SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS

1
OUTLINE

 Introduction

 Basics of sinusoid and phasors

 Average, RMS value of an AC quantity

 Steady state AC response for a pure resistive circuit

 Exercise/Numerical Analysis

2
 INTRODUCTION
Why alternating current (AC) power system became popular?
 While direct current (DC) electricity flows in one direction through a
wire, AC electricity alternates its direction in a back-and-forth motion
 AC electricity is created by an AC electric generator, which determines
the frequency
 The major advantage of AC electricity is that the voltage can be readily
changed, thus making it more suitable for long-distance transmission
than DC electricity
3
 INTRODUCTION
 AC can also be employed using capacitors and inductors in electronic
circuitry, allowing for a wide range of applications

Various AC Waveforms
4
SINGLE PHASE APPLIANCES

Single Phase Transformer

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SINGLE PHASE APPLIANCES

Single Phase Meter

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 SINGLE PHASE APPLIANCES

Single Phase Power Supply with Single Phase Grid Connected System
Battery
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SINGLE PHASE APPLIANCES

Single Phase Fan Induction Motor

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APPLICATIONS

Phase-Shifter Circuits
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APPLICATIONS

10
 BASICS OF SINUSOID
A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function
 A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current (AC)
 Such a current reverses at regular time intervals and has alternately
positive and negative values as shown,

Fig. Sinusoidal Variation 11

 BASICS OF SINUSOID
 A sinusoidal signal is easy to generate and transmit
 It is the dominant form of signal in the communications and electric
power industries

 Through Fourier analysis, any practical periodic signal can be

represented by a sum of sinusoids
 Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage sources are called
AC circuits
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 BASICS OF SINUSOID
 We experience sinusoidal variation in,

Fig. Motion of a pendulum Fig. Vibration of a string

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BASICS OF SINUSOID

Fig. Ripples on the ocean surface

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 BASICS OF SINUSOID
The terms which we most commonly use:
 Waveform: The variation of a quantity such as voltage or current
shown on a graph to a base of time is a waveform.
 Cycle: Each repetition of a variable quantity, recurring at equal
intervals, is termed a cycle.
 Period: The duration of one cycle is termed its period.

Fig. Cycles and Periods 15

 BASICS OF SINUSOID
 Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at any instant in
time. They are denoted by lower-case symbols such as e, v and i.
 Peak value: The maximum instantaneous value measured from its
zero value is known as its peak value.
 Peak-to-peak value: The maximum variation between the maximum
positive instantaneous value and the maximum negative instantaneous
value is the peak-to-peak value.

Fig. Peak Values 16

 BASICS OF SINUSOID
 Peak amplitude: The maximum instantaneous value measured from the
mean value of a waveform is the peak amplitude.
 Frequency: The number of cycles that occur in 1 second is termed the
frequency of that quantity. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz)

Fig. Effect on waveforms by varying frequency 17

 BASICS OF SINUSOID
 Sinusoids, play an important role in the analysis of periodic signals
 The derivative and integral of a sinusoid are themselves sinusoids.
For these reasons, the sinusoid is an extremely important function in
circuit analysis
 Consider the sinusoidal voltage,

v(t )  Vm sin t Where, Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid

ω = the angular frequency in radians/s
ωt = the argument of the sinusoid
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 BASICS OF SINUSOID
 It is evident that the sinusoid repeats itself every T seconds thus, T is
called the period of the sinusoid
2
 From the figures, we observe that ωT = 2π T


Fig. Vm sin ωt as a function of ωt Fig. Vm sin ωt as a function of t

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 BASICS OF SINUSOID
 The fact that v(t) repeats itself every T seconds is shown by replacing t
by t + T, T
v(t  T )  Vm sin  (t  T )  Vm sin  (t  )
2
 Vm sin(t  2 )  Vm sin t  v(t )

Hence, v(t  T )  v(t )

Thus, v has the same value at t + T as it does at t and v(t) is said to be
periodic.

A periodic function is one that satisfies f (t ) = f (t + nT ), for all t and

for all integers n
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 BASICS OF SINUSOID
 The period T of the periodic function is the time of one complete cycle
or the number of seconds per cycle
 The reciprocal of this quantity is the number of cycles per second,
known as the cyclic frequency (f) of the sinusoid. Thus,
1
f 
T
 Therefore,   2 f
While ω is in radians per second (rad/s), f is in hertz (Hz)
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 BASICS OF SINUSOID
 A more general expression for the
sinusoid is,
v(t )  Vm sin(t   )
where, (ωt+ϕ) is the argument and
ϕ is the phase
 Both argument and phase can be in
radians or degrees
 Let us examine the two sinusoids, Fig. Two sinusoids with different phases

v1 (t )  Vm sin(t ), v2 (t )  Vm sin(t   )
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 BASICS OF SINUSOID
 The starting point of v2 in Fig.
occurs first in time
 Therefore, v2 leads v1 by ϕ or v1 lags
v2 by ϕ
 If ϕ ≠ 0, v1 and v2 are out of phase
 Moreover, if ϕ = 0 then v1 and v2 are
said to be in phase as they reach their
minima and maxima at exactly the
same time Fig. Two sinusoids with different phases

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 BASICS OF SINUSOID
 A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form
 When comparing two sinusoids, it is convenient to express both as
either sine or cosine with positive amplitudes using,
sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  cos A sin B
cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B
 With these identities, it is easy to show that,
sin(t  180)   sin t , cos(t  180)   cos t
sin(t  90)   cos t , cos(t  90)  sin t
Using these, sinusoid can be transformed from sine form to cosine form
or vice versa. 24
 BASICS OF SINUSOID
 A graphical approach can also be used to
relate or compare sinusoids as an alternative
to using the trigonometric identities,

 The horizontal axis represents the

magnitude of cosine, while the vertical axis
(pointing down) denotes the magnitude of
sine

 Angles are measured positively counter Fig. A graphical means of relating

cosine and sine,
clockwise from the horizontal, as usual in cos(ωt − 90°) = sin ωt
polar coordinates
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 BASICS OF SINUSOID
 Similarly, by adding 180° to the argument of sin ωt gives −sin ωt, or
sin(ωt + 180°) = −sin ωt as shown below,

+ sin ωt
Fig. A graphical means of relating cosine, sin(ωt + 180°) = −sin ωt 26
 BASICS OF SINUSOID
 The graphical technique can also be used to add two sinusoids of the
same frequency when one is in sine form and the other is in cosine
form
 To add A cosωt and B sinωt as shown,
Here, A is the magnitude of cosωt
while B is the magnitude of sinωt

A cos t  B sin t  C cos(t   )

B
where, C  A  B ,   tan
2 2 1

A Fig. Adding A cosωt and B sinωt

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SOLVED NUMERICALS ON SINUSOIDS

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Numerical 1: Determine frequency in Hz, angular frequency in rad/s,
and the amplitude of the harmonic voltage signals as shown.

Solution: All four signals in Fig. have the same amplitude of 0.6 V,
the same frequency of f = 1 kHz, and the same angular frequency
of ω = 2πf = 6283.1 rad/s. 29
Numerical 2: Determine the frequency, amplitude, and phase of the
harmonic voltage signal as shown versus the base cosine signal.

Solution: The amplitude by inspection is observed to be Vm = 1.0V.

The frequency is determined by observing the entire interval from
0 to 3 ms containing three full periods; hence T = 1 ms, and
f = 1/T = 1000 Hz =1 kHz. 30
For the phase determination, we note that the first maximum occurs later
in time than for the base cosine, which already peaks at t = 0.
Therefore, the phase must be negative, that is, φ < 0. The absolute value
of the phase is,
T
  2
T

which gives |φ| = π/3 for ΔT = T/6

Alternatively, the same result can be obtained by observing that the
cosine function is equal to 0.5 Vm at t = 0, so that φ = -cos-1 (0.5) = -π/3.
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Numerical 3: Find the amplitude, phase, period, and frequency of the
sinusoid v(t) = 12 cos(50t + 10°) V.
Solution:
The amplitude is Vm = 12 V
The phase is ϕ = 10°
The angular frequency is ω = 50 rad/s
The period T =2π/ω =2π/50= 0.1257 s
The frequency is f = 1/T= 7.958 Hz

Numerical 4: Given the sinusoid 45 cos(5πt + 36°), calculate its

amplitude, phase, angular frequency, period, and frequency.
Solution: 45, 36°, 15.708 rad/s, 400 ms, 2.5 Hz
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Numerical 5: Calculate the phase angle between v1 = −10 cos(ωt + 50°)
and v2 = 12 sin(ωt − 10°). State which sinusoid is leading.

Solution: METHOD 1- In order to compare v1 and v2, we must express

them in the same form. If we express them in cosine form with positive
amplitudes, v1 = −10 cos(ωt + 50°) = 10 cos(ωt + 50° − 180°)
v1 = 10 cos(ωt − 130°) or v1 = 10 cos(ωt + 230°)

v2 = 12 sin(ωt − 10°) = 12 cos(ωt − 10° − 90°)

v2 = 12 cos(ωt − 100°) = 12 cos(ωt − 100° + 360°) = 12 cos(ωt + 260°)

It can be deduced that the phase difference between v1 and v2 is 30°

Thus, it can be observed v2 leads v1 by 30°
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METHOD 2- Alternatively, we may express v1 in sine form:
v1 = −10 cos(ωt + 50°) = 10 sin(ωt + 50° − 90°)
= 10 sin(ωt − 40°) = 10 sin(ωt − 10° − 30°)
But v2 = 12 sin(ωt − 10°). Comparing the two shows that v1 lags v2 by 30°.
This is the same as saying that v2 leads v1 by 30°

METHOD 3- We may regard v1 as simply

−10 cos ωt with a phase shift of +50°.
Similarly, v2 is 12 sin ωt with a phase shift
of −10°.
Therefore, as observed v2 leads v1 by 30°.

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BASICS OF PHASORS

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 BASICS OF PHASORS
A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase
of a sinusoid.

 Phasors provide a simple means of analysing linear circuits excited

by sinusoidal sources

 A complex number z can be written in rectangular form as

z  x  jy
where j = √(−1), x is the real part of z, y is the imaginary part of z

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 BASICS OF PHASORS
 The complex number z can also be written in polar or exponential
form as,
j
z  r   re
Where, r is the magnitude of z, and ϕ is
the phase of z
z  x  jy , z  r 
Rectangular form Polar form
 The relationship between the
rectangular form and the polar form
is shown in Fig., Fig. Representation of a complex
number
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 BASICS OF PHASORS
 Where, x axis represents the real part and the y axis represents the
imaginary part of a complex number
 Given x and y, we can get r and ϕ as
y
r  x  y ,   tan
2 2 1
where, x  r cos  , y  r sin 
x
 Thus, z may be written as
z  x  jy  r   r (cos   j sin  )
 The idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity
e  j  cos   j sin 
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 BASICS OF PHASORS
 By considering cos ϕ and sin ϕ as the real and imaginary parts of e jϕ,
cos   Re(e j ),sin   Im(e j )

 Given a sinusoid v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + ϕ),

j (t  )
v(t )  Vm cos(t   )  Re(Vm e )

jt j
 Thus, v(t )  Re(Ve ) where, V  Vm e  Vm 

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 BASICS OF PHASORS
 The plot of Vejωt = Vmej(ωt+ϕ) on the complex plane can be observed as,

Fig. Representation of Vejωt sinor rotating counter clockwise and its projection on the real axis as
a function of time.

 As time increases, the sinor rotates on a circle of radius Vm at an

angular velocity ω in the counter clockwise direction 40
 BASICS OF PHASORS
 Phasors V = Vm  and I = I m    are graphically represented,
Such a graphical representation of phasors is known as a phasor diagram

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 BASICS OF PHASORS
 By suppressing the time factor, we transform the sinusoid from the
time domain to the phasor domain. This transformation is summarized
as follows,

v (t )  Vm cos(t   )  V  Vm

 Besides time differentiation and integration, another important use of

phasors is found in summing sinusoids of the same frequency
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SOLVED NUMERICALS ON PHASORS

43
Numerical 1: Transform these sinusoids to phasors,
(a) i = 6 cos(50t − 40°) A
(b) v = −4 sin(30t + 50°) V

Solution:
(a) i = 6 cos(50t − 40°)A has the phasor, I  6  40 A
(b) Since, −sin A = cos(A + 90°),
v = −4 sin(30t + 50°) = 4 cos(30t + 50° + 90°) = 4 cos(30t + 140°) V
The phasor form of v is V  4140 Vo

44
Numerical 2: Express these sinusoids as phasors,
(a) v = −14 sin(5t − 22°) V
(b) i = −8 cos(16t + 15°) A

Solution: (a) V  1468V (b) I  8  165 A

Numerical 3: Find the sinusoids corresponding to these phasors,

(a) V  2540V (b) I  j (12  j5) A
Solution: (a) v(t) = 25 cos(ωt − 140°) V or 25 cos(ωt + 220°) V,
(b) i(t) = 13 cos(ωt + 67.38°) A

45
Numerical 4: Given i1(t) = 4 cos(ωt + 30°) A and i2(t) = 5 sin(ωt − 20°) A,
find their sum.
Solution:
Current i1(t) is in the standard form. Its phasor is I  430o A
We need to express i2(t) in cosine form. The rule for converting sine to
cosine is to subtract by 90°,
i2 = 5 cos(ωt − 20° − 90°) = 5 cos(ωt − 110°)
I
and its phasor is 2  5  110 o
A

46
If we let i = i1 + i2, then
I = I1 + I2 = 430  5  110 A
o

= (3.464 + j2) + (-1.71 - j4.698)

= 1.754 − j2.698
= 3.218  56.97 A

Transforming this to the time domain,

we get i(t) = 3.218 cos(ωt − 56.97°) A

47
AVERAGE AND RMS VALUES OF
AN ALTERNATING CURRENT

48
 AVERAGE AND RMS VALUES OF AN ALTERNATING
CURRENT
 Let us first consider the wave shown as shown, which is typical current
waveform produced by a transformer on no load,

Fig. Average and RMS values 49

 AVERAGE VALUE OF AN ALTERNATING CURRENT

 If n equidistant mid-ordinates (i1, i2, ...) are taken over either the
positive or the negative half-cycle, then average value of current over
half a cycle is,
i1  i2  ...  in
I av 
n
Or, alternatively, average value of current is,
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
=
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
50
 AVERAGE AND RMS VALUES OF AN ALTERNATING
CURRENT
 If Im is the maximum value of a current which varies sinusoidally as
shown,

Fig. Average and RMS values of a sinusoidal current 51

 AVERAGE AND RMS VALUES OF AN ALTERNATING
CURRENT
 The instantaneous value i is represented by,
i  I m sin 
where, θ is the angle in radians from instant of zero current
 For a very small interval dθ radians, the area of the shaded strip is
i · dθ ampere radians
 The use of the unit ‘ampere radian’ avoids converting the scale on
the horizontal axis from radians to seconds
52
 AVERAGE VALUE OF AN ALTERNATING CURRENT

 Therefore, total area enclosed by the current wave over half-cycle is,
  

 i d  I  sin   d   I cos  

0
m
0
m
0

  I m  (1)  1  2 I m
2Im
 Therefore, average value of current over a half-cycle is Iav 

Iav = 0.637Im

53
 RMS VALUE OF AN ALTERNATING CURRENT
 If i is the instantaneous current through the resistance, the average
power dissipated is,
2
< 𝑖 2 𝑅 > = 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑅 wher𝑒 < 𝑖2 > = 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝜋 2
2
1 2 2
𝐼𝑚
<𝑖 >= 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 =
𝜋 0 2

Im
Therefore, IRMSI   0.707 I m
2
It is normal practice to omit the RMS subscript, and just denote IRMS as I
54
 AVERAGE AND RMS VALUES OF AN ALTERNATING
CURRENT
 RMS value of a sinusoidal current or voltage is,
I  0.707 I m

 Form factor (= RMS/Average) of a sine wave is,

0.707 ∗ maximum value
Form factor = k f  1.11
0.637 ∗ minimum value

 Peak or crest factor (= Amplitude/Average) of a sine wave is

maximum value
Peak factor = k p  1.414
0.707 ∗ maximum value
55
NUMERICALS ON AVERAGE AND RMS VALUES

56
Numerical 1: An alternating current of sinusoidal waveform has an RMS
value of 10.0 A. What is the peak-to-peak value of this current?

I 10
Solution: Im    14.14 A
0.707 0.707
The peak-to-peak value is therefore 14.14 − (-14.14) = 28.28 A

57
Numerical 2: An alternating voltage has the equation v = 141.4 sin 377t,
what are the values of (a) RMS voltage (b) frequency
(c) the instantaneous voltage when t = 3 ms?

Solution: The relation is of the form v = Vm sinωt and by comparison,

141.4
( a )Vm  141.4V  2V Hence, V  100V
2
(b)Also by comparison,
377
  377rad / s  2 f , f   60 Hz
2

(c)Finally, v  141.4sin 377t v  141.4sin(377  3  103 )  141.4sin1.131

when t = 3 × 10−3 sec,  141.4  0.904  127.8V
58
Numerical 3: A current has the following steady values in amperes for
equal intervals of time changing instantaneously from one value to the
next (Fig. 32):
0, 10, 20, 30, 20, 10, 0, −10, −20, −30, −20, −10, 0, etc.
Calculate the RMS value of the current and its form factor.

Fig. Waveform of current 59

 area under curve
Solution: 𝐼𝑎𝑣 =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒

   2    3 2   4 3   5 4   6 5 
0  0  10     20     30     20     10  
 6   6 6   6 6   6 6   6 6   6 6 


0

 15A

  2  2   2  3 2  2  4 3  2  5 4  2  6 5 
2
0   0  10     20     30     20     10  
 6   6 6   6 6   6 6   6 6   6 6 
I 
2

0
 316 
I  316  17.8 A
I 17.8
kf    1.19
I av 15.0
60
STEADY STATE AC RESPONSE FOR A
PURE RESISTIVE CIRCUIT

61
STEADY STATE AC RESPONSE FOR A PURE RESISTIVE
CIRCUIT
 Consider a circuit having a resistance R ohms connected across the
terminals of an AC generator G as shown,

Fig. Circuit with resistance

62
 STEADY STATE AC RESPONSE FOR A PURE RESISTIVE
CIRCUIT
 If the value of the voltage at any instant is v volts, the value of the
current at that instant is given by,
v
i
R
 When the voltage is zero, the current is also zero and since the current
is proportional to the voltage, the waveform of the current is exactly
the same as that of the voltage

63
 STEADY STATE AC RESPONSE FOR A PURE RESISTIVE
CIRCUIT
 The two quantities are in phase as
they pass through their zero values
at the same instant and attain their
maximum values in a given
direction at the same instant
 Hence the current wave is as Fig. Voltage and current waveforms for a
resistive circuit
shown,
64
STEADY STATE AC RESPONSE FOR A PURE RESISTIVE
CIRCUIT
 If Vm and Im are the maximum values of the voltage and current
respectively, it follows that
Vm
Im 
R
But the RMS value of a sine wave is 0.707 times the maximum value,
so that
RMS value of voltage=V=0.707Vm
RMS value of current=I=0.707Im

65
STEADY STATE AC RESPONSE FOR A PURE RESISTIVE
CIRCUIT
 Substituting for Im and Vm we have,
I V V
 I
0.707 0.707 R R

Hence, Ohm’s law can be applied without any modification to an AC

circuit possessing resistance only
 If the instantaneous value of the applied voltage is represented by,
v  Vm sin t

66
STEADY STATE AC RESPONSE FOR A PURE RESISTIVE
CIRCUIT
 Then instantaneous value of current in a resistive circuit is
Vm sin t
i
R
 The phasors representing the voltage and current in a resistive circuit
are shown below,

Fig. Phasor diagram for a resistive circuit

 The two phasors are actually coincident, but are drawn slightly apart
so that the identity of each may be clearly recognized
67
UNSOLVED PROBLEMS

68
Question 1: Given the sinusoidal voltage v(t) = 50 cos (30t + 10°) V, find:
(a) the amplitude Vm, (b) the period T, (c) the frequency f, and (d) v(t) at t =
10 ms. Ans.1: (a) 50 V, (b) 209.4 ms, (c)
4.775 Hz, (d) 44.48 V, 0.3 rad
Question 2: A current source in a linear circuit has is = 8 cos(500πt - 25°) A
(a) What is the amplitude of the current?
(b) What is the angular frequency?
(c) Find the frequency of the current.
Ans.2: (a) 8 A, (b) 1570.8 rad/s,
(d) Calculate is at t = 2 ms. (c) 250 Hz, (d) -7.25 A
Question 3: Express the following functions in cosine form:
(a) 4 sin(ωt - 30°) (b) −2 sin(6t)
(c) −10 sin(ωt + 20°) Ans.3: (a) 4 cos(ωt-120°), (b) 2
cos(6t+90°), (c) 10 cos(ωt+110°)
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Question 4: Given v1 = 20 sin(ωt + 60°) V and v2 = 60 cos(ωt − 10°) V,
determine the phase angle between the two sinusoids and which one lags
the other. º
Ans.4: 20 and v1 lags v2

Question 5: For the following pairs of sinusoids, determine which one

leads and by how much.
(a) v(t) = 10 cos(4t − 60°) and i(t) = 4 sin(4t + 50°)
(b) v1(t) = 4 cos(377t + 10°) and v2(t) = −20 cos 377t
(c) x(t) = 13 cos 2t + 5 sin 2t and y(t) = 15 cos(2t − 11.8°)
Ans.5: (a) i(t) leads v(t) by 20° (b) v2(t) leads
v1(t) by 170° (c) y(t) leads x(t) by 9.24°

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Question 6: Find the phasors corresponding to the following signals:
(a) v(t) = 21 cos(4t − 15°)V (b) i(t) = −8 sin(10t + 70°) mA
(c) v(t) = 120 sin(10t − 50°) V (d) i(t) = −60 cos(30t + 10°) mA
Ans.6: (a) 21∟-15 ° (b) 8∟-160 ° (c) 120∟-140 ° (d) 60∟-190 °

Question 7: Transform the following sinusoids to phasors:

(a) −10 cos(4t + 75°) (b) 5 sin(20t - 10°)
(c) 4 cos (2t) + 3 sin (2t)
Ans.7: (a) 10∟-105 (b) 5∟-100 ° (c) 5∟-36.87 °
°

Question 8: Two voltages v1 and v2 appear in series so that their sum is v

= v1 + v2. If v1 = 10 cos(50t − π∕3) V and v2 = 12 cos(50t + 30°) V, find v.

Ans.8: 15.62 cos(50t-9.8°) V

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Question 9: A linear network has a current input 10 sin(ωt + 30°) A and a
voltage output -65cos(ωt+120°) V. Determine the associated impedance.
Ans.9: 6.5 Ω
Question 10: If the waveform of a voltage has a form factor of 1.15 and
a peak factor of 1.5, and if the peak value is 4.5 kV, calculate the average
and the r.m.s. values of the voltage.
Ans.10: 2.61kV, 3 kV
Question11: An alternating current was measured by a DC milliammeter
in conjunction with a full-wave rectifier. The reading on the milliammeter
was 7.0 mA. Assuming the waveform of the alternating current to be
sinusoidal, calculate: (a) the r.m.s. value; and (b) the maximum value of
the alternating current.
Ans.11: 7.8mA, 11 mA
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Question 12: An alternating current has a periodic time 2T. The current
for a time one-third of T is 50 A; for a time one-sixth of T, it is 20 A; and
zero for a time equal to one-half of T. Calculate the RMS and average
values of this current.
Ans.12: 30 A RMS, 20 A average

Question 13: A triangular voltage wave has a periodic time of (3/100)

sec. For the first (2/100) sec, of each cycle it increases uniformly at the
rate of 1000 V/s, while for the last (1/100) sec, it falls away uniformly to
zero. Find (a) its average value; (b) its RMS value; (c) its form factor.
Ans.13: 10 V, 11.55 V, 1.155

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 REFERENCES
[1] Edward Hughes; John Hiley, Keith Brown, Ian McKenzie Smith,
“Electrical and Electronic Technology”,10th Ed., Pearson Education
Limited, 2008.

[2] Alexander, Charles K., and Sadiku, Matthew N. O., “Fundamentals of

Electric Circuits”, 5th Ed, McGraw Hill, Indian Edition, 2013.

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