Subject Geology

Paper No and Title Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

Module No and Title Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting and Crystallization
Module Tag II

Principal Investigator Co-Principal Investigator Co-Principal Investigator

Prof. Talat Ahmad
Vice-Chancellor
Jamia Millia Islamia
Delhi
Paper Coordinator
Prof. Pulak Sengupta
Department of Geological
Sciences,
Jadavpur University
Kolkata
Prof. Devesh K Sinha Prof. P. P. Chakraborty
Department of Geology Department of Geology
University of Delhi University of Delhi
Delhi Delhi
Content Writer Reviewer
Prof. Santosh Kumar Prof. Pulak Sengupta
Department of Geology Department of Geological
Sciences,
Kumaun University
Jadavpur University
Nainital Kolkata

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 Table of Content
1. Learning outcomes
2. Earth as a Heat Engine
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Temperature profile of the Earth
2.3 Mode of Heat and Material Transport in the Earth
2.3.1 Conduction and Convection
2.4 Plate Tectonics and Movement of the Plates

3. Melting and Crystallization

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Melting and Magma Generation in the Mantle
3.3 Magma and Magmatic Differentiation
3.3.1 Liquid to liquid fractionation
3.3.2 Liquid-Crystal Fractionation
3.3.3 Quantifying the Fractional Crystallization

6. Summary

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 1. Learning outcomes

After studying this module, you shall be able to know:

 The major external and internal heat sources of the Earth, which drive the
exogenic and endogenic processes of the Earth respectively.
 Conceptual basis of heat and material transport through convection current in
the mantle, and movement of the tectonic plates.
 Generation of magmas in the mantle, and the processes responsible for
magmatic differentiation.
 Qualitative and quantitative assessment of fractional crystallization.

2. Earth as a Heat Engine

2.1 Introduction
The Earth is a dynamic planet that provides a stable platform to leave on it.
The Earth differentiated very early in its history into several layers or shells
having different compositions. The internal structure of the Earth was
determined based on reflection and refraction of compressed (P) and shear
(S) seismic waves. Earth has two chief sources of heat energies: the Sun is
the external heat engine and the core of the Earth is its internal heat engine,
which are responsible for driving the exogenic and endogenic processes as
heat engines of the Earth respectively.

During the process of the evolution of the Earth extra-terrestrial materials such
as meteorites impacted on the earth where much of the energy of such
collisions converted into heat and retained in the Earth. At present the Earth's
internal temperature is comparable to that of the Sun's outer regions, and a
central core that developed 4.6 billion years later is still about 20 percent hotter
than the Sun's surface. The energy that drives this movement is heat within the
Earth, which comes from two main sources. One is the residual heat left over
from the formation of our planet 4.6 billion years ago. The second source of
energy is naturally occurring radio nuclides in the earth, most notably uranium

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 (U), thorium (Th), and potassium (K) which also release energy in the form of
heat through spontaneous decay within the deep earth.

These two sources of heat superheated the Earth’s mantle and cause it to rise
and sink. A material heated from below gets hotter and rises, reaches the
surface, releases its heat, becomes colder and denser, and sinks again. This
central furnace probably melted everything, and the iron then sank, relative
to lighter material such as silicates, which rose toward the surface, hardened,
and became the crustal and upper mantle rocks (Fig. 1). This intense heat
energy continues traversing outward through the 6370-kilometer radius of
the Earth. Most geophysicists believe that the greater of the two sources of
energy powering the heat engine.

Fig. 1 Differentiation of Earth into a series of concentric physico-chemical

layers of differing composition and density. Molten iron and nickel sank to
form the core whereas lighter silicates flowed up to form mantle and crust.

2.2 Temperature Profile of the Earth

Much of the radiogenic elements are extracted from the mantle during
melting and reside in the continental crust where they are in order of 200
times greater than the mantle’s concentration. Because of the great extent of
the mantle its radiogenic heat production is very significant. The Earth's
liquid outer core is also a major contributor to heat production at the surface.

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 The exact temperature profile of the Earth is quite difficult to determine and
is generally inferred from melting experiments on materials that are
analogues to the deep Earth (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 A typical temperature profile in the Earth which comprises three main
parts: 1. The upper part shows a very steep gradient in the crust where heat is
transported mostly by conduction. 2. Beneath that the gradient is shallower in
the mantle. 3. A steep gradient between the lowermost mantle and outer core.

2.3 Mode of Heat and Material Transport in the Earth

2.3.1 Conduction and Convection: Regardless of source, heat energy is

transported in the Earth by two primary mechanisms. First one is
conduction in which temperature of an object is raised and heat flows
in the direction of cooler regions by diffusion as the molecules in the
object vibrate more vigorously. Mass is however not transported by
conduction. Crustal materials are rigid and therefore temperature

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 gradient is high because conduction is very efficient in some good
conductor materials like metals.

On the other hand, convection is a circulatory motion of heated

materials of contrasting temperatures. Melts and other weak materials
heated in one area (usually from beneath) experience such motion. In
convection the moving materials carry the heat, and generally also
conduct heat at the same time. However, the transport of heat by
convection in a fluid is usually much more efficient than by
conduction. In the Earth's mantle convection is the dominant
mechanism of heat transport, although conduction may take place as
well. The mantle is considered as a viscous fluid capable of flow albeit
very slowly.

2.4 Plate Tectonics and Movements of the Plates

Alfred Wegener proposed a theory of continental drift in 1915 that gave birth
of revolutionary idea of plate tectonics in the late 19 th century that there are
striking similarities in structure, lithology, and flora-fauna distribution on the
micro and mega continents which were once parts of a supercontinent named
as Pangea, Gondwanaland, Rodinia, and Columbia, etc. The motion of
tectonic plates and associated volcanic and earthquake activities is believed
to be the consequences of thermal convection occurring in the Earth’s mantle
(Fig. 3).

The rigid outer layer of our planet Earth, called the lithosphere, is the cold,
occupying top boundary of convection cells in the mantle. Lithosphere is a
rigid mass that means they can bend but cannot flow. On the other hand, the
asthenosphere behaves as plastic materials, which can flow in response to
deformation. Even though it can flow, the asthenosphere is still made of solid
(not liquid) rocks. Deep inside the Earth, hot rocks (above about 1300°C) can
flow, whereas cold rocks cannot. The lithosphere breaks into the rigid plates
which ride on top of the flowing asthenosphere. In terms of chemical
composition, there is no difference between the upper part of the
Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology
GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 asthenosphere and the lower part of the lithosphere. In fact, if the upper part
of the asthenosphere cools down it becomes part of the lithosphere.

Fig. 3 The convection current (shown as arrows) occurs within the Earth
as hot, less dense portions of the mantle rise and displace the cooler, denser
rocks, which then sink into the mantle. Lithosphere moves over the
asthenosphere. The underlying "flow" of the materials in the mantle, called
mantle convection, drives geological phenomena at the Earth's surface,
ranging from earthquakes and volcanoes to the creation of mountains and
oceans. Thus the convection plays an important role in the influencing the
dynamic nature of the Earth.

Over the millions of years, the dynamics of tectonic plates rearrange the
surface configuration of the Earth. Collision between plates has squeezed and
accreted the ancient oceans and continents, and produced majestic mountain
ranges such as Alps and Himalaya. Thus there are tremendous underlying
forces and energies inside the Earth that build and shaped the Earth’s surface
manifestation in time and space that operated through synchronous tectonic
and rock cycle.

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 3. Melting and Crystallization
3.1 Introduction
Melting point of a solid is the temperature at which the solid starts melting at
a given pressure (e.g. melting point of ice at 1 atmosphere is ~0 oC). Freezing
point of a substance on the other hand, refers to temperature of liquid at
which the liquid starts crystallizing at a given pressure (e.g. freezing
temperature of water is 0 oC at 1 atmosphere). Melting point and freezing
point of any substance may or may not be the same. The complete melting of
rocks does not occur in nature except in a very unusual situation such as
meteorite impacts or shear heating during earthquake. Generally, magma is
produced by a process of partial melting where temperature is sufficient to
melt a fraction of the source materials (protolith or reservoir) but never melts
completely. For example, partial melting of an ultramafic source (e.g.
peridotite and eclogite) will produce a melt (e.g. basalt) less magnesian than
the source material leaving behind a refractory solid residue which is more
magnesian than the source material before the initiation of melting. The
composition of the melt and residual solid depends on the degree of melting
that is primarily temperature dependent.

Magma as mixtures of melt plus crystals ascends to a higher level along

fractures or as diapirs, because it may crystallize during the course of its
accumulation, separation from source, enroute ascend, and at emplacement
level (sink regions). However, magma may contain some residual phases
derived from the source region. Crystallization of magma may be fractional
or equilibrium. In fractional crystallization crystals are continuously
removed from the magma from which it crystallizes by some physical
processes (e.g. gravity settling) whereas in equilibrium crystallization
chemical equilibrium is maintained throughout the crystallization process.
Idealized condition of equilibrium crystallization is never achieved in nature
but both fractional and equilibrium crystallization can operate concurrently
(Sha, 2012).

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 3.2 Melting and Magma Generation in the Mantle
Mantle is not a static body because interior of the Earth is very hot, and the
solid mantle undergoes continuous, although very sluggish, convective
movement with mushroom-like plumes of buoyant hotter material which
ascends from below (Fig. 4a) whereas dense colder material sinks down (e.g.
cold oceanic lithosphere at subduction zone as shown in Fig. 4b). Solidus
temperature of peridotite mantle increases around 10-12°C/Kbar; for an
increase of 30 Kbar (~100 km) the solidus temperature increases by 330°C.
To initiate melting the ambient temperature of the mantle at any given
pressure (expressed by geothermal gradient) should cross the solidus of the
mantle peridotite.

In the mantle there are at least two broad scenario of partial melting by
which the geothermal gradient intersects the mantle solidus. (1) Perturbation
of lithospheric geotherm by a deep up-welling mantle plume causes shifting
of geotherm towards higher temperature which intersects the solidus, and
consequently melting begins (Fig 4a), or addition of fluids to mantle
peridotite at, for example, subduction zones, thus decreasing its liquidus and
solidus which results in melting (Fig. 4b). (2) Another situation is adiabatic
decompression melting that takes place in rising mantle diapirs, known as
decompression melting which is primary cause of magma generation at mid-
ocean ridges (Fig. 4c).

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 Fig. 4 Schematic sketch illustrating the initiation of melting in the upper
mantle. There are at least two ways by which the geothermal gradient
intersects the mantle solidus: 1) either perturbation of lithosphere geotherm
by a deep up-welling mantle plume (A), or addition of fluids to mantle
peridotite at, for example, subduction zones, thus decreasing its liquidus and
solidus (B) and 2) adiabatic decompression melting that takes place in rising
mantle diapirs (C). (after Vijay Kumar and Rathna, 2014).

3.3 Magma and Magmatic Differentiation

Magmas are commonly considered as high temperature, high entropy silicate
solutions ranging in wide compositions from ultramafic komatiite, through
mafic and intermediate (andesite), to silica-saturated and silica-
undersaturated felsic igneous rocks. The diversity in mineralogical and
geochemical compositions of these rocks suggests their origin and evolution
from a few primary magmas by the processes known as magmatic
differentiation. It is, however, very difficult to recognize the primary
magmas because of uncertainty in the composition of the source region.
Most igneous rocks are members of a rock association in space and time,
which may be part of a comagmatic suite, evolved by the processes of
fractional differentiation.

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 Most viable models of magma production and evolution can be proposed
based on textural, mineralogical and chemical criteria. In most cases, two
essentially important processes, fractional crystallization (separation of
crystals from parental melts) and mixing (hybridization) of magmas,
separately or concurrently, have been suggested responsible for the textural
and chemical evolution of magma. Many models have been proposed to
explain the magmatic differentiation. Magmas may differentiate into crystal-
free liquid state (e.g. liquid immiscibility, thermo-gravitational diffusion and
melt-melt interaction), crystal-liquid fractionation, and crystal-charged
magma mixing (Fig. 5). The later processes are now considered most
important in the evolution of magmatic bodies whereas some processes in
liquid state are not so significant.

thermogravitational
diffusion

liquid liquid
immiscibility
magma
mixing

l ed magma
s ta arg
y h
cr c a
m ing
ag ix
m m

crystal assimilation
+
liquid
fractional crystallization

Fig. 5 A summary of the major magmatic processes responsible for

magmatic differentiation (modified after Wilson, 1993). Magmatic
differentiation can be broadly divided into processes of differentiation in the
liquid state and crystal-liquid differentiation or fractional differentiation.

In the classical work of Harker (1909) it was already realized that the great
diversity of igneous rocks and compositional variations within many rock
bodies could be attributed to processes of fractional differentiation.
Advancement in theories and ideas of magmatic differentiation, postulated
that the geochemical variations alone cannot point to the operative processes.

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 For example, near-linear Harkers’ variation diagrams (Fig. 6) can be caused
by fractional crystallization, mixing of magma end-members, and melt-restite
unmixing (Clemens, 1989). Thus the geochemical variation diagrams are
unimportant for process diagnosis, provided they are not used in combination
with field, textural and mineral-chemical data. Most igneous rocks preserve
many textural and chemical characteristics that point to differentiation
processes involved in their formation.

I II magma III melt B

C 'B'
evolved / residual / melt B'

Element 'Y'
Element 'Y'

Element 'Y'

differentiated magma
melt B''

increasong degree
A of melting
primary
magma magma
B 'A' A
source
cummulate (protolith)

Element 'X' Element 'X' Element 'X'

Fig. 6 Linear geochemical variation of igneous rocks can be viewed as:

I. Fractional differentiation of a primary magma (A) forming cumulates (B)
and subsequently evolved residual or differentiated magma (C). Element ‘X’
can be chosen as “differentiation index”.
II. The same geochemical variation can be generated by the mixing of
magma end-members ‘A’ and ‘B’ in various proportions, forming members
of hybridized igneous rock suite.
III. The same geochemical variation can be formed by the process of melt-
restite unmixing i.e. partial melting of a source region (protolith ‘A’), which
will form a small melt fraction at ‘B’ and with the progress of melting degree
the resultant melt – will follow the compositional path B-B'-B''. (Kumar,
2014).

3.3.1 Liquid to Liquid Fractionation: An initially homogeneous magma

may separate into two or more compositionally distinct magmas by the
processes of liquid immiscibility. For example, many tholeiitic basalts
contain two co-existing glass phases (quenched melts). There is
credible laboratory evidence of liquid immiscibility between alkali
silicate liquid and carbonate rich fluids, which forms strong genetic
links to understand the evolution of the carbonatite - ijolite -nephelinite

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 rock association. Such unmixing or magma splitting is restricted to
magmas of evolved composition and is not significant to differentiation
of more primitive magmas.

Compositional gradients in magmas may cause diffusion and

redistribution of elements by what is called as the Soret effect. It may
also occur in homogeneous, non-convecting magmas that are subjected
to thermal gradients. Unlike the normal trend in fractional
crystallization the hotter-end of magma chamber may be silica-rich
whereas the cold-end may be iron-rich mafic compositions, which may
persist in stagnant magma that usually develop the border zone. It is
therefore suggested that while dealing with chilled margin materials
care must be taken because gradational compositions of plutonic body
may have been produced by the Soret effect.

The diffusion of chemical species in silicate melts governs the kinetics

of the most magmatic processes including partial melting, fractional
crystallization, magma mixing and crystal growth. Different
components of a silicate melt might diffuse in different directions,
depending upon diffusion coefficient, in the same temperature gradient.
In a recent contribution (Perugini et al., 2006), it is found that even at a
micrometric length-scale small volume of magmas is strongly
influenced by coupled action of chemical diffusion and chaotic flow
fields because of ‘diffusion fractionation’ process. Some of the co-
existing magmas of contrasting temperature and compositions may
partially to completely equilibrate in their contents of chemical species
by the process of chemical diffusion (Kumar and Rino, 2006). Mixing
of two-liquid may define straight line on variation diagrams so long as
they are not concurrently fractionating.

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 3.3.2 Crystal-Liquid Fractionation: Crystal fractionation (or fractional
crystallization) is considered as the dominant process of magmatic
differentiation, where an effective physical separation of phases,
normally one liquid and the others crystalline, takes place. Initially
gravitational segregation of crystals was thought to as appropriate
mechanism of forming the cumulate on the floor or wall of the magma
chamber but on closer examination it is clear that other mechanisms
such as in-situ crystallization, flowage differentiation, diffusive
exchange, compaction (filter-pressing) and convective exchange may
also be equally effective. This is because many crystallizing magmas
behave as Bhingham liquids, and thus even the dense ferromagnesian
minerals may not be able to sink if they are unable to overcome the
field strength of the magma. Flowage differentiation calls upon shear
stresses in magma to help move the crystals. Convecting magma can
transport early crystals in suspension to a distant depositional site. In
filter pressing, a mat of crystals compacts under its own weight and
expels less (or more) dense interstitial melt. Another mechanism is gas-
driven filter pressing that separates melts from crystals (Fig. 7). Melt
flows through a dense mat of groundmass crystals in processes driven
by the differential pressure between small, recently-nucleated vesicles
(higher pressure) and larger, early-formed vesicles (lower pressure).
The small vesicles were formed because crystallization of anhydrous
groundmass minerals resulted in exsolution of gases, a process
commonly referred to as second boiling.

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 A

Fig. 7: Effective gas-driven filter pressing (not to scale)

A. Gas-saturated residual liquid from nearly solidified magma is
driven out a propagating fracture to form an aplitic dike (diagonal
line).
B. Mafic recharge magma (cross-hatched) ponds near base of the
felsic magma reservoir (unpatterned), above earlier cumulates and
mafic sheets (dashes). Rapid crystallization and vesiculation
within recharge magma drives evolved liquid (arrows) into
overlying felsic magma reservoir (after Sisson and Bacon, 1999).

In-situ crystallization is commonly evident by mineral assemblage that

includes zoned crystals as an extended sequence of crystallization,
particularly true in the case of small and relatively rapidly cooled small
igneous body like Skaergaard intrusion. In fractional crystallization
(Rayleigh distillation law) equilibrium is assumed only between the
surface of the crystallizing phases and the melt, and crystallized
minerals are assumed to get isolated from the residual melt and
accumulated on the floor or walls of the magma chamber. The liquid
path (LLD: liquid line of descent) for fractional crystallization is
almost identical to that for equilibrium crystallization but crystal path
(XP) is quite different (Fig. 8).

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 A A
(a) (b) LLD

A +L XP

X
B +L
C+L

C B C B

Fig. 8 Hypothetical ternary system A-B-C showing a. equilibrium

crystallization of a melt with ‘x’ composition, and b. fractional
crystallization of melt ‘x’. Dashed curve indicate rock hop. In
fractional crystallization crystal path (XP) makes only the bulk
composition of crystals presently crystallizing, not the bulk
composition of all crystals removed since the beginning of
crystallization (after Ragland, 1989). LLD: Liquid line of descend
marked by arrow with continuous lines; XP: crystal path; Cotectic
boundaries separating A+L, B+L, and C+L primary phase field meet at
eutectic in both the ternary diagrams.

Assimilation of crustal-rocks (deeper lithology and/or country-rocks)

could be an important process in the compositional diversification of
magmas, particularly in deep-crustal magma reservoir. Assimilation
coupled with fractional crystallization (AFC) can be an important
process in the petrogenesis of several continental-derived magmas.
Crystal-charged magmas may mix together forming mingled and
hybrid magma zones. Magma-mixing causes homogenization of the
interacting melt phases and conversion of early crystals to partly
dissolved (corroded) in hybrid magma, whereas mingling or
comingling involves partial mixing interpenetration of contrasting
magmas without pervasive changes.

Most magma chambers are episodically replenished by new pulses of

magma, periodically tapped and continuously fractionated. In a
magmatic system undergoing paired recharge and fractionation, the
LLD for major element is similar to that produced by fractional
crystallization. For example, in a simple ternary system crystallizing

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 olivine-crystallization-plagioclase (Fig. 9), adding a pulse of more
primitive magma will push it back into the olivine phase field from
where it will evolve back towards the olivine-clinopyroxene cotectic.
In such a delayed long-term situation the amount of olivine +
clinopyroxene fractionated from the system will be higher than those in
a closed system.

Plagioclase

pl + liq

c
b'
a' b

a cpx
+
liq
ol + liq

Olivine Clinopyroxene
Fig. 9 Magma–mixing viewed in the context of simplified ternary
system. Magma ‘a’ in a chamber crystallizing the assemblage
ol+pl+cpx would lie at the ternary eutectic ‘c’. Refluxing the chamber
with new pulse of magma ‘a’, followed by complete mixing, would
generate a new magma composition a' which would evolve back
towards the eutectic ‘c’ along the LLD a'-b'-c (after Wilson, 1993).
Abbreviation after Kretz (1983).

We have seen that the Harker variation diagram (Fig. 6) is not much
potential to examine the petrological hypothesis precisely, unless
combined with field and petrographic evidences. Compositional data of
many igneous rock sequences may show good coherence in their
variation, which suggest fractional crystallization has played a dominant

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 role but it must be tested against petrographic or other evidence. Often a
hypothesis emerges first from a consideration of petrography and is then
tested against chemical data-set. In the formulation of crystal
fractionation hypothesis, the constructed chemical variations should be
capable of showing both the liquid and fractionating minerals, which is
possible in a two-element variation diagram, commonly referred to as
‘mixing’ calculation (Cox et al., 1979). The diagrams constructed based
on principle of mixing calculation are capable to explain addition or
subtraction (or ‘extract’) of phases but do not imply a specific
mechanism. Basic principle of mixing calculation lies in the lever rule
as commonly used in the phase diagrams. Two chemical parameters X
and Y may represent percentages of oxides or parts per million of trace
elements or any other weight expression of analytical data (Fig. 10).
Addition of ‘P’ composition to ‘Q’ the resulted mixture M will evolve
in a straight line Q-P, depending upon the relative proportions of Q and
P in the mixture M.

M
wt % Y

wt % X
Fig. 10 X-Y element variation showing the evolution of mixture M in a
straight line as a result of addition of P to Q (after Cox et al, 1979).

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 At any specific point of mixture such as M the proportion of two end-
members P and Q are given by:

Weight of P / Weight of Q = QM / PM

and the percentage amounts of end-members are:

Weight % of P = 100 QM / PQ

Weight % of Q = 100PM / PQ

3.4 Quantifying the Fractional Crystallization

Fractional crystallization (Rayleigh model) is widely used to constrain
geochemical evolution of a crystallizing melt as described by the equation
(Gast, 1968; Hanson, 1989)

CLi = Coi F (Di-1)

Where, CLi = concentration of element i in the residual melt, COi =

concentration of element i in the initial melt, F = fraction of melt left, and D i
= bulk partition coefficient of the crystallizing mineral assemblage for
element i.

The distribution coefficients (Kd s) for various phases in basaltic magma are
experimentally determined from glass and phenocryst relationship.

Recently, in the modeling of fractional crystallization the damping effect of

Mg/Fe during the progress of fractionation that leads to erroneous result,
have been checked by the use of multiphase Rayleigh fractionation (Morse,
2006). The modified Rayleigh equation for multiphase fractionation is:

C = Co FL f α (D - 1)

where Co = initial composition, FL = fraction of liquid remaining, fα =

fraction of the active crystal phase relative to total crystals, and D = bulk
partition coefficient X1S / X1L.

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 4. Summary

The Sun and the core of the Earth act as major sources of heat energies, which are
responsible for driving the exogenic and endogenic processes of the Earth
respectively. Magma is produced by a process of partial melting when temperature is
sufficient to melt a fraction of the source materials but never melts completely.
Magma can be defined as high temperature, high entropy silicate solutions ranging
in wide compositions from ultramafic mafic, intermediate, to silica-saturated and
silica-under saturated felsic igneous rocks. Magma as mixtures of melt plus crystals
ascends to a higher level along fractures in network style or as diapirs, and
crystallizes during the course of its accumulation, separation from source, enroute
ascend, and emplacement at higher levels (sink regions). The diversity in
mineralogical and geochemical of igneous rocks suggests their origin and evolution
from a few primary magmas by the processes known as magmatic differentiation.
Magma may differentiate into crystal-free liquid state, crystal-liquid fractionation
and crystal-charged magma mixing etc. and therefore magma may differentiate
through mixing of crystals and liquids in various proportions.

Frequently Asked Questions-

Q1. What are the major sources of heat within the Earth?
Q2. What are the consequences of thermal convection occurring in the Earth’s
mantle?
Q3. Define magma in thermodynamic sense?
Q4. How does the magma in the upper mantle generate?
Q5. What are the major and minor processes responsible for magmatic
differentiation?
Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology
GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 Multiple Choice Questions-

1. Magma in the subduction zone is generated because of

a. partial melting of oceanic crust
b. dehydration melting of pelitic rocks
c. partial melting of Radiolarian chert
d. all of the above
Ans: a
2. Addition of water in the melting system
a. depresses the solidus towards lower temperatures
b. solidus moves towards higher temperature
c. decompression melting starts
d. changes the geothermal structure
Ans: a
3. In the fractional crystallization and assimilation (FCA) model, assimilation
involves
a. interaction of melts with solids
b. interaction between two or more melts
c. interaction between melt and vapours
d. all of the above
Ans: a
4. Igneous rocks that are related to a common source are said to be
a. contaminated
b. co-magmatic
c. differentiated
d. hybridized
Ans: b
5. Magma-mixing and assimilations are examples of
a. closed system magmatic processes
b. open system magmatic processes
c. equilibrium process
d. none of the above
Ans: b
6. Interaction of melt-melt is called
a. assimilation
b. crystallization and assimilation
c. partial melting
d. magma mixing
Ans: d

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 7. Magma mixing leads to
a. accumulation of early crystals
b. heterogeneity
c. homogeneity
d. both b & c
Ans: c
8. Mafic schlierens may be formed by the process of
a. fractional crystallization
b. flowage differentiation
c. convection current
d. both b & c
Ans: b
9. Bimodal tholeiitic and alkaline igneous rock associations are found at
a. subduction zone
b. mid-oceanic ridges
c. rift environment
d. none of the above
Ans: c
10. The motion of tectonic plates and associated volcanic and earthquake activities is
the consequences of
a. thermal convection in the mantle
b. conduction in the mantle
c. mantle adiabate
d. mantle up-welling
Ans: a

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 Suggested Readings:

1. Anderson, Don L. (1989). Theory of the Earth. Blackwell Scientific

Publications, Oxford. ISBN: 0865423350, 978-0865423350.
2. Clemens, J. D. (1989). The importance of residual source material (restite) in
granite petrogenesis: a comment. Journal of Petrology, 30(5), 1313-1316.
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Igneous Rocks. George Allen & Unwin, London, p. 450. ISBN: 978-
0412534102.
4. Don, R. (2008) Earth as Heat Engine. Department of Geology, San Jose State
University, http://oceansjsu.com/105d/exped_commotion/6.html.
5. Fourcade, S., & Allegre, C. J. (1981). Trace elements behavior in granite
genesis: A case study The calc-alkaline plutonic association from the
Querigut complex (Pyrénées, France). Contributions to Mineralogy and
Petrology, 76(2), 177-195.
6. Fowler, C. M. R. (1990). The Solid Earth, p. 472. Cambridge University
Press, New York.
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igneous system as an example. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry,
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batholith, northwest Himalaya: Implications on calc-alkaline magma
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13. Kumar, S. (2014). Magmatic processes: review of some concepts and
models. In Modelling of Magmatic and Allied Processes (p. 1-22). Springer
International Publishing.

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization
 14. Kumar, S., & Rino, V. (2006). Mineralogy and geochemistry of
microgranular enclaves in Palaeoproterozoic Malanjkhand granitoids, central
India: evidence of magma mixing, mingling, and chemical equilibration.
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Skaergaard intrusion. Journal of Petrology, 20(3), 487-554.
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survey of magma/igneous rock systems. Routledge.
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226(3), 212-231.
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elements by chaotic mixing of magmas. Earth and Planetary Science Letters,
243(3), 669-680.
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New York.
21. Sha, L. K. (2012). Concurrent fractional and equilibrium crystallization.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 86, 52-75.
22. Kumar, K. V., & Rathna, K. (2014). Geochemical Modelling of Melting and
Cumulus Processes: A Theoretical Approach. In Modelling of Magmatic and
Allied Processes (p. 47-73). Springer International Publishing, Switzerland.
23. Sisson, T. W., & Bacon, C. R. (1999). Gas-driven filter pressing in magmas.
Geology, 27(7), 613-616.
24. Wager, L. R., & Brown, G. M. (1967). Layered igneous rocks. WH Freeman.
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Society, 150(4), 611-624.
26. Wright, T. L., & Doherty, P. C. (1970). A linear programming and least
squares computer method for solving petrologic mixing problems.
Geological Society of America Bulletin, 81(7), 1995-2008.

Paper: Metamorphic and Igneous Petrology

GEOLOGY Module: Earth as a Heat Engine; Partial Melting
and Crystallization