Lecture 1. Introduction To Farm Power and Energy

AGRICULTURAL POWER
AND ENERGY RESOURCES

INTRODUCTION TO FARM
POWER AND ENERGY
DR. ARNOLD F. DUMAOAL,SR.

Accredited Professor II
COE MMSU
Batac City, Ilocos Norte
Dr. Arnold F. Dumaoal, Sr, Professor. Ag. Eng. Dept. COE. MMSU, Batac City, Ilocos Norte
INTRODUCTION
Mechanization of agriculture has two main objectives:
1. To increase productivity per agricultural worker
2. To change the character of farm work making it less arduous and more
attractive.
Human beings as power units or engine are very ineffective and inefficient.
They are limited to less than 0.1 kW continuous output and are therefore
worth almost nothing as a primary source of power.
Although tractors had been in existence for over a century, they got their
first impetus during World War I.
Evolution of tractors has accompanied changes in farm technology and sizes
of farms. The tractor has progress from its original primary used as
substitute for animal power to the present designed for multiple uses.
Traction power, belt power, power take-off drives, mounted tools, and
hydraulic remote control units, as well as climate controlled- cabs and
power steering, all serve to extend the usefulness and efficiency of
modern tractor.
The word tractor has been attributed to various sources, but according to
the Oxford Dictionary, the word was used first in 1856 in England as a
synonym for tractor engine.
The term tractor appears in 1890 U.S. patent for a track-laying steam
traction engine.
Dr. Arnold F. Dumaoal, Sr, Professor. Ag. Eng. Dept. COE. MMSU, Batac, Ilocos Norte
Energy - the capacity of doing work
Power – ability to act or produce an effect; capacity for being acted upon or undergoing
an effect.
FORM OF ENERGY
1. Heat energy
2. Mechanical Energy
3. Electrical Energy
4. Chemical Energy
5. Sound Energy
6. Cosmic energy
SOURCES OF ENERGY
1. Human power (manpower)
2. Animal power (Draft animals)
3. Heat Engine (internal combustion engine and external combustion engine)
4. Biomass Energy (Direct combustion, gasification, carbonization, biofuel)
5. Wind Energy – (Wind pump, wind turbine)
6. Hydro Energy (Micro, Mini)
7. Solar Energy (Solar thermal, photovoltaic)
8. Geothermal
9. Ocean Thermal Energy
10. Nuclear energy
Human Power
Power Output
1. Human can develop 0.5 hp from the foods he eat.

2. 0.1 Hp is available for useful work and the remaining is used for body functions
3. Man at 20 years of age can generate 15% more power and less by 20% at 60 years
of age.
Energy Requirement and Efficiency
1. Minimum energy requirement is 2000 cal per day

2. Conversion efficiency is 25%
3. Working efficiency decreases under hot and humid climate and effective to work
under normal condition.
Power Formula
Pg = 0.35 - 0.092log T
where:
Pg - generated power, hp
T = time, min
DRAFT ANIMALS
- Large animals domesticated four-footed animal that is used for power in agriculture.
Primary draft animals includes:

Oxen
Water buffalo
Horses
Mule
Camels
Donkey
e.t.c.
Uses of Animals
Land preparation such as plowing and harrowing
Pumping of water for irrigation
Transport such as hauling
Milling operation
Physical Characteristics of Animals
ANIMAL Ave. Weight Approx. Pull Ave. Speed Power Developed

(kg) (kg) (m/sec) (hp)
Light horse 400-700 60-80 1.0 1.0
Bullock 500-700 60-80 0.60-0.85 0.75
Buffalo 400-900 50-80 0.80-0.90 0.75
Cow 400-600 50-60 0.70 0.45
Mule 350-500 50-60 0.90-1.00 0.70
Donkey 200-300 30-40 0.70 0.35
Advantages of Draft Animals Compared to Tractor
1. They feed themselves

2. They can maintain themselves
3. They can be trained for automatic control
4. They can reproduce by themselves
Animal Performance Efficiency
1. Animal performance efficiency varies from 9-10% for bovines and 10-12% for
horse family
2. Generally draft animal force approximately 10% of the body weight
3. Of all the draft animal, horse has the toughest output
4. Animals can work varies within 8 to 10 hours for horse and 5 to 8 hours for adult
oxen
Draft Power Mechanics
1. A draft animal supplies useful power by exerting a pull at a certain speed
2. The magnitude of pull exerted by the animal depend on the load and the method
of attaching the animal or animals to the load
3. The maximum pulling capacity of the animal depends on the several factors such as
the breed, sex, age, health, nutrition, training, ground condition, etc.
Pull Formula
P = [WLu]/[(L1 + H1u) cosө + (L2 + H2u) sinө
where:
P - pull, kg
W - weight of animals acting at Center of Gravity (CG), kg
ө - angle of line of pull, degrees
L - horizontal distance between the front and rear foot, m
L1 - horizontal distance between front foot and CG of the animals, m
L2 - horizontal distance of the neck load point from the front foot, m
H2 - height of the neck load point from the ground, m
u - coefficient of friction between the hoof and ground surface.
Power Formula
DHP = FV/76.2
where:
DHP - draft horsepower, hp
F - draft, kg
V - animal speed, m/s
Harnessing animals
1. Animal are harnessed singly or in multiple numbers to match the pulling capacity or
load
2. Generally, pulling efficiency decreases with t he number of animals harnessed together.
3. Horses are harnessed in several numbers while oxen are mostly harnessed in pairs.
4. A poorly designed or ill-fitting harness reduces the power available from the animals
and make it suffer physically.
Animal Draft
Draft = No. of animals x specific draft x harness factor
Internal Combustion Engine
Indicated horse power
PLANn
IHP = _______________
KS
Where: IHP - indicated horsepower, hp
P - mean effective pressure, psf
L - length of stroke, ft
A - bore area, ft2
N - revolutions per minute
n - number of cylinder
S - 1 for two stroke cycle, 2 for four stroke cycle engine
K - conversion factor = 33,000 ft-lb/min-hp
BHP =IHP – FHP

Where: BHP - brake horsepower
IHP - indicated horsepower
FHP - friction horsepower or power losses due to engine operation
DHP = Pulling force x speed

Where: DHP - drawbar horse power, hp
Shaft Horsepower
HP = N/63000 or Hp = FV/33000
Where:
HP - power transmitted, hp
T - torque, in-lb
N - shaft speed, rpm
F - force, lb
V -velocity, ft/min
Shaft Force
F = T/r
Where:
F - shaft force, lb
T - torque, in lb
r - shaft radius, in
BIOMASS ENERGY
Conversion Process
1. Direct combustion
2. Carbonization
3. Gasification
4. Digestion
5. Alcohol production
Direct Combustion
Cook stoves
1. Improved cook stove – pertains to the solid biomass as fuel burning system in
whichheat is produced by combustion for immediate use in domestic cooking.
2. Improve stove – pertains to the solid mass fuel burning system. Which can be used
for numerous application such as cooking, food preservation/drying, domestic
heating, and other heating operations.
3. Biomass fuel – denotes solid biomass either in a straw, or processed form that
includes fuelwood, charcoal, agri-residues, briquettes, and others.
Uses of Biomass Stove
1. Boiling – It is the process of raising the temperature of the mixture of food in water
at 100oC and then allowed to simmer until exothermic reaction in the food is
completed.
2. Frying – It is a short duration high power input process generally between 200-
300oC using cooking oil.
3. Baking – It is the process in which is accomplished in an oven or in an open pan at

a relatively high temperature of about 130oC through convection and radiation
from the oven wall or by conduction in an open pan.
4. Grilling – It is the mode of cooking where heat is transferred to the food primarily
through radiation from charcoal fuel or heated metal plate and in some extent
through convection.
5. Steaming – It is the process where the operating temperature during cooking

process is nearly to boiling temperature.
6. Pressure cooking – It is similar to boiling except that the temperature is

considerably above the boiling point of water.
Fuel Heating Values.
FUEL HEATING VALUE

Bagasses 19.37 -19.50 MJ/kg
Coconut Shell 86630 BTU/lb
Corn Cob 15.23 – 15.58 MJ/kg
Cotton Stalk 17.85 – 18.26 MJ/kg
Peanut Hull 7378 BTU/lb
Rice Husk 13.24 – 13.26 MJ/kg
Wood 15,500KJ/kg
Wood Charcoal 11,786 BTU/lb
Design Power
Pd = 0.70(PC + Pv)
where:
Pd - designed power, KCal/hr
Pc - fuel power, KCal/hr
Pv - volatile power, KCal/hr
Power Density
PD = FCR/Ag
where:
PD - power density, kg/m2-hr
FCR - fuel consumption rate, kg/hr
Ag - grate weight, kg
Overall Thermal Efficiency

εo = [mcp(Tf – Ti) + WeHfg]100/[WfHVF]
where:
εo - overall thermal efficiency, %
m - mass of water, kg
cp - specific heat of water, 1 Kcal/kg-oC
Tf - final temperature of water, oC
Ti - initial temperature of water, oC
We - weight of water evaporated, kg
Hfg - heat of vaporization of water, 540 Kcal/kg
Wf - weight of fuel used, kg
HVF - heating value of the fuel, kcal/kg
Furnace
Used as source of heat for thermal systems:

1. Grain drying
2. Fruit dehydration
3. Fish drying
4. Kiln firing
5. Steaming
6. Water heating
Fuel of Biomass Furnace.
1. Wood and forest residues (Twigs, bark, peat, sawdust, wood shavings, etc.)
2. Agricultural residues (Rice husk, sugar cane bagasses, etc)
Fuel Consumed
FCR = 100Qt/[HVF(εs)]
where:
FCR - amount of fuel consumed, kg/hr
Qt - total heat required for the system, kCal
HVF - heating value of fuel, Kcal/kg
εs - overall thermal efficiency, %
Gasifier
1. It is the process of converting solid carbon into combustible carbon monoxide by
thermo-chemical reaction of the fuel.
2. In complete combustion, the process takes place with excess air while in gasification,
the process takes place with excess carbon.
3. Gasification of solid fuel containing carbon is accomplished in an air sealed, close
chamber under slight suction or pressure relative to ambient pressure.
Principle of Gasification
1. Limited amount of air is introduced to the reactor of the gasifier and it passes
through the fuel column.
2. 2. As air passes through the column of fuel, thermo-chemical reaction takes place to
produce combustible gases.
3. 3. The oxygen and the carbonized solid fuel reacts to produce carbon dioxide and
heat.
Chemistry of Gasification
CO2 + C = 2CO – 172, 600 KJ Boudouard Reaction
CO2 + H2 = H2O + 41,200 KJ Water Shift Reaction
C + 2H2 = CH4 + 75,000 KJ Methane Production
Fuel Energy Requirement
Qf = 100Qd/εg
where: Qf - fuel energy required for gasification, Kcal/hr
Qd - energy demands for gasification, Kcal/hr
εg - gasifier efficiency, usually 20%.
Fuel Energy Required for Gasification for Power Generation
Qf = 100 Qd/εgεc
where:
Qf - fuel energy required for gasification,
Qd - energy demands for gasification, Kcal/hr
εg - gasifier efficiency, usually 20%.
εc - engine efficiency, 80-90% for diesel and 50-70% for gasoline fuel
Air Required for Gasification

Va = εWf SA
where:
Va - volume of air for gasification
Wf - weight of fuel needed, kg/hr
SA - stoichiometric air, kg air/kg fuel
ε - equivalent ratio, 0.2 to 0.4
BIOGAS
It is a gas produced by putrefactive bacteria that breaks down organic material under
airless condition.
Composition of Biogas
1. Methane (CH4)
2. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
3. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
4. Nitrogen (N2)
5. Carbon monoxide (CO)
6. Oxygen (O2)
Benefits of Biogas
1. Savings in fuel cost – The gas produced can be used as fuel for domestic cooking,
lighting, refrigeration, etc.
2. Increase in crop yield – Slurry can be a good source of bio-fertilizer to increase
crop yield.
3. Improvement in health – Waste can be properly disposed inside the digester hence
minimizing the spread of infectious diseases.
4. Pollution control – Emission of odor and other harmful gases into the atmosphere
can be minimized.
Gas Requirement for some Appliances
APPLIANCES TYPE GAS REQUIREMENT
(m3/hr)
Gas Burner (5 cm to 14 cm) Non-continuous 0.226-0.42
Mantle lamp (ordinary to 60 watts) Non-continuous 0.071-0.195
Gas refrigerator (0.01 to 0.225in3) Continuous 0.053-0.078
Incubator (per m3 capacity) Continuous 0.600
Gasoline engine (per kW output) Non-continuous 0.69
Diesel engine (per kW output) No-continuous 0.70
Weight of Daily Available Formula

Wfm = NASp = Wpr Sp
where:
Wfm - weight of feed material, kg/day
NA - number of heads of animals
Wpr - weight of plant residue, kg/day
Sp - specific gas production, kg/animal or plant tissue.
Volumetric Rate of Feed Material
Vfm = Wfm/pm
where:
Vfm - volume of feed material, m3/day
Wfm - weight of feed materials, kg/day
pm - density of feed materials, kg/m3
Volume Flow Rate of Slurry Needed
Vfr = Vfm WR
where:
Vfr - volume flow rate of slurry, m3/day
Vfm - volume of feed materials, m3/day
WR - slurry to water ratio, 1:2
Volume of Feed Slurry

Vfs = Vfr RT
where:
Vfs - volume of feed slurry for the digester, m3
Vfr - volumetric flow rate of slurry, m3/day
RT - designed retention time, days.
SOLAR ENERGY
1. The approximate solar radiation reaching the earth surface is 1 kW/m2. Power density of solar
radiation entering the earth atmosphere is 1.355kW/m2 (solar constant). The average power
density of the solar radiation striking the earth surface is 0.89 kW/m2.
2. The intensity of solar radiation decreases as the distance from the equator increases
3. Average annual global radiation is 800-2600 kW/m2.
4. Annual sunshine duration is 1000-4000 hrs.
5. The global radiation on the earth surface consists of: a) direct radiation and b) diffuse
radiation
6. The absolute values of solar radiation on a given surface vary considerably depending on:
a) season and time of day
b) location of the solar installation
c) angle of inclination of the absorber surface.
Power Produced
P = sc ε A
where:
P - power produced, kW
sc - solar constant, 0.89 kW/m2
- efficiency of the system, %
A - surface area of the collector, m2
Photons of light
energy from the sun
0.0025 mm p-n type
junction
p-type silicon
1 mm n-type silicon
25.4 mm
Electron flow Load
Figure 1. Cross sectional view of

silicaon p-n junction solar cell
Wind Energy
It is secondary form of solar energy
1. It is derived from the kinetic energy of moving air that is converted to mechanical power
through a mechanism called rotor.
Basic Principle
1. The kinetic energy of the wind in a unit time increases with the cube of the wind speed
2. Doubling the wind speed increases the power output be eight times
3. Doubling the rotor diameter will increase the available power four times.
4. Generally wind machines can only extract about 5% of the wind kinetic energy (Betz
coefficient)
5. Actual performance of the wind machine varies from 10 to 50% depending on the rotor
6. Slow running multi-bladed rotor has lower efficiency compared to fast running two or
three bladed rotor
7. Multi-bladed rotors are slow speed high torque wind machines and are suitable for
mechanical water pumping and grain milling
8. Few bladed rotors are fast running and produces low torque and are suitable for power
generation and consequently for running electric motors.
Wind Power - it is the amount of energy available from the wind within a unit of time expressed in
Watts.
Pw = ½[ρa Ar] V3
where:
Pw - wind power, Watts
ρa - air density, 1.25 kg/m3
Ar - area of the rotor, m2
V - wind velocity, m/s
Performance coefficient - ratio between the mechanical power actually attained directly at the
rotor and wind power
Cp = Ps/Pw
where:
Cp - performance coefficient
Ps - shaft power, Watts
Pw - wind power, Watts
ROTOR Cp
Horizontal axis
Two bladed 0.47
Farm 0.30
Modern Propeller 0.47
Dutch four arm type 0.17
Vertical Axis
Darrieus 0.35
Savoinius 0.23
Torque coefficient - ratio of the torque at the rotor to reference torque

Tip-Speed Ratio - ratio of the circumferential velocity at the tip of the rotor to the velocity of the
incoming wind.
λ = [2 π R N]/Vw
where:
λ - tip-speed ratio, decimals
R - rotor radius, m
N - rotor speed, rps
V - wind velocity, m/s
Power output – power output delivered by lifting a given rate of water from a certain head or the
power generated by the generator for a given voltage and current delivered.
1. Power to lift water (hydraulic power)

Ph = ρw g QH
where:
Ph - hydraulic power, Watts
ρw - water density, 1000 kg/m3
g - gravitational acceleration, 9.8 m/sec2
Q - water flow, m3/sec
H - lifting head, m
2. Power generated
Pg = VI cosө
where:
Pg - power generated, Watts
V - voltage, volts
I - current, amp
cos ө - power factor, 1
HYDRO-POWER
1. The power generated from the pressure of the falling water from higher to lower elevation
Classifications
1. Micro-hydro generates a power up to 100 kW
2. Mini-hydro generates power between 100kW to 10MW
3. Hydro-power generates power more than 10MW
General Principle
1. If water can be piped from a certain level to a lower level, the resulting pressure can be
used to do work.
2. If water pressure is allowed to move a mechanical component then the movement involves
the conversion of the water energy into mechanical energy
3. Hydro turbine converts water pressure into mechanical shaft power which can drive
electric generator, grain mill, and other useful devices.
Hydro-Power
Ph = 9810 K Q H
where:
Ph - hydro power, Watts
K - turbine efficiency, decimal
Q - water flow rate, m3/sec
H - head, m
Efficiencies of Hydro Systems
DEVICE EFFICIENCY (Shaft Power)

Undershoot water wheel 0.25-0.40
Overshoot water wheel 0.50-0.70
Breast wheel 0.50-0.60
Poncelet water wheel 0.40-0.60
Vertical shaft water mill 0.20-0.35
Impulse turbine 0.79-0.87
Crossflow turbine 0.60-0.80
Reaction turbine 0.65-0.90
Dr. Arnold F. Dumaoal, Sr, Professor. Ag. Eng. Dept. CAF. MMSU, Batac, Ilocos Norte
Sample Problems
Problem 1. A wood charcoal stoves consumes 0.5 kg of fuel per hour. If 95% is volatile matter,
what is the design power of the stove? Assume heating value for wood charcoal of 6000
kcal/kg.
Solution.
Pdes = 0.7(Pc + Pvmax) (Fuel consumption rate) (Heating value)
= 0.7(1 + 0.95)(0.5 kg/hr) (6000 kcal/kg)
= 4095 kcal/hr
Problem 2. Compute the average power output of a ricehull stove with total average fuel
consumption rate of 5 kg or rice hull in 4 hours operation. The net calorific value of rice hull
is 3000 kcal/kg.
Solution:
Pav = 5 kg(3000 kcal/kg/4 hrs) = 3750 kcal/hr
Problem 3. A person is working 4 hours on a farm in harvesting operation. Estimate the power
that can be generated by the person in doing the job.
Solution:
Pg = 0.35 – 0.092 log T
= 0.35 – 0.092 log(4 hours x 60min/hr) = 0.13 hp
Problem 4. Two persons are doing threshing operation by “Hampasan” method. What is the total
human power generated by the two persons in one day if they work an average of 6 hours?
Solution: Pg = 0.35 – 0.092 log (6 hr x 60min/hr) = 0.35 -0.092 log (360min) = 0.11 hp/person
TPg = 0.11 hp/person x 2 persons = 0.22 hp.

Problem 5. Estimate the pull that can be developed from a 900 kg water buffalo pulling a load at
an angle of 30 degrees. The horizontal distance between the front and the rear foot is 1.4 m.
The center of gravity of the animal is located 0.7 m from the foot. The horizontal distance
from the yoke to the rear foot is 0.3 m. The height of the neck yoke was measured 1.2 m from
the neck load point to the ground. Assume coefficient of friction of 0.95 between the hoof and
the ground surface.
Given: W =900 kg weight of animal h2 = 1.2 m height (neck to ground)
L = 1.4 horizontal distance ө = 30 degrees (angle of line of pull)
L1 = 0.7 m foot to center of gravity u = coefficient of friction
L2 = 0.3 yoke to rear foot
Required: Pull = P = WL1u/[(L + h2u)cos ө + L2usinө
Solution:
[900 kg(0.7 m)(0.95)]
P = ____________________________________________________________ = 255.76 kg
[1.4 m + 1.2m(0.95)]cos 30 + 0.3 m (0.95)sin 30
Problem 6. Compute the amount of power that can be developed by a 600 kg draft animal pulling
an 80 kg load at a speed of 0.9 m/sec.
Solution:
HP = FV
= 80 kg x 0.9m/sec
= 72 kg-m/sec or 0.96 hp

Lecture 1. Introduction To Farm Power and Energy

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Lecture 1. Introduction To Farm Power and Energy

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AGRICULTURAL POWER

AND ENERGY RESOURCES

DR. ARNOLD F. DUMAOAL,SR.

1. Human can develop 0.5 hp from the foods he eat.

Energy Requirement and Efficiency

1. Minimum energy requirement is 2000 cal per day

Primary draft animals includes:

ANIMAL Ave. Weight Approx. Pull Ave. Speed Power Developed

Advantages of Draft Animals Compared to Tractor

1. They feed themselves

P = [WLu]/[(L1 + H1u) cosө + (L2 + H2u) sinө

BHP =IHP – FHP

DHP = Pulling force x speed

3. Baking – It is the process in which is accomplished in an oven or in an open pan at

5. Steaming – It is the process where the operating temperature during cooking

6. Pressure cooking – It is similar to boiling except that the temperature is

FUEL HEATING VALUE

Overall Thermal Efficiency

Used as source of heat for thermal systems:

Air Required for Gasification

Weight of Daily Available Formula

Volume of Feed Slurry

Electron flow Load

Figure 1. Cross sectional view of

Torque coefficient - ratio of the torque at the rotor to reference torque

1. Power to lift water (hydraulic power)

DEVICE EFFICIENCY (Shaft Power)

TPg = 0.11 hp/person x 2 persons = 0.22 hp.

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