measures to minimize errors in baseband transmission : Nyquist criterion gives a condition for distortionless baseband transmission. It is possible to reduce the effect of intersymbol interference with the help of raised cosine spectrum. Correlative level coding is also used to minimize effects of intersymbol interference. It allows higher signaling rate on low bandwidth channel. Equalizers are used to compensate for distortion introduced in the channel. Alll the above concepts are discussed thoroughly in this chapter. 2.2 Matched Filter 2.2.1 Definition The matched filter is used for detection of signals in baseband and passband transmission. Fig. 2.2.1 shows the transmitted digital signal and received noisy signal. In this figure observe that the transmitted signal sequence is 1 0 0 1 1. The pulse is checked at the point 'T’ of every bit period. Because of noise pulse present in the third bit at the instant 'T’ of checking, it is detected in error. (2-1)J T 1 EEEEEEEEEEEEEER | xi Transmitted tt o——0—1-+-1 1 4 = Te = dole ct YD 1 Noise pulse Received signs! for | +44 { te +0 t tt 1-11 +. thepeeeil 1-+-0-fv1+-0-}-0 Cry Vcltantie | {| T smo is H4 I detected in eror due to|—,- + | "noise pulse |_| | a Fig. 2.2.1 Error due to noise * Requirements of detection receiver (i) Signal to noise ratio of the receiver must be improved. The signal must be checked at the instant in bit period, when signal to noise ratio is maximum. (iii) The error probability should be minimum. * Matched Filter (i) It satisfies all the above requirements. (ii) It is called matched filter since its impulse response is matched to the shape of input signal. 2.2.2 Decision Threshold in Matched Filters * Assumption Let us assume that the received signal is a binary waveform. Let us consider that the polar NRZ signal is used to represent binary 1s and 0s. ie.,Digital Communication 2-3 Baseband Pulse Transmission for binary ‘T'; xy(1 for one bit period ‘T and for binary ‘0; x3(0 for one bit period ‘T. Thus the input signal x(t) will be either x, ()or x, (#) depending upon the polarity of the NRZ signal. Fig. 222 shows the block diagram for such binary coded signal. Noiy Input o = . (0 will be Aox(T) + F(T xy(0) oF x20, a YoxlT +n, Noise n(t) added a ‘over the channel has ped of S, (9). Fig. 22.2 A receiver for binary coded signal As shown in the above figure, noise (i) is added to the signal x(t) over the channel during transmission. Hence input to the optimum filter is x(0) +1(0) Input to the receiver = x(t) +n( and Output from the receiver = Xo; (T) +" (T) or X99 (T) +9 1) When noise is absent : The output of the receiver will be, rM =x) if x = HO and rT) = xm_(7) if x) = Thus in the absence of noise, decisions are taken clearly. When noise is present : (i) select x, (#) if r (7) is closer to xp, (T) than x9, (T) and, (ii) select x5 (#) if r (T) is closer to xq» (T) than xg (T). Therefore the decision boundary will be midway between x9, (T) and xq (7). It is given as, Decision boundary = Osta 221) Review Question 1. Explain what is matched filter.Digital Communication 2-4 Baseband Pulse Transmission 2.3 Error Rate Due to Noise (Error Probability) 2.3.1 Error Conditions in Matched Filter © Suppose that x) (f) was transmitted, but xo) (T) is greater than xq (T). If noise ng(T) is positive and larger in magnitude than the voltage difference J loi T+ x92 M]-*p2 (M, then incorrect decision will be taken. ie. error will be generated if, ny (1) > aM 100 _ 5) ny (1) 2 «=» 23.) Jo -*0 1) + Similarly, let x;(t) is transmitted, but x9,(T) is greater than X9)(T). Then incorrect decision will be taken if noise n(T) is less than FET) +m) xqi(T). ie, error will be generated if, no 5 2004407) ~ Xo (T) men « —20=L) +» (232) The above two error conditions are summarized in the following table : Value of no(t) for error in the output g(t) 2 Hee Probability of error Probability of error will be obtained by evaluating the probability thet raft) 2224 D= Xo eke Probability of eror can be ablained gt < S080 Saf evaluating the probability that ™ oir) < 708 *0f Table 2.3.1 : Error conditions in a matched filter 2.3.2 Generalized Error Probability 4. Gaussian noise The probabilities given in the table 2.3.1 can be obtained from the pdf of no(t). We know that the pdf of gaussian distributed function is given as, 1 2/292 — ~ (em)? /204 fs) = SianDigital Communication 2-5 Baseband Pulse Transmission Here /,(x) is the pdf of random variable x. m is the mean value, and @ is the standard deviation. Here we want to evaluate pdf of white gaussian noise. Hence x = nt). It has zero mean, ie., m = 0. Hence above equation can be represented as, felno(t)) = sz en lng) /202 wn (23.3) Fig. 23:1 shows the plot of this pdf. f ston - sata) XTX p27) 2 Fig. 2.3.1 Calculation of P, for matched filter 2. Probability that no(t) takes value in shaded area From the property of pdf we know that, P| ro(ty2 0-20 ) ws Jixo)4 bro] on (2.3.4) sox(T)-t0a7) This equation gives the probability that ny(t) takes the value greater than so) x07) This probability is represented by shaded area under the f,(no(t)) curve from Ja) a) onwards. Similarly the probability that ny() takes the value less than ~202(7)—soiT) jg shown by the shaded area under the pdf curve on left side. Since the pdf curve is symmetric, we can write,Digital Communication 2-6 Baseband Pulse Transmission aT Ae) a nz »( no(t)s~ Sm(T)=201T) ) Above equation shows that the low shaded areas are equal. 3. Error Probability The above two probabilities indicate error probabilities. Since occurrence of x;(t) oF x(t) is mutually exclusive, the probabilities in above equation i.e., Af mot) 2 ra ent) = rms fae) =o) ) Hence from equation 2.3.4 we can write, Pe JfaCrot)4 Fro] xonT)-x02(T) sok Tat Putting for f,(np(t)) from equation 2.3.3 in above we get, P= J 1 er bo(nP/20? 23.5) ou (7) = tg (7) s Use erfc function Imp (OP. 2 Let “262 mS no(t) = oV2y ding] = 0 V2dy when Ng () = yan = 40, 7)-Xo0 M) = FTX) when nig (t) = Ly “a. Putting those values in equation 2.3.5 we get, P, = oe? ody vonDigital Communication 2-7 Baseband Pulse Transmission 1 , -y2 == ew dy VF sg (T)=103(T) - 2c Let us rearrange the above equation as follows : 2 1 -y2 P= BNF ev dy wwe (2.3.6) x ols Mm ae To solve the above integration, let us use the following standard result. =) ew? dy = erfelu) Then equation 2.3.5 will be, (23.2) 2.3.3 Maximum Signal to Noise Power Ratio 1. Define noise power The standard deviation o is given as, 1 © = [mean square value - square of mean value]? 1 = fx2- may? Here mean square value of the noise is, X? = n3(#) ; and mean value m, = 0. Therefore we can write, % = o= nO In standard 10 resistance, the noise power will be “3 nO). 2. Define Signal Power The erfc function is the monotonically decreasing function. Therefore P, decreases as the ratio ~9 —*02") increases. Let us represent the difference signal Xo1 (T) = X92 (T) by Xo (T). i.e, Xq (T) = Xo) (T)— x9 (T) ~- (2.3.8)Digital Communication 2-8 Baseband Pulse Transmission Let us consider the square of the ratio of x,(T) to 0. ie., 2) 2 w» (2.3.9) Here p is called signal to noise power ratio. In the above equation x2 (T) is the normalized signal power in 19 load. And, 6? =n2 (T)=E{n2 (t)] is normalized noise power since mean value of noise is zero. Hence above equation can be written as, HO. 3O 4M nz) Ela) o? p= .- (2.3.10) 3. x9(T) in terms of H(f) Let Xo (f) be Fourier transform of xp (t). If X(f) is the Fourier transform of input difference signal x(}) fic. x(t) =x, ()-x2 ()], then we can write, Xo = HINX(N « (23.11) Here H (f) is the transfer function of matched filter. We can obtain xq (T) by taking inverse Fourier transform of Xq (f) ie, Xo(T) = IFT Xo (N} = J Xp Mert af By definition of IFT = J H(f)X (fei28T df By equation 2.3.11 w. (2.3.12) 4, 2 in terms of Hif) The input noise to the matched filter is (i). Let its power spectral density be $,; (f). The output noise of matched filter is mo (f). Let its power spectral density be Sjo (f)- Then these input and output power spectral densities of noise are related as, Sno) = LH (DI? Sy (By property of psd w= (23:13) The input noise is white gaussian. Its power spectral density is, S,() = Therefore above equation becomes, Sno (f) = |H (AI?Digital Communication 2-9 Baseband Pulse Transmission The normalized noise power is obtained by integrating the power spectral density. ie, o? = f Soar By property of psd siqor Near from equation 23.13 wn (23.14) “2 Putting for x9 (T) {equation 2.3.12] and 6? [above equation] in equation 2.3.10 we Bet, 2 _ an [noone d on wm» (23.15) 5. Use of Schwarz's inequality * Here let us use the well known Schwarz’s inequality discussed in Appendix Bie, © 2 oe 2 i 01 (x) 0 wal sf 16,9 |? dx f Jon (» |? dx vw (2.3.16) Let AN = PeHO and 92) = = X (erat INo 2 « Then with these substitutions equation 2.3.15 becomes, 2 Jameel flomlearDigital Communication 2-10 Baseband Pulse Transmission + By applying Schwarz's inequality of equation 23.16 to the numerator of above equation we get, Flowbee flower <2 lana s flmoky s ay xen of r + By putting value of 8 (f) in the above equation, (peat? = |X (A |? since [e29|=1 2 2 ps J IxoP af a (2.3.17) + The signal to noise power ratio given by above equation will be maximum when we consider equality. ie. Pmax -f Lol Saree i, [wr ‘af w= (23.18) 2 ‘As the above ratio becomes maximum, the error probability given by equation 2.37 will be minimum 2.3.4 Minimum Error Probability of a Matched Filter + We know that, - 2) [inset oy Hence equation 2.3.18 will be written as, . [xaos Prax 2? = Wp Lor df a (23.19)Digital Communication 2-11 Baseband Pulse Transmission + Parseval's power theorem states that, é © r J IXMP dP = f x dt=f x2 wae = (2.320) * “0 0 In the last integral we have taken limits from 0 to T since x(t) exists from 0 to T only. We know that x(t) =x, (!)-x3 (#). Hence above equation becomes, @ T f IXMP a = f fy O-xy OP at ~ 0 L? (+23 (2x4 (Oxy wo) dt Tr T x2 dts J x3 dt-2f x, x2 Wat o» (23.21) o 0 T Here, f x? dt = energy of x, (t) by standard relations. 0 T and ff x3 (dt = . energy of x5 (t) by standard relations. 0 r and [x1 @)x2() = Ey represents energy due to auto-correlation between 0 x1 @and xy () © If we select x, (tf) =~ x» (0, then the energies are equal. i.e., E, = E)=-Ey =E w= (2.3.22) © Putting these values in equation 2.3.21 we get, j IX(P df = [E+E-2(-B1=4E ~~ (1.3.23) ‘© Putting the above value of f |X(f)|? df in equation 23.19 we get, [= M-xe ¢ w= (2.3.24)Digital Communication {X01 (1) - Xoo (T | Xoo imax © Putting this value of pa Doe in equation 2.3.7 we get probability of j error of matched filter as, 1 E = pate w= (2.3.25) Here erfc is the monotonically decreasing function. Hence when we substitute [017)~ X02] U s Jmax error. That is, the above equation really gives minimum probability of error of matched filter. as the argument of erfc, we get minimum value of probability of Minimum error probability of matched filter : P, = 3 erfe | = 2.3.26) ° It is clear from above equation that, the error probability depends only upon the signal energy E. It does not depend on the shape of the signal. Review Question 1. Derive an expression for error probability of matched filter. 2.4 Impulse Response of a Matched Filter The impulse response can be obtained from the transfer function of the matched filter. 2.41 Transfer Function of Matched Filter Now let us derive an expression for impulse response of a matched filter. © The transfer function of the matched filter should be such that it maximizes the signal to noise power ratio, In the previous section, the signal to noise power ratio is given as, = pene ps f Roy df by equation 2.3.17. -o =fDigital Communication 2-13 Baseband Pulse Transmission © This value is maximum when equality holds in above equation. Then 6,(f) and 02(f) of equation 2.3.16 satisfy following condition. i.e., 01(f) = k82 *(f) Putting the values of 0,(f) and @,(f) from equation 2.3.16 (a), * Thus when above equation is satisfied, the signal to noise ratio ‘p' will be maximum. Rearranging above equation for H(f), we get, HY) = Transfer function of matched filter Hif) = Axenerst (241) 9 This is a required expression for transfer function of the matched filter. 24.2 Impulse Response Impulse response can be obtained by taking inverse fourier transform of the transfer function of matched filter. * By the complex conjugate property of fourier transform we know that X"(f) = X (~ f). Putting this value in equation 2.4.1, Hp = 2xepeiext No © Taking inverse fourier transform of above equation, hi) = IET{H(f)} ur exc ners sw (24.2) No The inverse fourier transfrom of X(-f) is x(-1) and e~i2"!T represents time shift of 'T seconds. i.e., FT {(-)} = XA) and FT {x(P-#)} = X(-fle“P29TDigital Communication 2-14 Baseband Pulse Transmission Here FT means Fourier Transform. With the help of above properties of fourier transform, we can write equation 2.4.2 as follows : no = heap vu (24.3) 0 * Since we have considered x(t) =; (t) - x9 (#), the above equation will be, Impulse response of matched filter : I(t) = zx 7 -0-x,(T-9} | aay 0 The above two equations [equation 2.4.3 and equation 24.4] give the impulse response of the matched filter. om Example 2.4.1 A polar NRZ waveform is to be received by a matched filter. Binary 1 is represented by a rectangular positive pulse and binary zero is represented by a rectangular negative pulse. Find out the impulse response of the matched filter and sketch it. Solution : Let x, (#) represent the positive rectangular pulse whose duration is ‘T’ as shown in Fig. 2.4.1 (a). Let x2 (f) represent a negative rectangular pulse whose duration is also 'T’ as shown in Fig. 2.4.1 (b). x)= +A for Cert ns QA5) and x, () = -A for O Example 2.5.1 Show that the maximum signal to noise ratio of the matched filter is, =z Pma = Ni Solution : From equation 2.3.18, we know that the maximum signal to noise power ratio of a matched filter is given as, 2° = — [Ix we (2.5.1) Pma = ¥o J IX(P df tc Rayleigh’s energy theorem states that, frxoe df = fe (t)dt =E (energy) With this result equation 2.5.1 becomes, we (25.2) N 2 Here E is energy of signal x(t) and—° is power spectral density (psd) of white noise. Hence we can write, _ Energy of the signal x (t) Pmax = “Ded of white noise » 253) mip Example 2.5.2: Show that for a matched filter the maximum signal component occurs at t = T (ie. sampling instant) and has magnitude E, ie. energy of the signal x(). Solution : The fourier transform of the output signal x (!) is given as,Digital Communication 2-18 Baseband Pulse Transmission Xo = XH) w= (25.4) Here, _X (f) is fourier transform of input signal x(f) and H (f) is transfer function of matched filter Putting value of H(f) from equation 2.4.1 we get, Xo) = XQ ZLx (Ne2at = Axx (Deiat No No We know that X (f) X* (f) =|X () |?. Hence above equation becomes, Xo = eS IX eat 255) 0 From this relation we can obtain xp (?) by taking inverse fourier transform. ie., Xo) = J Xo Mela" a By definition of IFT " ioe PE IX (2 e- PAT -ciah df No Putting Xq (f) from equation 25.5 |e j [x (DI? e271) af 2| 0 at t=T, Xo (t) becomes, x9 (T) = J 1X ()]? e291) ag 0 - I IX(D df since @/?9(T-7) =e? =1 oe By Rayleigh’s energy theorem we know that J IX() FE df = i x? ()dt=E, hence above equation becomes, x9 (T) = mee Maximum value of x9 (7) will result when 2 0Digital Communication 2-19 Baseband Pulse Transmission Hence, xo(T) = E when | =T um> Example 2.5.3 : Show that the output signal of a matched filter is proportional to a shifted version of the auto-correlation function of the input signal to which the filter is matched. Solution : The output signal xp (f) is obtained from its spectrum X, (f) by taking inverse fourier transform. se, Xo = J Xo Hert af Putting Xp (/) from equation 25.5 we get, xo = X(N Fe PWT eit ay 2k No" jue 2k =a 8 IX (DF 28-2 af (2.5.6) The energy spectral density (esd) is defined as, esd: wi) = IX)? By definition Hence equation 2.5.6 becomes, Hy = * J vent af (25.7) One of the property of esd states that auto-correlation function R(t) and energy spectral density y (/) form a fourier transform pair. ie., RQ) oy) By property of esd a (25.8) That is, RQ) = J yer df ww (2.5.9) ~ and v= j R(x) e729 de w+ (2.5.10) Applying equation 2.5.9 to RHS of equation 2.5.7 we get, xg(t) = = R(t-7) w= 25:11)Digital Communication 2-21 Baseband Pulse Transmission xt) Fig. 2.5.1 (a) input signal tt is feeangul pulse ahven by Squation Fig, 25-4 (2) input signal pulse folcied in time. This signal is by ' equation 2.5.14 Fig, 25.1 (c) Folded signal of Fig. (b) is delayed by T. This signal is represented by equation 2.5.15 Fig. 2.5.1 (d) Impulse response of the nt) the input signal pulse & Al of Fig. (a). ‘This Fepresented jation 2.5.16. Actually Fip. (c) and (d) both represent impulse response t and normally 7 ~=1 fo Calculation of Pmex From equation 2.5.2, the maximum signal to noise ratio of the matched filter Pynax is given as, Puen 2 Ce max ~ Ny E “N72 ww (2.5.17) Here NO is given as psd of white noise. We can calculate energy of signal x() as, E= J x? (dt By definition Putting for x()=A and changing the limits from 0 to T, the above equation T E = f Atdt=A2 (y= A7r 0Digital Communication 2-22 Baseband Pulse Transmission Putting this value in equation 2.5.17 we get, This is the required value of Pmax: Output of the matched filter : We know that the matched filter is the LTI system. The output of the matched filter is the convolution of input and impulse response. i.c., r(Q) = xO*h® Here r(t) is output of matched filter, hi) is impulse response of matched filter and x(t) is input. Without going into much mathematical details we can State that, the convolution of two similar rectangular pulses is the triangular pulse. Here x(t) andh(f) are two rectangular pulses. Hence r (t) will be a triangular pulse. This is shown in Fig. 2.5.2. The Fig. 2.5.2 shows, the matched filter maximizes its output at t=T. Thus r (t) has a value of A2T at t=T. x) A Fig. 2.5.2 (a) Input signal x(t) 0 T : no A Fig. 2.5.2 (b) Impulse response h(t) assuming that n 2-1 t No Fig. 2.5.2 (c) Output of matched filter for rectangular pulse input. Observe that output is maximum at ¢=TDigital Communication 2-21 Baseband Pulse Transmission x(t) Fig. 2.5.1 (a) i signal it is seasLovtet ets. Fig. 2.5.1 (b) Input signal pulse folded in time. This signal is represented by t equation 2.5.14 Fig, 2.5.1 (c) Folded signal of Fig. (b) is delayed by T. This signal is represented by equation 2.5.15 Fig. 2.5.1 (d) Impulse nse of the ig. (a),ime pulse respo' the input signal pulse 2 | OF Fig: (a), This is represented by No spun 25:18, Anil Fi (cd and impulse respon 3 t and normally a oe =1 No Calculation of pmax ! From equation 2.5.2, the maximum signal to noise ratio of the matched filter pmax is given as, 2 = Pmax = No __E “Wei o» (25.17) Here NO is given as psd of white noise. We can calculate energy of signal x(t) as, E= J x2 (dt By definition Putting for x()=A and changing the limits from 0 to T, the above equation T E = [ Atdt=A2 [th = A2r oDigital Communication Baseband Pulse Transmission of tt2tstes Fig. 2.5.8 Waveforms of matched filter of Example 2.!Digital Communication 2-32 Baseband Pulse Transmission 2.6 Correlation Receiver In this section we will study a little different type of receiver which is called correlator. Fig. 2.6.1 shows the block diagram of this correlator. Locally generates x) Input oiey oor mao LS La — o f(t x(t) Fig. 2.6.1 Block diagram of the correlator In the adjacent figure f(t) represents input noisy signal, ie, f()=x()+n(@. The signal f () is multiplied to the locally generated replica of input signal x(t), This result of multiplication f (#)-x(f) is integrated. The output of the integrator is sampled at t=T (ie. end of one symbol period). Then based on this sampled value, decision is made. This is how the correlator works. It is called correlator since it correlates the received signal f (f) with a stored replica of the known signal x(f). In the block diagram of above figure, the product f () x(t) is integrated over one symbol period, i.e. T. Hence output r(t) can be written as, 1 ri) = Jf fOx@de 0 Att =T, the above equation will be, T Output of correlator : r (T) = ff (t)x(t) dt ++ (2.6.1) o Now let us consider the matched filter as shown in Fig. 2.6.2 below. In the above block diagram eT observe that the matched filter does tomas ey | Manes Lf 11) not need locally generated replica of f(t) htt) ) input signal x(t). The output of the matched filter can be obtained by convolution of input f() and its impulse response h (f) Fig. 2.6.2 Block diagram of a matched fitler receiverDigital Communication 2-33 Baseband Pulse Transmission r® = fO*hO= f f()-he-de vo» (2.6.2) From equation 2.4.3 we know that impulse response / (!) of the matched filter is given as, 2k ho = ROeT-9 | ~- (263) 2k he-0) = Gato) Putting this value of / (t~ +) in equation 2.6.2 we get, ri) = J feogext-trde 4 Since the integration is performed over one bit period, we can change integration limits from 0 to T. 2k T r= NL feed -tends 0 "the above equation will be, r(T) = Rf poe T+xde =f reosioe Let us put t=! just for convenience t notation, z. Output of matched filter : r (T) = 7 [ punxinde wus (264) as a This equation gives the output of matched filter. Observe that this equation and equation 2.6.1 (which gives output or correlator) are identical. In above equation the constant 2 is present which can be normalized to 1. The similarity between o equation 2.61 and equation 2.64 shows that the matched filter and correlator gives same output. Therefore we can state, The matched filter and correlator are to distinct, independent techniques which give the same result. These two techniques are used to synthesize the optimum filter.Digital Communication 2-38 Baseband Pulse Transmission + Fourier transform of p5(t) becomes, ra) = Jrigerma -f | SY pnt, )6¢¢- np) * Let n = i-k in above equation, J SelG-on)op-G-ynJerra coke PA) * Now let us apply the condition of equation 2.8.1 to above equation, Jr(Opa(e- Pat at for i=k PA) =e J 0 8@erPsdt for iek Jr(0)o(e-/2stat for i=k Pf) P(0) f 5@e-P¥t at An integration in above equation is the fourier transform of 6(f), which is 1. Hence, P(f) = p(0) for i=k w= (2.8.4) =1 by normalization of p(0). + Hence equation 2.8.2 becomes (with Ps(f) = 1), 1 = fy LPU- fy) or dre = nfy) = E ww» (285) Since KE = Ty SAr-ah) =1 on» (2.8.6) EeDigital Communication 2-39 Baseband Pulse Transmission This is the frequency domain condition for zero ISI. Above equation is called Nyquist pulse shaping criterion for baseband transmission. 2.8.2 Ideal Nyquist Channel (Ideal Solution to ISI) * Spectrum of p(t) : We will now derive the function p(t) which confirms to Nyquist criterion and eliminates ISI. Equation 2.8.6 represents the spectrum which repeats with period f, and it has amplitude of T). This spectrum is shown in Fig. 2.8.1. P(f) shows the (a) | | Hee Fig. 2.8.1. (a) Spectrum of sampled signal (b) Spectrum of p(t) spectrum of the expected signal Pe It can be represented using rect function as, mp = sre ¢ + To obtain p(t) from spectum : Inverse fourier transform of above function can be obtained from standard fourier transform pairs as, sinc (ft) <2 aml Al ie, p(t) = sine (f,t) The bandwidth of the pulse can be represented by By = 4 . Then above equation becomes, pit) = sinc (2Bot) a= (28.7)