Chapter 3

Ac circuit Analysis

Introduction

A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function. A sinusoidal current is
usually referred to as alternating current (ac). Such a current reverse at regular time intervals and
has alternately positive and negative values. Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage
sources are called ac circuits.

Consider the sinusoidal voltage

It is evident that the sinusoid repeats itself every T seconds; thus, T is called the period of the
sinusoid. From the two plots in Fig. above, we observe that ωT = 2π

The fact that v(t) repeats itself every T seconds is shown by replacing t by t + T in Eq of v(t).

that is, v has the same value at t + T as it does at t and v(t) is said to be periodic. In general

A periodic function is one that satisfies f (t) = f (t + nT), for all t and for all integers n.

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As mentioned, the period T of the periodic function is the time of one complete cycle or the
number of seconds per cycle. The reciprocal of this quantity is the number of cycles per second,
known as the cyclic frequency f of the sinusoid. Thus,

it is clear that ω = 2πf

While ω is in radians per second (rad/s), f is in hertz (Hz).

Let us now consider a more general expression for the sinusoid,

v(t) = Vm sin(ωt + φ)

where (ωt + φ) is the argument and φ is the phase. Both argument and phase can be in radians or
degrees.

Let us examine the two sinusoids

v1(t) = Vm sin ωt and v2(t) = Vm sin(ωt + φ) as shown in figure below

Therefore, we say that v2 leads v1 by φ or that v1 lags v2 by φ. If φ ≠ 0, we also say that v1 and
v2 are out of phase. If φ = 0, then v1 and v2 are said to be in phase; they reach their minima and
maxima at exactly the same time. We can compare v1 and v2 in this manner because they
operate at the same frequency; they do not need to have the same amplitude.

A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form. When comparing two sinusoids, it is
expedient to express both as either sine or cosine with positive amplitudes. This is achieved by
using the following trigonometric identities:

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sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B

cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B

With these identities, it is easy to show that

sin(ωt ± 180◦) = − sinωt

cos(ωt ± 180◦) = − cosωt

sin(ωt ± 90◦) = ± cosωt

cos(ωt ± 90◦) = ∓ sinωt

Using these relationships, we can transform a sinusoid from sine form to cosine form or vice
versa.

Example 1

Example 2

Example 3

Calculate the phase angle between v1 = −10 cos(ωt + 50◦) and v2 = 12 sin(ωt − 10◦). State which
sinusoid is leading.

Solution

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v1 = −10 cos(ωt + 50◦) = 10 cos(ωt + 50◦ − 180◦)

v1 = 10 cos(ωt − 130◦) or v1 = 10 cos(ωt + 230◦)

v2 = 12 sin(ωt − 10◦) = 12 cos(ωt − 10◦ − 90◦)

v2 = 12 cos(ωt − 100◦)

It can be deduced that the phase difference between v1 and v2 is 30◦. We can write v2 as

v2 = 12 cos(ωt − 130◦ + 30◦) or v2 = 12 cos(ωt + 260◦)

Therefore, that v2 leads v1 by 30◦.

Exercise

Phasor Representation and Arithmetic of Sinusoids

Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more convenient to work with than
sine and cosine functions.

A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid. Phasors
provide a simple means of analyzing linear circuits excited by sinusoidal sources; solutions of
such circuits would be intractable otherwise.

Before we completely define phasors and apply them to circuit analysis, we need to be
thoroughly familiar with complex numbers.

A complex number z can be written in rectangular form as z = x + jy

where j = √−1; x is the real part of z; y is the imaginary part of z.

In this context, the variables x and y do not represent a location as in two-dimensional vector
analysis but rather the real and imaginary parts of z in the complex plane.

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The complex number z can also be written in polar or exponential form as

z = r <φ = rejφ

where r is the magnitude of z, and φ is the phase of z. We notice that z can be represented in three
ways:

The relationship between the rectangular form and the polar form is shown in Fig. below, where
the x axis represents the real part and the y axis represents the imaginary part of a complex
number. Given x and y, we can get r and φ as

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers are better performed in rectangular form;
multiplication and division are better done in polar form. Given the complex numbers

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The idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity. In general,

which shows that we may regard cos φ and sin φ as the real and imaginaryparts of e jφ; we may
write

where Re and Im stand for the real part of and the imaginary part of. Given a sinusoid v(t) = Vm
cos(ωt + φ), we use the cos φ to express v(t) as

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V is thus the phasor representation of the sinusoid v(t), as we said earlier. In other words, a
phasor is a complex representation of the magnitude and phase of a sinusoid.

Note:- to get the phasor corresponding to a sinusoid, we first express the sinusoid in the cosine
form so that the sinusoid can be written as the real part of a complex number. Then we take out
the time factor ejωt, and whatever is left is the phasor corresponding to the sinusoid. By
suppressing the time factor, we transform the sinusoid from the time domain to the phasor
domain. This transformation is summarized as follows:

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Given a phasor, we obtain the time-domain representation as the cosine function with the same
magnitude as the phasor and the argument as ωt plus the phase of the phasor.

The differences between v(t) and V should be emphasized:

1. v(t) is the instantaneous or time-domain representation, while V is the frequency or

phasor-domain representation.
2. v(t) is time dependent, while V is not.
3. v(t) is always real with no complex term, while V is generally complex.

Finally, we should bear in mind that phasor analysis applies only when frequency is constant; it
applies in manipulating two or more sinusoidal signals only if they are of the same frequency.

Example 1

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Example 2

Exercise

Example 3

Exercise 2

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Example 4

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PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS FOR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

Now that we know how to represent a voltage or current in the phasor or frequency domain, one
may legitimately ask how we apply this to circuits involving the passive elements R, L, and C.
What we need to do is to transform the voltage-current relationship from the time domain to the
frequency domain for each element.

We begin with the resistor. If the current through a resistor R is i = Im cos(ωt + φ), the voltage
across it is given by Ohm’s law as

v = iR = RIm cos(ωt + φ)

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Example

Exercise

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 Instantaneous, average and effective (rms) values

Since an ac sine wave voltage or

current has many instantaneous
values throughout the cycle, it is
convenient to specify magnitudes for
comparing one wave with another.
The peak, average, or root-mean-
square (rms) value can be specified.
These values apply to current or
voltage.
The peak value is the maximum value
VM or IM. It applies to either the
positive or negative peak.
The peak-to-peak (p-p) value may be
specified and is double the peak value when the positive and negative peaks are symmetrical.

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 The average value is the arithmetic average of all values in a sine wave for 1 half-cycle. The
half-cycle is used for the average because over a full cycle the average value is zero.
ᴨ

∫ VmSin(θ)=V m(cos(ᴨ) cos(0)=2Vm

0

Vav =
Average value = 0.637 x peak value
Iav = 0.637 IM

The root-mean-square value (rms) or effective value:

To find the rms value of x(t),we first find its square x2 and then find the mean of that and then the
square root (√) of that mean.

rms value is 0.707 times the peak value.

RMS value = 0.707 x peak value
Vrms = 0.707 VMax
Irms =0.707 IMax

Example If the peak voltage for an ac wave is 60 V, what are its average and rms values?
Average value = 0.637 x peak value
= 0.637(60) = 38.2V.
RMS value = 0.707 x peak value
= 0.707(60) = 42.4V

Series and parallel for reactive circuit

Resistance in Ac Circuits
In an ac circuit with only resistance, the current variations are in phase with the applied
voltage. This in-phase relationship between V and I means that such an ac circuit can be

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analyzed by the same methods used for dc circuits. Therefore, Ohm’s laws for dc circuits are
applicable also to ac circuits with resistance only. The calculations in ac circuits are generally in
rms values, unless otherwise specified.

Inductive reactance XL is the opposition to ac current due to the inductance in the circuit. The
unit of inductive reactance is the ohm. The formula for inductive reactance is
XL = 2πfL
Example A resonant tank circuit consists of a 20-mH coil operating at a frequency of 950 kHz.
What is the inductive reactance of the coil?
XL = 2π fL
= 6.28(950 x 103)(20 x 10-3) = 11.93 x 104 = 119300 Ω

Impedance in series RL circuit

When a coil has series resistance the rms

current I is limited by both XL and R. I is the
same in XL and R since they are in series.
The voltage drop across R is VR = IR, and
the voltage drop across XL is VL = IXL. The
current I through XL
must lag VL by 90"
because this is the phase angle between current through an inductance
and its self-induced. The current I through R and its IR voltage drop are
in phase so the phase angle is 0"
The resultant of the phasor addition of R and XL is called impedance. The symbol for impedance
is Z. Impedance is the total opposition to the flow of current, expressed in ohms. The

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impedance triangle corresponds to the voltage triangle but the common factor I
cancels. The equations for impedance and phase angle are derived as follows

Impedance in parallel RL
For parallel circuits with R and XL, the same applied voltage VT is across R and XL since both
are in parallel with VT. There is no phase difference between these voltages. Therefore V T used
as reference phasor.

Example What is the impedance ZT of a 200-Ω R in parallel with a 400-XLΩ? Assume 400 V for
the applied voltage VT
Solution:-

Capacitive reactance Xc is the opposition to the flow of ac current due to the capacitance in the
circuit. The unit of capacitive reactance is the ohm. Capacitive reactance can be found by using
the equation.

Example A capacitor in a telephone circuit has a capacitance of 3 pF. What current flows
through it when 15 V at 800Hz is impressed across it? Find Xc and then Ic by Ohm’s law.
Solution

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Impedance in series RC Circuit
As with inductive circuits, the combination of resistance and capacitive reactance is called
impedance. In a series circuit containing
R and Xc, the same current I flows in Xc
and R. The voltage drop across R is VR =
IR, and the voltage drop across Xc is Vc
= IXc. The voltage across Xc lags the
current through Xc by 90". The voltage
across R is in phase with I since resistance does not produce a phase shift.
To find the total voltage VT, we add phasors VR and Vc. Since they form a right angle triangle
Note:- Vc phasor is downward, exactly opposite from an V L phasor, because of opposite phase
angle.
The phase angle between VT, and VR is expressed by according to
the following equation.

ExampleA 40-Ω R Xc and a 30Ω R are in series across a 120-V source. Calculate Z, I, and .
Draw the phasor diagram.
Solution

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Impedance in Parallel RC
The impedance of a parallel circuit equals the total voltage VT divided by the total current IT.

Example A 15-Ω resistor and a capacitor of 20Ω capacitive

reactance are placed in parallel across a120-V ac line . Calculate I R, Ic, IT, , and Z. Draw the
phasor diagram.

AC power Analysis

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Power is the most important quantity in electric utilities, electronic, and communication systems,
because such systems involve transmission of power from one point to another.

APPARENT POWER AND POWER FACTOR

The instantaneous power p is the product of the current i and the voltage V at that instant of time
p = VI
The product of the voltage across the resistance and the current through the resistance is always
positive and is called real power. Real power can be considered as resistive power that is
dissipated as heat.
Real power can be considered as resistive power that is dissipated as heat. Since the voltage
across a reactance is always 90" out of phase with the current
through the reactance, the product px = uxix is always negative.
This product is called reactive power and is due to the
reactance of a circuit. Similarly, the product of the line
voltage and the line current is known as apparent power.

The ratio of real power to apparent power, called the power factor (PF), is

or
The cosθ of a circuit is the power factor, PF, of the circuit. The power factor determines what
portion of the apparent power is real power and can vary from 1 when the phase angle θ is 0", to
0 when θ is 90". When θ = 0", P = VI, the formula for voltage and current of a circuit in phase.
When θ = 90", P = VI x 0 = 0, indicating that no power is being expended or consumed.
Note: A circuit in which the current lags the voltage (i.e., an inductive circuit) is said to have a
lagging PF and a circuit in which the current leads the voltage (i.e., a capacitive circuit) is said to
have a leading PF.
Power factor is expressed as a decimal or as a percentage. A power factor of 0.7 is the same as a
power factor of 70 percent.

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 When we state that a motor draws 10 kVA from a power line, we recognize that this is the
apparent power taken by the motor. Kilovoltamperes always refers to the apparent power.
Similarly, when we say a motor draws 10 kW, we mean that the real power taken by the motor is
10kW.

Example A current of 7 A lags a voltage of 220 V by 30". What is the PF and real power taken
by the load?
PF = cosθ = COS 30" = 0.866 Ans.
P = VIcosθ = 220(7)(0.866) = 1334 W

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