bronchi at the level of the 5th thoracic

Respiratory System ◆ Bronchi

vertebra

Human Organ Systems ● The trachea divides into the left and right
main bronchi each of which connects to a
Functions of the system: lung
◆ Respiration includes the following processes ● The left main bronchus is more horizontal
● Ventilation (breathing) is the movement of air than the right main bronchus because it is
into and out of the lungs displaced by the
● Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between ● The bronchi branch out as bronchioles
the air in the lungs and the blood ● The bronchioles open into the alveoli (air
● Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the sacs)
blood ● There are about 300 million alveoli in the
● Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between lungs
the blood and the tissues ◆ Lungs
◆ Other functions of the respiratory system: ➔ Muscles of Respiration
● Regulation of blood pH ◆ The muscles of inspiration include:
● Voice production ● Diaphragm
● Olfaction ● External intercostals - elevate the ribs and
○ the sensation of smell that results from sternum
the detection of odorous substances ◆ The muscles of expiration;
aerosolized in the environment ● Internal intercostals - depress the ribs and
Pathway of inhaled air: sternum
◆ Nasal Cavity ● The human breathing process is controlled in
◆ Pharynx the Medulla Oblongata of the brain
◆ Epiglottis ◆ Chemicals that influence respiration:
◆ Larynx ● Hydrogen ion concentrations
◆ Trachea ● Carbon dioxide concentrations
◆ Bronchi ● Oxygen concentrations
◆ Bronchioles ➔ Gas Exchange and Transport
◆ Alveoli ◆ Diffusion of gases in the body
◆ Exhaled air follows the reverse pathway ● The cells of the body use O2 and produce
CO2
Anatomy of the Respiratory System ● Blood returning from tissues and entering
➔ Upper respiratory tract the lungs has a decreases Po2 and an
◆ Nasal cavity increased Pco2
● Nares or nostrils ● Blood from the heart proceeding to the organ
● Nasal turbinates or choanae tissues has an increased Po2 and decreased
◆ Pharynx Pco2
● A common passageway for both air and food ● O2 diffuses from the alveoli into the
● 3 regions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, pulmonary capillaries because the Po2 in the
laryngopharynx alveoli is greater than that in the pulmonary
➔ Lower respiratory tract capillaries
◆ Larynx ● In contrast, CO2 diffuses from the pulmonary
● Extends from the base of the tongue to the capillaries into the alveoli because the Pco2
trachea is greater in the pulmonary capillaries than
● It is a passageway for air between the in the alveoli
pharynx and the trachea ● O2 diffuses from the tissue capillaries into
● Two pairs of ligaments the organ tissues because the Po2 in the
○ Vestibular folds (false vocal cords) tissue capillaries is greater than that in the
○ Vocal folds (true vocal cords) - the organ tissues
primary source of voice production ● In contrast, CO2 diffuses from the organ
◆ Trachea tissues into the tissue capillaries because the
● 1.4-1.5 cm in diameter Pco2 is greater in the organ tissues than in the
● 10-11 cm in length tissue capillaries
● Consists of 16-20 C-shaped pieces of hyaline
cartilage ➔ Pattern of Breathing
● Projects through the mediastinum and ◆ Eupnea
devices into the right and left primary ● Normal, relaxed, quiet breathing
◆ Apnea
 ● Temporary cessation of breathing (one or ◆ Chronic bronchitis
more skipped breaths) ● Inflammation of the lining of your bronchial
◆ Dyspnea tubes
● Labored, gasping breathing; shortness of ● Cigarette smoking the risk of developing
breath chronic bronchitis
◆ Hyperpnea ◆ Emphysema
● Increases rate and depth of breathing in ● Causes shortness of breath because the
response to exercise, pain, or other alveolar walls weaken and can rupture
conditions ● Cigarette smoking the risk of developing
◆ Hyperventilation emphysema
● Increases pulmonary ventilation in excess of ◆ Asthma
metabolic demand ● The intense bronchoconstriction caused by
◆ Hypoventilation allergens that trigger the release of histamine
● Reduced pulmonary ventilation and other inflammatory chemicals
◆ Orthopnea
● Dyspnea occurs when a person is lying down
◆ Tachypnea
● Accelerated respiration
◆ Respiratory arrest
● Permanent cessation of breathing

Disorder of the Respiratory System

➔ Common cold
◆ Most colds are caused by the rhinovirus, but other
culprits include influenza, parainfluenza, and
coronavirus.
➔ Laryngitis
◆ Inflammation of the vocal fold
➔ Pharyngitis (sore throat)
◆ possible causes include streptococcus bacteria,
which causes tonsillitis.
➔ Pneumonia
◆ an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both
lungs. Viruses (influenza and SARS-CoV-2, the
virus that causes COVID-19, bacteria (Streptococcus
pneumoniae), and fungi can all cause pneumonia
➔ Tuberculosis
◆ Caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium
tuberculosis
◆ Usually attacks the lungs, but TB bacteria can attack
any part of the body such as the kidney, spine, and
brain
➔ Lung Cancer
◆ Lung malignancy
➔ Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD)
◆ Long-term obstruction of airflow and reduction in
pulmonary ventilation
 ● Right ventricles (lower chambers)
Cardiovascular System ● Left ventricles (lower chambers)

Human Organ Systems ◆ Atria

● Thin-walled
➔ Heart Anatomy ● Deliver blood to adjacent ventricles
● Receive coming from the outside of the heart
◆ Ventricles
● Much thicker and stronger walls
● Right ventricle
○ supplies blood to the lungs
○ little flow resistance
○ Carries Deoxygenated blood
● Left ventricle
○ The wall is thicker than the right
ventricle
○ supply blood in the systemic
circulation
○ Carries oxygenated blood
● Separated by the interventricular septum
◆ Approximately the size of your fist ○ Separates the oxygenated from the
◆ Location deoxygenated blood
● The superior surface of the diaphragm ● Thickness of the myocardium varies
● Left of the midline according to the function of the chamber
● Anterior to the vertebral column, posterior ◆ Heart valves separate each chamber and prevent a
the sternum backflow of the blood
● Under the sternum (Slightly to the left) and ● Tricuspid valve - atrioventricular valve,
between the lungs Bicuspid (mitral) valve - atrioventricular
◆ Function: valve, Pulmonary valve - semilunar valve,
● To pump blood throughout the body Aortic valve - semilunar valve
● Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the ○ Atrioventricular (AV)
cells ◆ valves lie between the atria
● Blood carries carbon dioxide and waste and the ventricles
products away from the cells ◆ AV valves prevent backflow
◆ Divided into 4 chambers into the atria when the
ventricles contract
◆ Tricuspid valve
● Lies between the
Right atrium and
Right ventricle
◆ Bicuspid valve or Mitral
valve
● Lies between the
Left atrium and the
left ventricle
○ Semilunar valves
◆ lies between the ventricles
and Pulmonary artery/Aorta
◆ Semilunar valves prevent the
backflow of blood into the
ventricles
◆ Aortic valve
● Lies between the
left ventricle and
the aorta
◆ Pulmonary valve
● Lies between the
right ventricle and
● Right atrium (upper chambers) pulmonary artery
● Left atrium (upper chambers)
 ○ Heart valves ensure unidirectional
blood flow through the heart ➔ Pathway of blood in the heart
◆ Blood vessels ◆ Right atrium -> tricuspid valve -> right ventricle ->
● Arteries pulmonary semilunar valve -> pulmonary arteries
○ Muscular, thick, elastic blood vessels -> lungs -> pulmonary veins -> left atrium ->
◆ Because it carries pressure bicuspid valve -> left ventricle -> aortic semilunar
(blood needs to be pumped valve -> aorta -> systemic circulation
all over)
○ Carry oxygenated blood away from
the heart to body cells, tissue &
organs
○ Except for the pulmonary artery
which carries deoxygenated blood to
the lungs
● Capillaries
○ Very small blood vessels
○ Connect arterioles to venules
● Veins
○ Thin-walled blood vessels
○ Carry deoxygenated blood towards
the heart from blood cells, tissue &
organs
○ Except for the pulmonary vein which
carries oxygenated blood towards the
heart
➔ Functions of Blood
◆ Transportation
● Oxygen and carbon dioxide
● Nutrients
● Waste products metabolic wastes, excessive
water, and ions)
◆ Regulation
● Hormones and heat (to regulate body
temperature)
◆ Protection
● The clotting mechanism protects against
blood loss and leukocytes provide immunity
against many disease-causing agents
➔ Blood components
◆ Formed elements
● Red blood cells - erythrocytes
● White blood cells - leukocytes
● Platelets - thrombocytes
◆ Plasma
● Water plus dissolved solutes
 Nervous System
Human Organ Systems

Functions of the Nervous System

➢ Sensory Function
○ Detect internal and external stimuli which are
passed to the brain and spinal cord
➢ Integrative Function
○ Processes information and makes decisions for
appropriate responses
➢ Motor Function
○ Sends out appropriate motor responses by
activating effectors (muscles and glands) ● Supported by the diencephalon and
brainstem (the largest part of the
Neuron brain)
➢ Dendrites receive signals ● Functions:
➢ The cell body integrates signals ○ Conscious thought
➢ The axon transmits action potential. ○ Intellectual activity
➢ The myelin sheath makes the signal travel faster ○ Memory
➢ Synaptic terminals transmit signals ○ Origin of complex patterns of
movement
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) ● Cerebral Cortex
➢ Clear, colorless liquid that protects the brain and spinal ○ Forms the outermost layer of the
cerebrum
cord from chemical and physical injuries
○ Responsible for “higher order”
➢ Circulates through cavities in the brain and spinal cord and
functions like language and
around the brain and spinal cord in the subarachnoid space
information processing
(between the arachnoid mater and pia mater)
○ Folds = gyri or convolutions
➢ Carries oxygen, glucose, and other needed chemicals from
○ Longitudinal fissure = separates
the blood to neurons and neuroglia
the cerebrum into right and left
cerebral hemispheres
Neural Organization
○ Corpus callosum = connects the
right and left cerebral
hemispheres
● The association areas are the sites of
higher mental activities (thinking)
○ Frontal association area
(judgment and planning)
○ Auditory association area
○ Somatosensory association area
(reading and speech)
○ Visual association area
■ Diencephalon
● Superior to the brain stem
● Consists of the:
○ Thalamus
Central Nervous System ■ Major relay station for
➢ Composed of: most sensory impulses that
○ Brain reach the primary sensory
○ Spinal Cord areas of the cerebral cortex
➢ Contains: from the spinal cord and
○ Relay neurons (interneurons) brainstem
➢ Processes incoming sensory information ■ Transmitting information
➢ Stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete from the cerebellum and
➢ Brain basal ganglia to the
○ Major parts of the adult brain primary motor area of the
■ Cerebrum cerebral cortex
 ■ Relay nerve impulses
between different areas of
the cerebrum
○ Hypothalamus
■ The major regulator of
homeostasis through:
● Control of
Autonomic Nervous
System
● Production of
hormones
● Regulation of
emotional and
behavioral patterns
● Regulation of eating
and drinking
● Control of body
temperature
● Regulation of
circadian rhythms
and states of
consciousness
○ Epithalamus
■ Pineal gland
● Rhythmically
secretes the hormone
melatonin that
contributes to the
setting of the body’s
biological clock
■ Habenular nuclei
● Involved in olfaction,
especially emotional
responses to odors
such as a loved one’s
cologne
○ Limbic System
■ Plays a primary role in a
range of emotions,
including pleasure, pain,
docility, affection, fear,
and anger
■ Involved in olfaction
(smell) and memory
■ Brainstem
● Continuous with the spinal cord
● Consists of the:
○ medulla oblongata
■ Regulates heartbeat, blood
vessel diameter, normal
breathing rhythm, control
reflexes for vomiting,
swallowing, sneezing,
coughing, and hiccuping
○ Pons
■ Connects different parts of
the brain with one another
○ Midbrain
■ Connects the pons to the
diencephalon
■ Cerebellum
● Posterior to the brain stem
● O evaluate how well movements
initiated by motor areas in the
cerebrum are actually being carried out
● Sends feedback signals to the cerebral
cortex
● Help correct the errors, smooth the
movements, and coordinate complex
sequences of skeletal muscle
contractions
● The main brain region that regulates
posture and balance
Peripheral Nervous System
➢ Composed of
○ Cranial nerves
○ Spinal nerves
○ Peripheral nerves
➢ Contains:
○ Sensory neurons
○ Motor neurons
➢ The 12 pairs of cranial nerves are responsible for the
special senses of smell, sight, and hearing/balance, and
control movement of the eye, jaw, face, tongue, and
muscles of the neck, back, and shoulders. They also
provide sensation from the face, neck, and upper chest and
autonomic innervation to thoracic and abdominopelvic
organs
➢ Transmits signals between the CNS and the rest of the body
➢ Motor (Efferent) neurons
○ Carry signals from the CNS that control the
activities of muscles and glands
■ Somatic nervous system
● Convey information to the
CNS from somatic receptors
in the head, body wall, and
limbs
● Conduct impulses to skeletal
muscles
● voluntary
■ Autonomic nervous system
● Convey information from
autonomic sensory receptors
○ I.e. stomach lungs
● Conduct impulses to smooth
muscles, cardiac muscles,
and glands
● The sympathetic division is
for “fight-or-flight” or
arousing responses
● The parasympathetic division
is for “rest-and-digest” or
calming activities
● Involuntary
● Effects of Sympathetic
Activation
○ Generalized
response in crises
○ Increased alertness
 ○ A feeling of ○ Taste is one form
euphoria and of chemoreception
energy ○ Taste buds detect
○ Increased certain ions
cardiovascular dissolved in saliva
activity ○ Tastes: salty, sweet,
○ increase s sour, bitter,
respiratory activity “umami”
● Effects of Parasympathetic ○ Smell is another
Activation form of
○ Relaxation chemoreception
○ Food processing ○ Receptors in the
○ Energy absorption olfactory patch in
○ Brief effects at the human rose can
specific sites distinguish between
● The two divisions of the ANS about 1000
operate largely without our different chemicals
awareness in the air
○ The sympathetic ○ The sense of pain is
division increases another form of
alertness, metabolic chemoreception
rate, and muscular ○ Injured tissues
abilities release chemicals
○ The as a response.
parasympathetic These chemicals
division reduces stimulate free nerve
metabolic rate and endings in the skin
promotes visceral and the stimulation
activities such as is perceived as pain
digestion ○ “What we sense as
➢ Sensory (Afferent) neuron the flavor of food is
○ Carry signals to the CNS from sensory organs not taste alone.
○ Sensory Receptors Smell and taste
■ Receptors are found in the sense organs together create the
■ They receive stimuli from the sensation of flavor.
environment and transmit stimuli to This is why things
neurons don't taste good
■ Primary human senses: when we have a
● Photoreception cold; we lose the
○ Sense of sight sense of flavor.
○ Light enters the eye ● Mechanoreception
through the cornea ○ Hearing is a form
and pupil of
○ Light is focused by mechanoreception
the lends ○ Ears gather sound
○ light strikes the waves from the
retina and environment
stimulates receptors ○ The inner ear bones
○ Light breaks amplify sounds
pigments in the ○ Sounds are
receptor cells, transmitted to
releasing energy cochlea
that stimulates ○ Within the cochlea,
neurons connecting hair cells on the
to the optic nerve basilar membrane
○ Rod cells detect vibrate to certain
amount of light, frequency, then
cone cells send signals down
distinguish colors the auditory nerve
● Chemoreception
 ○ Loud sounds can
damage the
sensitive hairs
permanently
● Thermoreception
○ Free nerve endings
in the skin can
sense changes in
temperature
(differences rather
than absolutes)
○ These are directly
transmitted through
the Peripheral
Nervous System