ww-

Figure 1.1 A simple HC circut with souma

voltage v and capacitor voftage V, Flure 1,

200 mse

oul

wwwwwwwwwwwww......
w

Figure 1.3 bamgie af a secar

ing of speech. [Adapted trom Ap
plications of Digital Signal Proces
ing, A.V. Oppenheim, ed Engiws
WWW Ciffs, NJ: Prentice-al Inc. 97
. 121.J The signal represents a c s
tic pressure varations as a tunca
ch
of time for the spoken words
we chase." The top ne of me
CorTesponds to the word "sho
the second line to he word we
wor
and the last two ines to he
ne a
"chase." (We have indicated
proximate beginnings and endnpa
sound in sacn
successive
- - of each
word)
d unto
acoustic pressure, which are then cogver
in
USing a microphone to sense variations different sounds correspond iod
an electrical signal. As can be seen in the figure,
human vocal system produces
in the variations of acoustic pressure, and the Alternatively.10
patterns these patterns.
particular sequences of
ligible speech by generating 1.4, it is the pattern of
variations n D
in Figure
nonochromatic picture, shown
across the image that is important.
 Sec. 1.1 Continuoux Time and Discrete-Time Slonal

Figure 1.4 A monochromatic

picture.
Signals are epresented mathematically as functions of one or more independent
variables. For example, a speech signal can be represented mathematically by acoustic
pressure as a function of time, and a picture can be represented by brightness a a func
tion of two spatial variables. In this book, we focus our attention on
signals involvinga
single independent variable. For convenience, we will generally refer to the independent
variable as time, although it may not in fact represent time in specific applications. For
example, in geophysics, signals representing variations with depth of physical quantities
such as density, porosity, and electrical
resistivity are used to study the structure of the
earth. Also, knowledge of the variations of air pressure, temperature, and wind speed with
altitude are extremely important in meteorological
ical example of annual average vertical wind
investigations. Figure 1.5 depicts a typ-
profile as a function of height. The measured
variations of wind speed with height are used in examining weather
wind conditions that may affect an aircraft during final patterns, as well as
approach and landing.
Throughout this book we will be considering two basic types of signals: continuous-
time signals and discrete-time
signals. In the case of continuous-time signals the inde-
pendent variable is continuous, and thus these signals are defined for a continuum of values
26
24
22
20
18
16

12
10

Figure 1.5 Typical annual vertical

wind profile. (Adapted from Crawford
J
200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 and Hudson, National Severe Stoms
Height (feet) Laboratory Report, ESSA ERLTM-NSSL
48, August 1970.)
 Signals and Systems

400

350

300
25

200
.tlt
150

100

50

an 4193
Jan. 5,19229
Dow-Jones
An
1.6 example of a discrete-time signal: The weekly
Figure 1929, to January 4, 1930.
stock market index from January 5,

variable. On the other hand,

discrete-time signals are defined onty
of the independent
for these signals, the independent variable takes on oni
discrete times, and consequently, time and atmospheri pres
as a function of
a discrete set of
values. A speech signal Dow-ln
continuous-time signals. The weekly
of
as a function
of altitude are examples of a discrete-ime signai
illustrated in Figure 1.6, is an example studies in which
stock market index, as can be found in demographic
discrete-time signals
Other examples of crime rate, or pounds of fish caughe,
are a
as average budget, of fishnng
various attributes, such total population, or type
variables as family size,
discrete
ulated against such
wil use tde
vessel, respectively. discrete-time signals, we
continuous-time and
To distinguish between variable and n to denoe
the discrete
continuous-time independent
the we will enciose
symbol t to denote In addition, for continuous-time signals
we wil
*
variable. signals
time independent whereas for discrete-time
in parentheses (), have frequent occ
independent variable variable. We will also
the independent lustrations of a continuoS
brackets :]to enclose
to represent signals graphically. 1.7. It is important a
when it will be useful are shown in Figure
discrete-time signal x{n] values of the iniepc
signal x(t) and a is defined only for integer a
x[n] this fact,
that the discrete-time signal for x{n] emphasizes
variable. Our choice of
graphical representation discrete-time sequence.
occasion refer to x[n]
as a
will on for which the indep
furtheremphasis we represent a phenomenon fthis
or
A discrete-time signal x[n] may data are cxamples u
such as demographic
variable is inherently
discrete. Signals arises from the sanp
class of discrete-time signals
the other hand, a very important discrete-time signal x{a)
represents su
In this case, the variable is
cuu
continuous-time signals.
for which the independent
phenomenon
flexibility, modern digitalto
procc
Samples of an underlying power, and
Because of their speed,
computational autopilots angld
ranging from digital
S a m

practical systems,discrete-time
o rs

Used to implement many sequences

representi
of and head
require the use
systems. Such systems
signals-e.g.,
aircraft position, velocity,
versions of c o n t i n u o u s - t i m e
 Sec. 1.1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals

x()

(a)

x[n

x[0

Only

()
signa Figure 1.7 Graphical representations of (a) comtinuous-time and (b) discrete-
which time signals.

autopilot speech and music for an audio

or
book, for that matter-actually consist of a system. Also, pictures in
newspapers-or in this
very fine grid of points, and each of these
se the represents a sample of the brightness of the
corresponding point in the original image. points
matter what the source of the Noo
data, however, the signal x[n] is defned
values of n. It makes no more sense to only for integerT
e refer to the 35th sample of a digital speech signal1
than it does to refer to the
usc average budget for a family with
Throughout most of this book we will 2, family members.
SODs
signals separately but in parallel, so that wetreat discrete-time signals and continuous-time
can draw on
to aid our
understanding of another. In insights developed in one setting
note and in that context we will Chapter 7 we will return to the
question of sampling.
bring
order examine the relationship continuous-time
to and discrete-time
between a continuous-time concepts together in
signal obtained from it by sampling. signal and a discrete-time
1.1.2 Signal
Energy and Power
From the range of
examples provided so far, we see that
signals may
variety of phenomena. In many,
applications, the signals werepresent
but not all, a broad
rectly related o physical quantities consider are di-
example, if v(r) and capturing power and energy in a
i(t) are, respectively, the
voltage physical system. For
and current across
resistanceR, then the instantaneous power is
a resistor with

(1.1)