Lecture 1

Water Quality
Water Quality Parameters

1-2
 Some Questions about Water Quality…
• when is water dirty?
– color
– coarse particles
– chemicals
– biological agents
– very fine sized particles

• what exactly is pollution?

– organic pollutants
– inorganic pollutants
– dose/concentration and harm
– mobility of pollutants

1-3
 Measurement of Water Quality: Overview
1. Dissolved Oxygen

2. Oxygen Demand

3. Solids

4. Nitrogen

5. Bacteriological Measurements

1-4
 1. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
• major determinant of water quality in streams,
lakes, and other watercourses
• DO is measured with an oxygen probe and
meter
left: DO-meter

right: working diagram

of DO-meter

1-5
 1. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
how a DO meter works:
• operates as a galvanic cell
• lead (Pb) an silver (Ag) electrodes inserted in an
electrolyte solution with a microammeter between
• at Pb electrode:
Pb + 2OH-(aq)  PbO + H2O + 2e-
• electrons (e-) released at Pb electrode, migrate
through the microammeter toward the Ag electrode
• at Ag electrode:
2e- + ½ O2(aq) + H2O  2OH-(aq)
• reaction will not take place unless DO (i.e., O2(aq)) is
available
• current indicates abundance of DO present

1-6
 1. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
saturation of oxygen in water (i.e., as O2(aq))
• is a function of temperature (T) and pressure (P)
• also depends on concentration of dissolved
solids (i.e., oxygen solubility in water can be
reduced by high solid concentrations) and
concentration of salts
• oxygen solubility in freshwater at P=1 atm
[DO]sat = 12.8 mg/L at 5oC
[DO]sat = 10.0 mg/L at 15oC
[DO]sat = 9.1 mg/L at 20oC
[DO]sat = 8.2 mg/L at 25oC
[DO]sat = 6.9 mg/L at 35oC
1-7
 1. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Solubility of O2 in Water = f(T, P)
• table uploaded (USGS O2 solubility table)
• note that:
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.01325 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 = 101325 𝑃𝑎

• visit this for other conditions:

http://water.usgs.gov/software/DOTABLES/ 1-8
 2. Oxygen Demand
• DO in water is a “supply”-”demand” problem
• “supply” side – dissolution of atmospheric
oxygen into water
• “demand” side – organisms or matters that can
use up oxygen
– organisms: need oxygen for energy (i.e., respiration)
– matters: consume oxygen as they undergo oxidation
reaction
• want to know the rate at which oxygen is being
consumed

1-9
 2. Oxygen Demand
(I) Theoretical Oxygen Demand

(II) Biochemical Oxygen Demand

(III) Chemical Oxygen Demand

1-10
 2.(I) Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD)
• oxygen demand for decomposition of pure
organic materials can be determined from
stoichiometry (i.e., the number of different
elements in chemical formula, such as glucose
C6H12O6)

• Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) is such

demand for the complete decomposition of
organic matter into inorganic products such as
CO2, H2O, and NH3/NO3-

1-11
 2.(I) Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD)
ThOD is determined as:

ThOD = C-ThOD + N-ThOD

where:
• C-ThOD is the oxygen demand due to
decomposition of carbonaceous (organic)
material
• N-ThOD is the oxygen demand due to
stabilization of the nitrogenous material (i.e.,
NH3 to NO3-)

1-12
 2.(I) Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD)
Problem. What is the ThOD for a 1.67×10-3 molar
solution of glucose (C6H12O6)?

(see Example 1-1)

Problem. What is the ThOD in liters of air for a 50

mg/L solution of acetone (CH3COCH3)?

(see Example 1-2)

1-13
 2.(I) Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD)
Problem. What is the ThOD in liters of air for a
300 mg/L solution of methylamine (CH3NH2)?

(in-class exercise; also see Example 1-3)

1-14
 2. Oxygen Demand (cont’)
• to determine ThOD, one must know the
chemical formula of the materials involved
• unfortunately, organic wastes in municipal
wastewaters are rarely well-known
• as a result, it is necessary to conduct a test to
measure oxygen demand
• use microorganisms that convert and mineralize
organic waste to measure the amount of oxygen
required for the organic waste to break down

1-15
 2.(II) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
• BOD is the amount of oxygen consumed by
microorganism in decomposing organic materials in
a defined period of time

• a measure of the oxygen consumed by aerobic

bacteria and other microorganisms to stabilize
decomposable organic matter

• low BOD may reflect

– contaminant is absent or at very low concentration
– microorganisms present are uninterested in consuming the
organic materials
– microorganisms are dead or dying

1-16
 2.(II) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
• BOD is a measure of oxygen use or potential
use
• effluents with high BOD can be harmful to
aquatic life in the receiving stream  oxygen
consumption exceeds supply, causing anaerobic
conditions (i.e., absence of oxygen)
• e.g., DO sag curve approaches zero DO in the
stream

1-17
 Standard BOD Test (BOD5)
• run in the dark at T=20oC for 5 days (i.e. BOD5)
• BOD5 = the amount of oxygen consumed in the
first 5 days
• T is specified because reaction rate varies with
temperature
• reaction run in dark because algae may be
present and can interfere measurement by
producing O2 through photosynthesis in the
presence of light

1-18
 Standard BOD Test (BOD5)
• BOD test typically run in a standard BOD bottle
(~300 mL) made of non-reactive glass and a
ground glass stopper (prevent exchange of O2
between the inside of the bottle and the
surrounding)

1-19
 2.(II) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
• can also measure BOD over different time
intervals (e.g., BOD2, BOD10, etc.)

• BODU or L = the ultimate BOD, which is the

oxygen demand after a very long time of
microbial digestion

• BODU (or L) is usually determined for a 30-day

digestion, at which point little additional oxygen
depletion will occur

1-20
 2.(II) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
• can also measure BOD over different time
intervals (e.g., BOD2, BOD10, etc.)

A: BOD5 = DO0 – DO5

=8–2
= 6 mg/L
B: since DO2 = 0
BOD5 > 8 mg/L
dilution is needed
for accurate BOD5
determination
C: BOD5 = DO0 – DO5
=8–4
= 4 mg/L 1-21
 2.(II) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
(Referring to the previous figure…)

Suppose sample C in the figure is sample B

diluted with distilled water by 1:20. BOD of sample
B is thus 20 times the BOD measured in sample C:

BOD5 in C = 8 – 4 = 4 mg/L
BOD5 in B = 20(4 mg/L) = 80 mg/L

1-22
 2.(II) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Determining BOD5:
• without dilution:
BOD5 = DO0 – DO5
where DO0 and DO5 are the dissolved oxygen
concentration at 0th and 5th day

• with dilution:
BOD5(original sample) = BOD5(diluted sample) × D
D = dilution factor
= total volume of diluted sample /
volume of original sample transferred
1-23
 2.(II) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Problem 1-4.
Determine the dilution factors, D’s, for the 3 BOD
bottles prepared with the following information:

Bottle Sample (mL) Dilution water

(mL)
1 3 297
2 1.5 298.5
3 0.75 299.25

(see Example 1-4)

1-24
 2.(II) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Assumption of the dilution-BOD test:

• it is assumed that the results from each dilution

of a single sample will yield the same BOD value
in the original sample
• sometimes, however, when a series of BOD
bottles run at different dilutions, the calculations
do not converge
• see Problem 1-5

1-25
 2.(II) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Problem 1-5.
Determine BOD of the original sample as
measured from each of the 3 dilutions.

Bottle Dilution Initial DO Final DO

(mg/L) (mg/L)
1 100 10 2.5
2 200 10 6.0
3 400 10 7.5

(see Example 1-5)

1-26
 2.(II) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
In Problem 1-5, the maximum and minimum BOD
estimates differ by 250 mgO2/L  this is known as
the “sliding scale” problem
• ideally, all tests should have resulted in the
same calculated BOD (but they did not)
• what has happened ??

1-27
 2.(II) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
• waste sample typically contains sufficient
microorganisms to initiate and promote
decomposition
• sometimes, however, it is necessary to seed the
sample with microorganisms to make sure a
baseline decomposing capacity is present
• (e.g., a pure sugar solution may not be readily get
degraded unless some microorganisms are around)
• Seeding is the process in which the microorganisms
responsible for oxidation are added to the BOD
bottle with the sample to ensure aerobic
decomposition of organic materials will occur

1-28
 2.(II) BOD Measurement with Seeding
(refer to the BOD diagram on next slide with Samples A, B, and C…)
• suppose some volume of Sample A is used as seed water for the
BOD analysis of an unknown sample (recall, BOD5(A) = 6 mg/L)
• if we mix 100 mL of the unknown sample with 200 mL of Sample A
– dilution factor, D, is 300 / 100 = 3
– further assume that initial DO of mixture = 8 mg/L, and final DO is 3 mg/L
– total O2 consumed = 8 – 3 = 5 mg/L
• some drop in the observed DO is due to the seed water (since
Sample A also has its own BOD)
• DO consumption due to the seed water (i.e., Sample A) is:
BODseed = 6 mg/L (200 mL/300 mL) = 4 mg/L
• DO consumption due to the unknown sample is:
BODunknown,diluted = 5 – 4 = 1 mg/L
• BOD of the original undiluted unknown sample:
• BODunknown = BODunknown,diluted × D = (1)(3) = 3 mg/L

1-29
2.(II) BOD Measurement with Seeding

1-30
 2.(II) BOD Measurement with Seeding
When both Seeding and Dilution methods are applied to measure BOD
of a sample, the BOD is determined as:
𝑋
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡 = 𝐼−𝐹 − 𝐼′ − 𝐹′ 𝐷
𝑌
where
BODt = biochemical oxygen demand measured at time t (mgO2/L)
I = initial DO of bottle with sample and seeded dilution water
F = final DO of bottle with sample and seeded dilution water
I’ = initial DO of bottle with only seeded dilution water
F’ = final DO of bottle with only seeded dilution water
X = seeded dilution water in sample bottle (mL)
Y = total volume of the diluted sample
D = dilution factor of the sample

(unit of I, F, I’, F’ in mgO2/L)

1-31
 2.(II) BOD – Rate of Change of DO
DO changes with time in a BOD measurement. We
can track such change mathematically by means
of a material balance:

𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑂 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

= 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑂 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑂 𝑜𝑢𝑡

+ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑂 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 − [𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑂 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑]

1-32
 2.(II) BOD – Rate of Change of DO
• since BOD bottle is a closed system, no exchange of DO
with surrounding  “in” and “out” terms = 0
• also, BOD test run in dark  no O2 produced, so
“production” term = 0
• so in a BOD test:
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑂 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = −[𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑂 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑]
𝑑𝑧
𝑉 = −𝑟
where 𝑑𝑡
z = DO [mg/L]
t = time
V = volume of BOD bottle
r = reaction rate

1-33
 2.(II) BOD – Rate of Change of DO
assuming 1st-order reaction:
𝑑𝑧
= −𝑘𝑧
𝑑𝑡
the rate at which the need for oxygen is reduced (i.e., dz/dt) is
directly proportional to the concentration of oxygen present at
time t (i.e., both dz/dt and z are functions of t)

integrate the above expression yields the following:

𝑧 = 𝑧𝑜 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
where
z = DO at time t [mg/L]
zo = DO at time = 0
k = 1st order rate constant [time-1]
t = time [time]

1-34
z = DO

zo

yt = BODt
L = BODu

zt = DO at time t
zu

time t
1-35
 2.(II) BODt or yt
according to the figure, at any time:
𝑦𝑡 = 𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡 = 𝑧𝑜 − 𝑧𝑡
and the ultimate BOD or L:
𝐿 = 𝑧𝑜 − 𝑧𝑢

it can be shown (see Example 1-7) that y is related to L and k as

follows:
𝑦 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )
where
y = BOD at time t [mgO2/L]
L = ultimate BOD [mgO2/L]
k = 1st order rate constant [d-1]
t = time [d]

1-36
 2.(II) BOD – Rate of Change of DO
Problem 1-6. Estimate BOD5 if BOD3 = 148 mg/L and a
deoxygenation constant of 0.25 d-1 may be assumed

(see Example 1-6)

1-37
 2.(II) BOD – finding k and L
Need to find k and L for modelling purpose.
There are a number of techniques for calculating k and L.
One approach is that devised by Thomas:
1/3 2
𝑡 1 𝑘3
= 1/3
+ 1 𝑡
𝑦 𝑘𝐿
6𝐿3

The equation is in the form of a straight line:

𝑎 = 𝑏 + 𝑚𝑡
where
a = (t/y)1/3
b = (kL)-1/3
m = (1/6)(k2/3L-1/3)
1-38
 2.(II) BOD – finding k and L
Thus, plotting a versus t, the slope (m) and intercept (b)
can be used to determine k and L:
6𝑚
𝑘=
𝑏
1
𝐿=
6mb 2
Problem 1-8. Determine k and L for the following BOD
measurements:
t (d) BODt (mg/L)
2 10
4 16
6 20

(see Example 1-8)

1-39
 2.(II) BOD – Complications
• complication in BOD measurement often arises
• if BOD of an effluent from a wastewater treatment plant is measured
and allowed to proceed beyond the 5-d period, then a DO-curve
below may result:

• the jump in BOD after 5-d

is due to the exertion of
oxygen demand by
microorganisms that
stabilize nitrogenous
organics to nitrate NO3-
• the BOD curve can be
divided into regions:
nitrogenous BOD (NBOD)
and carbonaceous BOD
(CBOD)

1-40
 2.(III) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
• a laboratory method that measures ThOD
• a sample is mixed with a strong chemical
oxidizing agent (potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7)
plus a strong acid (sulphuric acid, H2SO4) and
then heated
• COD is determined by measuring the
consumption of K2Cr2O7
• the chemicals oxidize all organic matter (both
biodegradable and non-biodegradable). Thus,
COD is usually greater than BOD for wastewater
samples

1-41
 2.(III) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
• BOD test: takes a long time to complete (e.g. 5
d)

• COD test: result ready in ~ 3 hours; also more

consistent results because it is chemically rather
than biologically based

• sometimes COD is also used to estimate BODU

and to indicate the presence of biologically
resistant organics

1-42
Streeter-Phelps Equation

1-43
 Streeter-Phelps Equation – Condition
industrial
complex

wastewater effluent
Qw, (DO)w

pristine stream mixed stream

Qs, (DO)s Qmix, (DO)mix

note: Q = volumetric flowrate [m3/s]

(DO) = dissolved oxygen level [mg O2/L] 1-44
Schematic of Oxygen Sag Curve

1-45
 Oxygen Sag Curve
• describes the drop in DO due to decomposition
of organic matter and the subsequent recovery
following re-oxygenation

𝐷 = 𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶
oxygen deficit DO measured
(mg O2/L)
DO at saturation or equilibrium
(constant; a function of T)
𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝐶
=−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

want to have an expression of C(t)

1-46
 Oxygen Sag Curve
Lo = ultimate BOD
Lt = BOD at t

k1 = BOD decay
rate constant

what is dD/dt?
𝑑𝐷
= 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷 − 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑡

𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷 = 𝑘1 𝐿𝑡
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑘2 𝐷

1-47
 Streeter-Phelps Oxygen Sag Equation
So, overall:
𝑑𝐷
= 𝑘1 𝐿𝑡 − 𝑘2 𝐷
𝑑𝑡
Since:
𝐿𝑡 = 𝐿𝑜 𝑒 −𝑘1 𝑡
𝑑𝐷
+ 𝑘2 𝐷 = 𝑘1 𝐿𝑜 𝑒 −𝑘1 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝒌𝟏 𝑳𝒐
𝑫= 𝒆−𝒌𝟏 𝒕 − 𝒆−𝒌𝟐 𝒕 + 𝑫𝒐 𝒆−𝒌𝟐 𝒕
𝒌𝟐 − 𝒌𝟏

Streeter-Phelps oxygen sag equation

1-48
 Streeter-Phelps Oxygen Sag Equation
𝒌𝟏 𝑳𝒐
𝑫= 𝒆−𝒌𝟏 𝒕 − 𝒆−𝒌𝟐 𝒕 + 𝑫𝒐 𝒆−𝒌𝟐 𝒕
𝒌𝟐 − 𝒌𝟏

where,

𝐷𝑜 = 𝐷𝑂 𝑠 − 𝐷𝑂 𝑚𝑖𝑥

𝐷𝑂 𝑠 𝑄𝑠 + 𝐷𝑂 𝑤 𝑄𝑤
𝐷𝑂 𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
𝑄𝑠 + 𝑄𝑤

s = stream before introduction of wastewater flow

w = wastewater stream
mix = mixed stream
k1 = O2 decay rate constant
k2 = reaeration rate constant
1-49
 k1 and k2: Typical Values
O2 decay rate Water Type k1 (d-1)
tap water < 0.1
surface waters 0.1 – 0.23
weak municipal wastewater 0.35
strong municipal wastewater 0.40
treated effluent 0.12 – 0.23

reaeration rate Water Body k2 (d-1)

small ponds and backwaters 0.1 – 0.23
sluggish streams and large lakes 0.23 – 0.35
large streams of low velocity 0.35 – 0.46
large streams of normal velocity 0.46 – 0.69
swift streams 0.69 – 1.15
rapids and waterfalls > 1.15
1-50
 Assumptions
𝒌𝟏 𝑳𝒐
𝑫= 𝒆−𝒌𝟏 𝒕 − 𝒆−𝒌𝟐 𝒕 + 𝑫𝒐 𝒆−𝒌𝟐 𝒕
𝒌𝟐 − 𝒌𝟏

Assumptions:
1) reaeration and oxygen consumption  first-order
kinetics

2) the stream, s, is at eqm with atmosphere prior to

mixing

3) mass is conserved at the mixing point

4) reaction kinetics independent of change in aquatic

chemistry (i.e., constant k1 and k2)
1-51
 Biotic Index
• indicative of the diversity or state of the aquatic biotic
• high score = aquatic community in good state
• low score = aquatic community in poor state

1-52
Biotic Index

1-53
 3. Solids
• separation or removal of solids from water is one of the
primary objectives of wastewater treatment
• definition of solids: residue on evaporation at 103oC
(temperature slightly higher than the boiling point of
water)  Total Solids
• measuring solids: place known volume of sample (water
+ solids) in a evaporating dish and allow the water to
evaporate
Gooch crucible

1-54
 3. Solids
Total Solids:
𝑊𝑑𝑠 − 𝑊𝑑
𝑇𝑆 =
𝑉
where TS = total solids [mgsolids/L]
Wds = weight of dish + dried solids [mg]
Wd = weight of clean dish [mg]
V = volume of sample [L]

Unit change may be necessary. Recall:

1 kg = 103 g; 1 g = 103 mg
1 m3 = 103 L; 1 L = 103 mL

1-55
 3. Solids – “ppm”, “ppb”, “ppt”
Parts per million (ppm)
1 𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 1 𝑚𝑔/𝐿

Parts per billion (ppb)

1 𝑝𝑝𝑏 = 1 𝜇𝑔/𝐿

Parts per trillion (ppt)

1 𝑝𝑝𝑡 = 1 𝑛𝑔/𝐿

{note: 1 mg = 103 mg (“microgram”)

1 mg = 103 ng (“nanogram”) }

1-56
 3. Dissolved and Suspended Solids
Total Solids = Dissolved Solids + Suspended Solids
• dissolved solids: salts, colloidal matter
• suspended solids: sand particles

Gooch crucible is used to separate suspended solids from

dissolved solids:
• crucible has holes in the bottom on which glass fiber
filter is placed
• sample is then drawn through the crucible with the aid of
a vacuum
• suspended material is retained on the filter
• dissolved fraction passes through the filter

1-57
 3. Solids: Volatile vs Fixed Solids
Solids can also be classified based on their volatility at
elevated temperature:
• Volatile Solids = solids volatilized at higher T
• Fixed Solids = solids that survived thermal treatment

Total Solids = Volatilized Solids + Fixed Solids

𝑊𝑑𝑢 − 𝑊𝑑
𝐹𝑆 =
𝑉
where FS = total solids [mgsolids/L]
Wdu = weight of dish + unburned solids [mg]
Wd = weight of clean dish [mg]
V = volume of sample [L]
1-58
 3. Solids: Volatile vs Fixed Solids
Volatile Solids can be determined as:
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑇𝑆 − 𝐹𝑆
where VS = volatile solids [mg/L]

Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS) are determined by placing

the Gooch (filter) crucible in a hot oven (600oC) to burn off
organic fraction and weighed again. Loss in weight is
interpreted as VSS
Gooch crucible

1-59
 3. Solids
Problem 1-9. Determine Total Solids, Volatile Solids, and
Fixed Solids from the following laboratory measurements.

• weight of crucible = 48.6212 g

• 100-mL sample place on the crucible; after evaporation,
weight of crucible + dry solids = 48.6432 g
• crucible is placed in a 600oC furnace for 24 hours and
cooled in a desiccator; weight of cooled crucible and
residue, or unburned solids, = 48.6300 g

(see Example 1-9)

1-60
 4. Nitrogen (N)
• N exists in many forms in natural environment and
biological systems:

• {for this course, you need to know:

NH3 (ammonia; N(-III))
NO2- (nitrite ion; N(III))
NO3- (nitrate ion; N(V))} 1-61
 4. Nitrogen (N)
• many species of N can undergo various transformation
reactions (see the N-cycle diagram)

• an essential element for the maintenance and growth of

life as N is irreplaceable for the production of
– amino acids and proteins
– nucleic acids

1-62
 4. Nitrogen (N)
The N-cycle

(arrows = transformation
processes)

1-63
 4. Nitrogen (N)
• N can be tied up in high-energy compounds (e.g., amino
acids and amines) and in these forms N is known as
organic nitrogen
• ammonia nitrogen is often formed during biological
metabolism
• ammonia nitrogen + organic nitrogen together serves as
indicator of recent pollution

Kjeldahl Nitrogen = Organic Nitrogen + Ammonia Nitrogen

• aerobic decomposition eventually leads to formation of

nitrite (NO2-) and finally nitrate (NO3-)
• high-nitrate nitrogen + low ammonia nitrogen suggests
that pollution has occurred quite some time ago
1-64
 4. Nitrogen (N)
Total Nitrogen = ammonia nitrogen + organic nitrogen +
nitrite nitrogen + nitrate nitrogen
• different forms of nitrogen can be measured by different
analytical methods
• most methods involve colorimetry (i.e., indication of
presence of chemical species by means of color
intensity)

cartoon for colorimetric method a calibration curve for NH3 by colorimetry

1-65
 4. Nitrogen (N)
(1) ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N)

(2) organic nitrogen

(3) nitrite (NO2-) nitrogen

(4) nitrate (NO3-) nitrogen

1-66
 Excess Nitrogen is a Pollution!
• excess reactive N to the environment

• produced from fossil fuel combustion,

application of fertilizer

• excess N present in all domains (e.g.,

groundwater, runoff, streams, rivers,
estuaries)

• excess N stimulates productivity of primary

producers (eutrophication)
1-67
 Eutrophication (or hypertrophication)
• The process by which a body of water acquires a high
concentration of nutrients (i.e., phosphates and nitrates).
• Excess nutrients promote excessive algal growth, which
subsequent trigger a series of undesirable physical,
biological, and chemical changes, leading to the death of
aquatic life, elevated levels of organic matter, and deprivation
of oxygen

1-68
 Eutrophication (or hypertrophication)
ecosystem response to input of excess N and
P:
• application and release of detergents,
fertilizers, or sewage (contains P and N)
• algal bloom – rapid growth of phytoplankton
in response to increased levels of N, P
• shielding of sunlight, algal mass die off
• microbial degradation of dead biomass 
consumption of O2 (i.e., respiration) 
hypoxia (O2-depleted)  death of aquatic
organisms (e.g., fish)
• some algae also toxic to aquatic life
1-69
 Sources of Excess N and P
point sources
• wastewater effluents
• runoff and leachate from waste disposal systems
• runoff and infiltration from animal feedlots
• runoff from mines and oil fields
• overflows of combined storm and sanitary sewers
• runoff from construction sites
• untreated sewage

non-point sources
• runoff from agriculture / irrigation
• runoff from pasture and range
• urban runoff from unsewered areas

1-70
Eutrophication in a canal

1-71
Potomac River
1-72
1-73
 5. Bacteriological Measurements
• bacteriological quality of water is very important from the
public health standpoint
• a number of diseases can be transmitted by water
• water must not be contaminated by pathogens (disease-
causing organisms)

Seeking presence of pathogens presents several

challenges:
1) different kinds of pathogens present, each with a
specific detection method
2) concentration of these organisms can be so small as to
make their detection impossible

1-74
 5. Bacteriological Measurements – E. coli
Escherichia coli (E. coli) are “almost universal inhabitants
of the intestinal tract of humans and warm blooded
animals” and are the most common aerobic bacteria in the
gut that do not require special environmental or nutritional
conditions for growth

Although most E. coli are not infectious, some are

pathogenic, causing diarrhea, fever, and/or nausea

One of the strains of E. coli is known to be toxic – O157:H7

– which can occur in undercooked meat and in improperly
treated drinking water

1-75
 5. Bacteriological Measurements – E. coli
Escherichia coli O157:H7

Theodor Escherich
(1857 – 1911) 1-76
 5. Bacteriological Measurements
• many pathogenic organisms are waterborne
• how to measure bacteriological quality of water sample?
 use indicator organisms
• the indicator most often used is a group of microbes
called coliforms (which includes the 150 strains of E.
coli). These microbes have 5 important attributes:
1. normal inhabitants of digestive tracts of warm-
blooded animals
2. plentiful (i.e., easy to find)
3. easy and simple detection method
4. generally harmless except in unusual
circumstances
5. hardy, surviving longer than most known
pathogens
1-77
 5. Bacteriological Measurements
• because of these 5 attributes, coliforms have become
universal indicator organisms
• but the presence of coliforms does not prove the
presence of pathogens
– large number of coliforms  good chance of recent pollution by
wastes from warm-blooded animals
– so the water may contain pathogenic organisms
• water with high coliform count is suspicious and should
not be consumed
• the absence of coliforms also does not prove the
absence of pathogens; however, it is taken as an
indication that the water is safe to drink

1-78
End of Lecture