Christopher Sink,
Ph.D., NCC, LMHC, is a
professor and chair,
Department of School
Counseling and
Comprehensive Guidance and
Psychology, Seattle
Pacific University, WA.
E-mail: csink@spu.edu
Counseling Programs and the
The author expresses his
Development of Multicultural
appreciation to
Ms. Heather Robinson
Stroh for her research
Student-Citizens
assistance. The ultimate responsibility for education is a civic
not a private one. (Selbourne, 1994, p. 216)
Education not only makes democracy possible; it
also makes it essential. (Galbraith, 1997, p. 71)
There is a chronic failure to provide reasoning and
citizenship skills among all students. (Fraser, 2001, p.
330)
A
consistent element in the social-moral montage
of U.S. schooling is the attempt to cultivate
“good” student-citizens (Anderson, Avery,
Pederson, Smith, & Sullivan, 1997; Pangle &
Pangle, 2000). For instance, notable 18th-century
pundits such as John Adams, Benjamin Rush, and
Noah Webster (see, e.g., Fraser, 2001, for a histor-
ical perspective) strongly promoted this goal. Even
though the external impetus for citizenship educa-
tion appeared to wane during the turbulent 1960s
and 70s, contemporary authors and policymakers
on all sides of the political spectrum remain con-
vinced that school curriculum and pedagogy
should, in part, aid students to engage in and con-
tribute to society’s democratic processes (Gutmann,
2000; National Commission on Excellence in
Education, 1983). Similarly, in a recent article on
the future direction of the school counseling pro-
fession, Sink (2002) recommended that counselors
should be more closely involved in this agenda.
This article addresses the valuable role compre-
hensive guidance and counseling programs (CGCP)
can play in developing multicultural student-citi-
zens. More specifically, after contextualizing citi-
zenship education in relationship to the advance-
ment of the school counseling profession, I provide
a rationale for including this domain within
CGCPs. Second, the concept of multicultural citi-
zenship is defined and clarified. Third, various char-
acteristics of multicultural student-citizens are enu-
merated. Finally, I offer practical implementation
strategies for school counselors.
130 ASCA | PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING
HISTORICAL CONTEXT—SCHOOL
COUNSELING AND CITIZENSHIP
EDUCATION
Reminiscent of various disciplines over the past cen-
tury, school counseling in the United States has
gradually evolved in three general stages (e.g.,
Gysbers & Henderson, 2000, 2001; Herr, 2001;
Myrick, 1997). Summarized briefly, the initial phase
(1910s to 1950s) deployed a “position” approach,
whereby guidance personnel (i.e., mostly vocation-
al and classroom teachers) dispensed vocational and
career information to high school students with the
goal focused largely on job preparation and mainte-
nance (Gysbers & Henderson). Interestingly, while
citizenship education was not a component of the
guidance curriculum and students’ psychosocial and
psychoeducational concerns received only minimal
attention in schools, moral “fitness,” patriotism,
and civic duties were overtly fostered primarily by
social studies teachers through school-wide and
classroom rituals (Anderson et al., 1997; Risinger,
1996). Furthermore, during the two world wars
and the Korean conflict, school personnel encour-
aged students to be good citizens, but school coun-
selors’ specific roles in the process appear to be
undocumented.
During the second stage (approximately 1960s to
1980s), a “services” or pupil-personnel model was
instituted (Gysbers & Henderson, 2001; Herr,
2001). Secondary-level counselors and other guid-
ance personnel (e.g., nurses, attendance officers,
teachers) provided psychoeducational support and
reactive services to students at risk for school failure
or those experiencing personal-social difficulties.
While school counselors were also offering educa-
tional and career guidance to the college- or uni-
versity-bound, social studies teachers continued to
provide civics lessons in their classrooms (Riley,
1997, Risinger, 1996). As in the previous stage,
since classroom guidance did not target citizenship
formation, school counselors presumably had little
influence on nurturing these skills in students.
 By the late 1970s and early 1980s, several promi-
nent school counseling and career education
researchers (e.g., Norman Gysbers, Donald
Dinkmeyer, Edwin Herr) maintained that a philo-
sophical reorientation in the profession was badly
needed. The antecedents for these clarion calls are
well documented in multiple publications (e.g.,
Dinkmeyer & Caldwell, 1970; Gysbers &
Henderson, 2000, 2001; Herr, 2001; Myrick, 1997;
Paisley & Borders, 1995; VanZandt & Hayslip,
2001). As a result, the CGCP movement emerged as
a viable alternative to a “services” orientation.
For those who are unacquainted with this pro-
grammatic approach, a CGCP is a competency-
based programmatic approach (Johnson &
Whitfield, 1991) which attempts to be multisys-
temic, collaborative, developmental, prevention-
minded, and educative (Borders & Drury, 1992;
Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Clark & Stone, 2000;
Gysbers & Henderson, 2000, 2001; Henderson &
Gysbers, 1998; Keys & Lockhart, 1999; Myrick,
1997; Neukrug, Barr, Hoffman, & Kaplan, 1993;
Olson & Perrone, 1991; Paisley, 2001; Paisley &
Benshoff, 1996; Paisley & Hubbard, 1994; Paisley
& Peace, 1995; Thompson, 2002). By the late
1990s, this programmatic view had become the
most widely used organizational framework for the
profession (Sink & MacDonald, 1998), endorsed
by the American School Counselor Association
(ASCA, 1997, 1999a, 1999b; Campbell & Dahir;
Dahir, 2001; Dahir, Sheldon, & Valiga, 1999;
Wittmer, 2000a, 2000b) and numerous state school
counseling organizations. Despite the paucity of
nationwide efficacy studies, empirical research con-
ducted in Missouri (Gysbers & Henderson, 2000;
Lapan, 2001; Lapan, Gysbers, & Petroski, 2001)
and Washington (Sink & Robinson, 2002) has
yielded promising results. Other recent studies on
CGCPs revealed that the program implementation
poses major challenges for K–12 counselors (Sink &
Yillik-Downer, 2001) and numerous state models
lack credible documentation of their theoretical
underpinnings (MacDonald & Sink, 1999).
While many state and district CGCPs plainly
assert or imply in their mission or purpose state-
ments that one of their central outcomes is to facil-
itate the advancement of “good” or “productive”
citizens (e.g., Coats, Ash, & Dorsey, 1998; Hatch,
2000), evidence indicates that citizenship educa-
tion, like character formation, is a severely neglect-
ed developmental domain (MacDonald & Sink,
1999). As alluded to previously, a careful search of
the education literature also revealed meager evi-
dence that school counselors are formally assisting
classroom teachers with citizenship development.
Two recent dissertations attempted to incorporate
some aspects of citizenship education into their
school counseling-related studies with only mixed
results (Cassell, 1995; Swen, 2000).
CGCPS AS AN EDUCATIONAL LINK TO
MULTICULTURAL CITIZENSHIP
DEVELOPMENT
The need for increased citizenship education in
U.S. schools has received considerable attention
over the past two decades. For instance, the Center
for Civic Education (Calabasas, California; see Web
site: http://www.civiced.org/) was established in
1981 with the expressed mission to promote citi-
zenship education in the nation’s K–12 schools.
This organization helps educators cultivate enlight-
ened, competent, and responsible citizens (Rosen,
2000). In an effort to do so, researchers/scholars
associated with the Center produce and distribute
citizenship education curricula and materials to
school personnel.
Correspondingly, Robert Battistoni (1997),
speaking in defense of citizenship education, chal- Counselors and
lenged schools to graduate persons of character
who are more responsive to the needs of the com- teachers could
munity, more able to contribute to society, and
more civil in their expressed attitudes and behavior. collaboratively
These propositions resonate well with the earlier
remarks made by Mustaine and LaFountain (1993) provide opportunities
on the future of school counseling, where they
argued for a more holistic view of the profession for active learning,
and education in general. Successful schools, in
their perspective, should facilitate the competencies including role-playing
commensurate with productive student-citizens
(e.g., good decision-making, conflict-resolution, and debates over
and team-building skills).
The mission statements of many district- and controversial issues.
state-level comprehensive programs also reflect this
broader educative orientation. For instance, reiter-
ating Washington State’s CGCP mission statement,
the overall aim of Highline School District’s (1997)
school counseling program is as follows:
All students will receive educationally based
comprehensive counseling and guidance sup-
port to realize their potential as responsible,
productive, and healthy citizens contributing to
a democratic society in a changing world [ital-
ics added]. (p. C-1)
A similar goal was presented in Utah’s
Comprehensive Guidance Program (1998) purpose
statement:
Provide in all districts and schools throughout
Utah a comprehensive student services sys-
tem, designed to offer comprehensive guid-
ance, prevention, intervention, crisis and
6:2 DECEMBER 2002 | ASCA 131
 referral services for individual students, and
families. Such services will assist students in
becoming healthy, respectful and contributing
citizens [italics added].
Like school counselors in general, CGCP leaders
have not been held accountable for encouraging the
attributes of citizenship and seem to do little to
intentionally foster this aim (MacDonald & Sink,
1999). It is my contention, however, these compre-
hensive programs are one of the most important
frameworks from which qualities of citizenship edu-
cation can be instituted. To realize this goal, the
first step is to propose a working definition of citi-
zenship education that is well researched and flexi-
ble enough to be adapted by program leadership
teams.
MULTICULTURAL CITIZENSHIP
EDUCATION DEFINED AND ELUCIDATED
A careful search of
The perspective used here was drawn from current
the education educational literature that reconceptualizes citizen-
ship education from its more “traditional” (i.e., a
literature revealed narrow focus on the political rights and duties of a
citizen) and incomplete renderings (Anderson et
meager evidence al., 1997; Clark, 1999) to what has been called
multicultural citizenship (Kymlicka, 1995; also see
that school Banks, 1997, 1998, 2001; Kaltsounis, 1997;
Parker, 1996, for detailed discussions). Although
counselors are the notion of “multiculturalism” as a socio-political
construct is the subject of scholarly debate (e.g.,
formally assisting Fuller, 1995; Lind, 2000), there is obvious com-
mon ground between multicultural education and
teachers with citizenship education (Kaltsounis). This integrated
approach is consistent with the contemporary posi-
citizenship tions espoused by Lee (1995, 2001) in his articles
on diversity and school counseling, and in the
development. American School Counselor Association’s (1999a)
position statement on multicultural counseling. To
summarize the latter document, school counselors,
operating within the context of a CGCP, should
facilitate student development and enhance the
total school and community environment through
the understanding and appreciation of cultural
diversities.
Subsequently, Banks (2001), one of the seminal
writers in multicultural education, embedded this
construct into citizenship education. He posited the
following:
Because of growing ethnic, cultural, racial,
and religious diversity throughout the world,
citizenship education needs to be changed in
substantial ways to prepare students to func-
tion in the 21st century. Citizens in the new
century need the knowledge, attitudes, and
132 ASCA | PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING
skills required to function in their ethnic and
cultural communities and beyond their cul-
tural borders and to participate in the con-
struction of a national civic culture that is a
moral and just community that embodies
democratic ideals and values … Students also
need to acquire the knowledge and skills
needed to become effective citizens in the
global community. (p. 6)
This form of multicultural citizenship education
is obviously many-sided (Cogan, 1999), embracing
disparate levels of community (local and global) as
well as individual differences, various task identities,
and socio-political realities (Parker, 1996). In gen-
eral, the orientation also seems to resolve the ten-
sions in U.S. citizenship education (Cogan;
Kaltsounis, 1997), for it attempts to unify various
standards in civic education within the context of
school reform (e.g., Citizenship Committee, 1983;
Cogan, 1996, 1999; National Standards for Civics
and Government, 1994; Riley, 1997).
CHARACTERISTICS OF MULTICULTURAL
STUDENT-CITIZENS
Multicultural citizens are, in general, able to func-
tion well in their own culture, nation, and within
the global community (Banks, 2001). Yet, specific
characteristics of such a citizen vary in part across a
spectrum of writers (e.g., Banks; Cogan, 1999;
Dondero & McCoy, 1996; Meyer, 1996; Schaps &
Lewis, 1998). Schaps and Lewis proposed, for
example, three essential qualities of this broader
view of a citizen. Students would develop a (a) deep
regard for self and others, (b) personal commitment
to core American values (e.g., justice, caring, fair-
ness, responsibility, compassion), and (c) civil and
considerate spirit when interacting with others dis-
similar to oneself. Subsequently, Banks suggested
that “good” multicultural student-citizens would
learn to take humane and democratic social and
civic actions to help change their communities and
nation.
Perhaps the most useful way to recast the discus-
sion is to work from two seminal studies (Anderson
et al., 1997; Cogan, 1999). First, in an investiga-
tion that surveyed a random sample of American
social studies teachers (N = 361) on their views
regarding citizenship education, Anderson et al.
reported several important findings. Across the four
derived teacher perspectives, including the (a) cul-
tural pluralists and (b) critical thinkers (both close-
ly aligned with the aims of multicultural citizenship
education), and (c) legalists and (d) assimilationists
(two views that mirror the “traditionalist” orienta-
tion), there were several essential beliefs that could
be readily integrated into a CGCP. A comprehen-
sive approach to multicultural citizenship education
should (a) promote tolerance and open-minded-
ness, (b) address controversial issues which encour-
age higher order thinking, (c) emphasize civic
involvement (e.g., service learning), and (d) address
the topic of social values (i.e., the fundamental val-
ues of the American society).
Subsequently, Cogan’s (1999) research systemat-
ically questioned 182 experts/scholars across the
citizenship education continuum to determine
whether some consensus could be found among a
host of possible citizen characteristics. These eight
in descending order of importance were reported:
1. The ability to look at and approach problems as
a member of a global society.
2. The ability to work with others in a cooperative
way and to take responsibility for one’s roles and
duties in society.
3.The ability to understand, accept, and tolerate
cultural differences.
4.The capacity to think in a critical and systemic
way.
5.The willingness to resolve conflict in a nonviolent
manner.
6.The willingness to change one’s lifestyle and con-
sumption habits to protect the environment.
7. The ability to be sensitive toward and to defend
human rights (e.g., rights of women, ethnic
minorities).
8. The willingness and ability to participate in poli-
tics at local, national, and international levels.
(pp. 76–77)
The results from both investigations encompass
many of the characteristics discussed in related citi-
zenship education literature discussed earlier and
are summarized as Grade 12 student competencies.
(See Table) Where suitable, these outcomes could
be woven into existing CGCP competencies, under
perhaps the personal-social, educational, and career
domains. Moreover, the competencies could be
revised so that they are more developmentally
appropriate for K–8 students.
Various commonalties seem to emerge among the
key features of CGCPs and multicultural citizenship
education. Like comprehensive programs, multicul-
tural citizenship stresses the need for collaboration,
shared responsibility, and interdependence at vari-
ous levels of society, including educational and
community settings (Banks, 2001; Battistoni, 1997;
Dondero & McCoy, 1996; Porter, Epp, & Bryant,
2000; Rowley, 2001; Schaps & Lewis, 1998). To
create a civil society, and more narrowly, a school
that is a caring community of multicultural student-
citizens (Sink, 2000; Sink & Rubel, 2001), oppor-
Summary Competencies of a Multicultural Student-Citizen with-
in the Framework of a Comprehensive Guidance and Counseling
Program
By Grade 12, students will demonstrate
❚ An understanding and appreciation for their own culture and the cul-
tures of others.
❚ Critical thinking in the exploration of sociocultural and political ideas.
❚ An ability to reason about issues from local, national, and global per-
spectives.
❚ An understanding of important American values (e.g., justice, toler-
ance, responsibility).
❚ An understanding of the basic rights of all human beings as embod-
ied in the Bill of Rights.
❚ The ability to express appropriately an opinion on important social
and political issues while listening and respecting the views of others.
❚ The ability to cooperate/collaborate with others in school and com-
munity settings.
❚ How to resolve interpersonal conflicts peacefully.
tunities must be provided for all educators, stu-
dents, families, and influential community members
to effectively work together to achieve CGCP com-
petencies. Finally, CGCPs and multicultural citizen-
ship education use systemic and developmental
constructs to support them. Several ways school
counselors can practically infuse multicultural citi-
zenship education into their CGCPs are now pre-
sented.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
IMPLEMENTATION
Initially, school counselors need to review existing
CGCP (student) competencies to ascertain whether
any of them are aligned with the characteristics of
multicultural citizenship development (e.g.,
Anderson et al., 1997; Banks, 2001; Cogan, 1999;
Remy, 1980). Very often CGCPs, perhaps unwit-
tingly, focus on student outcomes that intersect
nicely with those of multicultural citizenship educa-
tion. For example, in the personal and social
domain, CGCPs target effective communication
and conflict resolution skills (e.g., Campbell &
Dahir, 1997; Gysbers & Henderson, 2000, 2001;
Myrick, 1997; Wittmer, 2000b), reflecting those
proposed by major citizenship education writers
(e.g., Cogan; Meyer, 1996). Similarly, in the educa-
tional domain, CGCPs attempt to foster higher
order thinking and reasoned discussion, which
would reflect salient elements of multicultural citi-
zenship programs (Anderson et al.; Cogan).
Nonetheless, supplementary performance-based
and developmentally appropriate competencies may
need to be included to explicitly address issues such
6:2 DECEMBER 2002 | ASCA 133
 as civic involvement, socio-political issues, diversity,
and character development (MacDonald & Sink,
1999). Those offered here and in several of the pre-
viously mentioned articles are useful starting points.
Second, school counselors in partnership with
classroom teachers should peruse the citizenship
education literature examining it for practical activ-
ities and existing programs (e.g., Clark, 1999;
Risinger, 1996; Rosen, 2000), which can be adapt-
ed for large group guidance curriculum. Since
“hands on” experiences appear to be constructive
teaching-learning strategies to promote aspects of
citizenship education (Banks, 2001; Barber,
Higgins, Smith, & Ballou, 2000; Meyer, 1996),
counselors and teachers could collaboratively pro-
vide opportunities for active learning, including, for
example, role-playing, simulations, project-based
learning, and debates over controversial issues (e.g.,
Johnson, 1997; MacDonald, 1996; Westheimer &
Kahne, 1998). School counselors can readily access
a host of relevant multicultural citizenship educa-
tion materials available at The Center for Civic
Education. Additionally, guidance activity books
Sustained that are related to the topic are widely available. For
example, Peyser and McLaughlin’s (1997) book,
community service Character Education Activities for K-6 Classrooms,
offers many elementary classroom activities that can
projects for students be incorporated into social studies, health, and lan-
guage arts lessons that target good citizenship and
appeared to be allied topics (e.g., responsibility, cooperation, char-
acter education). In short, to provide widespread
positively related to exposure to and application of multicultural citizen-
ship curriculum, experientially based guidance
several dimensions of activities are recommended.
A third proposal involves the developmental fea-
civic development. ture of CGCPs. For multicultural citizenship educa-
tion to be effective, The Center for Civic
Education, in its report on civic education in
America, recommended that this form of learning
should be consciously reproduced in schools, start-
ing with Grades K to 2 and proceeding through
high school (Risinger, 1996). More recently, Niemi
and Chapman (1999) and Rosen (2000) posited
that elementary through secondary schools’ peda-
gogy could informally model and augment pre-
scribed curriculum by other styles of participatory
learning. As such, school counselors and other rele-
vant parties, as part of the CGCP, should ensure
that students have exposure to small and large
group guidance lessons on aspects of good multi-
cultural citizenship. The following are sample ideas:
1. Guide students through an engaging and
respectful process that helps generate school and
classroom rules as well as the school code of
conduct (cf. Schimmel, 1997).
2. Foster good social skills to enhance civil class-
134 ASCA | PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING
room interaction and discussion, where a range
of opinions can be safely voiced.
3. Teach students how to serve on student councils
where issues of diversity and multiculturalism are
openly addressed.
4. Assist pupils to locate and use relevant informa-
tion (i.e., helping them to be more informed
about their community and its diversity).
5. Work with students on how to make effective
oral and written presentations to “authority fig-
ures” (e.g., school leaders and community lead-
ers) from a range of backgrounds.
6. Assign older students with diverse backgrounds
and positive social skills to be mentors for those
younger students with limited exposure to reli-
gious, cultural, and ethnic differences.
7. Encourage dynamic representatives from diverse
backgrounds to interact with pupils in a variety
of forums that discuss important multicultural
civic issues (e.g., discrimination, participatory
democracy, underrepresented people groups in
office).
As students mature, multicultural citizenship
education should move from concrete outcomes
and structured tasks used in elementary schools to
those that might be called transitional objectives
and activities in middle schools. During the high
school years, the guidance competencies and activi-
ties should be transformational in nature, preparing
students for realistic life roles in a multicultural soci-
ety. For example, by the third or fourth grade, chil-
dren should be able to talk about multicultural cit-
izenship ideas (e.g., What does it mean to show
“tolerance” or “intolerance”?) and act out consis-
tently a simple performance (e.g., giving a comple-
ment or showing eye contact when another child is
speaking). Transitional tasks are those that combine
structured performances with higher levels of rea-
soning (e.g., role-playing a scripted dialogue with a
peer from a different ethnicity). In the late teen
years, students should be able to not only discuss
and role-play complex situations, but also act in a
civil manner in “real-world” situations. For
instance, when high school seniors attend a public
forum on a particular issue, they should be able to
listen carefully to all sides, assert their perspective in
a respectful manner, and acknowledge the validity
of differing viewpoints (Schaps & Lewis, 1998;
Spady, 1994).
Finally, to encourage a systemic approach to citi-
zenship development, CGCPs ought to make
stronger connections with parents and community
members (Cogan, 1999). In Niemi and Chapman’s
(1999) summary of a 1996 National Center for
Education Statistics’ study of civic development (N
= 4,212 American high school students and their
parents), two salient findings were reported: (a)
Parental involvement and modeling were important
components in fostering citizenship characteristics;
and (b) sustained community service projects for
students appeared to be positively related to several
dimensions of civic development (e.g., increased
political knowledge and a higher level of confidence
in the ability to speak at public meetings).
To engage parents and guardians in the process, I
recommend that administrators team up with
school counselors and other educators in creating a
volunteer system that provides meaningful social-
civic activities (e.g., mentoring, small group instruc-
tion, one-on-one interaction, job shadowing, field
trip chaperones). The Parent Teacher Association
could be involved as well as other civic-minded
service organizations (e.g., Rotary International).
Additionally, community-school round-tables could
be developed, where people of color, for instance,
who are also parents or guardians, explore with stu-
dents vital issues affecting school and community
life.
CLOSING REFLECTIONS
In this article, I advocate for school counseling per-
sonnel to take seriously the charge to develop pro-
ductive student-citizens written into or implied
from most CGCP mission statements. Although
there are numerous ways to inculcate various char-
acteristics of citizenship, I suggest here, given
America’s highly pluralistic society, that a multicul-
tural orientation is a feasible position to adopt.
Even in areas where students have few contacts with
different ethnic groups, the dimensions of multicul-
tural citizenship outlined here can be beneficial to
all pupils. Many students, for example, leave rural
communities to attend college or seek employment
in diverse settings. These most likely will require a
broader perspective on the world and more finely
honed social-civic skills.
Multicultural citizenship education can be har-
monized with comprehensive guidance and coun-
seling programs through a variety of workable steps:
❚ Modify current student competencies to include
those multicultural outcomes presented in the
Table and in other resources (e.g., Cogan, 1999;
Northside Independent School District, 1994;
Remy, 1980).
❚ Use large group guidance lessons as a conduit for
active engagement with issues related to multi-
cultural citizenship. (Collaboration with all
school personnel is essential.)
❚ Initiate the multicultural citizenship formation
process early, starting with kindergarten or first
grade.
❚ Elicit parental and community involvement in
developing a broad-based coalition of supporters
of multicultural citizenship education.
Because they already face a multitude of respon-
sibilities, resistance from school counselors is to be
expected and openly processed (Sink & Yillik-
Downer, 2001). Yet, if members of the profession
desire to remain focused on all of comprehensive
guidance and counseling program’s major goals,
this developmental “domain” should no longer be
neglected. Noble CGCP mission statements must be
translated into deliberate programming and measur-
able student outcomes. It is my hope that the prin-
ciples, sample competencies, and activities offered in
this article will assist school counselors to realize
this important aim. Over the long run, students
should benefit as well. They will become effective
multicultural citizens, contributing more positively
to their local communities and to society. ❚
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