Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Thin-Walled Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tws

Review

A state-of-the-art review on double-skinned composite wall systems

Salam J. Hilo a,b,n, W.H. Wan Badaruzzaman a, S.A. Osman a, Ahmed W. Al-Zand a,
Marwan Samir a, Q.A. Hasan a
a
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
b
Building and Construction Engineering Department, University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The behavior of double-skinned composite walls (DSCWs), with or without infill materials, has been
Received 2 May 2015 extensively investigated during the past few decades through analytical, experimental, and numerical
Accepted 8 September 2015 methods. These investigations have resulted in new design methods for primary design objectives as
Available online 23 September 2015
well as time saving and economical purposes. This paper summarized numerous studies on three types
Keywords: of composite walls (CWs), namely, double-skinned profiled steel sheeting, double-skinned flat steel
Composite wall sheeting, and profiled-flat sheeting with or without infill materials. CWs were classified based on the
Thin wall type of sheeting (profiled, flat, and dry board) and the applied loading (axial, cyclic, lateral, impact,
Double skinned thermal, or a combination of any two). The interaction between sheets and infill material was reviewed
Profiled steel sheets
in detail through classification. Afterward, the effect of openings on the structural behavior of DSCWs
Dry board
was studied and explained in detail. Finally, all previous studies were remarked on and reported in
Review paper
State of the art comprehensive tables, which present the parameters studied and the remarks made on each study.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2. Behavior of double-skinned composite walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.1. Double-skinned profiled steel sheets infill with concrete composite walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.1.1. Under axial loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.1.2. Under cyclic loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.1.3. Under lateral loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.1.4. Under thermal loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.1.5. Under combined loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.1.6. Effect of openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.2. Double-skinned flat steel sheets infill with concrete composite walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.2.1. Under axial loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.2.2. Under cyclic loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.2.3. Under impact loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.2.4. Under thermal loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.2.5. Under combined loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.3. Profiled flat sheets filled with concrete composite walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.3.1. Under axial loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.3.2. Under combined loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.3.3. Effect of openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3. Discussions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.1. Double-skinned profiled composite walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.2. Double-skinned flat composite walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

n
Corresponding author at: Department of Civil and Structural Engineering,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
E-mail address: eng.salamjh@gmail.com (S.J. Hilo).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2015.09.007
0263-8231/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
3.3. Profiled flat skin composite walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4. Effect of openings on double-skinned composite walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
Reinforced concrete and steel plate shear walls are traditionally
used as axial or cyclic load-resisting systems in structures such as
mid-rise and high-rise buildings. Extensive research works have
been carried out in the recent past on various steel structural
elements acting compositely with reinforced concrete structural
components. Such as, composite slabs – with or without steel
decks, composite beams, encased or in-filled columns are some of
the composite structural elements that have been widely re-
searched. During the development process, a more efficient com-
posite wall (CW) called the double-skinned composite wall
(DSCW) was introduced, which consists of two sheets infill with
concrete. DSCW was developed from composite flooring, which is
popular and commonly used today [1]. It has the benefit of acting
as bearing, retaining, and shear walls and can be used in nuclear
power plants because of its unique materials [2]. Applications of
the DSCW system in buildings are presented in Fig. 1.
The DSCW system has become the preference in many seismic-
resistant structures because the presence of the profiled steel
sheet (PSS) provides improved shear capacity and ductile re-
sistance to subsequent cycles of overload [3] and reduces concrete
cracking [4].
DSCW can be used as earthquake-resistant structures, bearing
walls, retaining walls and shear walls to support high-rise build-
ings. Owing to the increasing use of CWs, extensive theoretical,
experimental, and numerical works have been conducted.
This paper presents the state-of-the-art knowledge on DSCWs,
including analytical, experimental, and numerical studies. The lit-
erature is classified into three types based on DSCW shape, namely,
double-skinned profiled steel sheet composite wall (DPSCW),
double-skinned flat steel sheet composite wall (DFSCW), and pro-
filed sheet–flat sheet composite wall (PFSCW). Further classifying
of the DSCWs based on different types of loading which include
axial, cyclic, impact, eccentric, thermal, and a combination of any
two loadings, are also been considered. The effect of openings on
the structural behavior of the DSCW will be presented in detail and
considered based on the classifications which are presented in
Fig. 2. Finally, interaction types between sheets and infill materials
are presented in detail for each research through this study.
A summary of each section reported in literature is presented
in tabular form, including the use of infill material types, inter-
action technique, study type, parameters, and remarks, and is
briefly outlined. A detailed discussion for each type of classifica-
tion is presented in this study and combined in one section, which
includes the main benefit of each DSCW type, best interaction
technique, numerous gaps, and various suggestions to provide a
clear vision for researchers interested in these unique CW systems.
2. Behavior of double-skinned composite walls
The design of DSCWs comes from the composite flooring system
(profiled steel sheet-dry board) developed by Wright et al. [8]. This
flooring system has many advantages that allow it to be applied in
office buildings, domestic buildings, or during renovation for var-
ious structural purposes, such as roofing, flooring, and walling [9].
75
98
98
98
99
99
To achieve the composite action between steel faceplates and
concrete, previous studies have suggested numerous interaction
types. With the use of steel-headed shear studs, through–through
bolts, fastener screws, post-tension anchor bolts, hooks, tie rods,
stiffeners, batten plates, and normal studs to tie the sheets and the
core concrete, the stability of steel plates was enhanced and load-
ing resistance was increased by degrees of steel sheet buckling,
which also worked as reinforcement for the core concrete.
The major parameter in the design of CW structures is the plate
sheet type and shape subjected to various loadings. Based on this
parameter, DSCWs can be classified according to sheet design and
loading type. Interaction types between sheets and infill materials
will be explained in detail through the classifications for each
research.
2.1. Double-skinned profiled steel sheets infill with concrete com-
posite walls
DPSCW infilled with concrete is a new type of CW that consists
of two PSSs infilled with concrete (Fig. 3). It has a potential appli-
cation as a bearing, retaining, and shear wall to resist axial, lateral,
and cyclic loads. The development of DPSCWs came about as an
extension of the composite flooring system, which is currently very
popular worldwide [10]. This type of CW has the benefits of having
both PSSs and infill concrete that can resist axial loads, such as
reinforced concrete thin walls, which are now well-known and
widely used [11]. Ensuring the load resistance of DPSCW is a key
consideration in designing a building’s structural system. Given the
various types of loadings applied on this type of CW through lit-
erature, the current paper suggests classifying it under each type of
loading to provide deep understanding and clear presentations. A
summary of this section is presented in Table 1.
2.1.1. Under axial loading
Rafiei et al. [5] investigated the behavior of DPSCW under in-
plane monotonic loading. Three DPSCW specimens 1626 mm high
and 720 mm wide were tested. Two types of infill concrete and
two different yield strengths of PSSs were incorporated to in-
vestigate their influence on CW behavior. The study connected the
PSSs to the core concrete by intermediate fasteners along the
height and width of the wall to generate composite action, as
presented in Fig. 4. This interaction type provided sufficient
steel–concrete composite action to prevent early elastic buckling
of the PSSs.
Analytical models for DPSCWs were developed based on ex-
periments. The advantage of using concrete and PSS materials was
exhibited through improved ductile wall behavior and energy-
absorbing capacity. Experimental and analytical shear resistances
of CWs showed very good agreement. In addition, this study found
that the analytical models could be used to predict the shear re-
sistance of CWs with reasonable accuracy. The maximum shear
strain and stress were derived from Eq. (1), with τmax limited based
on the von Mises yield criterion in Eq. (2).
Es
γmax=ϵp1−ϵp2; ;max= γmax
2 ( 1−vs ) (1)
76 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100

Notations f ′t splitting tensile strength of concrete

f ′c concrete compressive strength
Fy yield strength of steel Dx orthotropic constants for the PSS
b width of SP fp yield strength of SP
K strength coefficient Dy orthotropic constants for the PSS
t thickness of SP fa yield strength of steel tube
N axial compression force β co-efficient ranging (1.00–1.72)
α adjusting coefficient Ap area of steel plate
ftx DFSCW tension yield stress N modular ratio
ρ adjusting coefficient Aa area of steel tube
fcx DFSCW compression yield stress φ factor can be taken from ACI code
Ns ultimate axial load Pn nominal compressive strength
fty steel plate (SP) tension yield stress teqc effective width of the concrete
fcu concrete compressive strength Ac area of core concrete
fcy SP compression yield stress teqs equivalent thickness of steel skins
beff effective width of the DPSCW EIeff effective flexural stiffness
H length of the wall f ye flexural resistance of the SP
P the diagonal force Is moment of inertia
Δc shortening of concrete strut γ interaction factor
Δ diagonal deformation Es steel modules of elasticity
Δs elongation of SP in horizontal direction Mo flexural strength at the wall bottom
V panel shear force A reduction factor
ϕc the drift angle Nc axial compressive force
δ shear displacement γmax maximum shear strain
Ɛcp strain at the compression edge NCFST reaction forces in compression
ΕΙcr-tr cracked-transform flexural stiffens τmax maximum shear stress
Mm maximum bending moment NSW reaction forces in tension
f ′c cylinder tensile strength of concrete PEC 4 ultimate axial load for Euro Code
Fco concrete compressive strength Lw factor (PSS thickness
4)
f ′cu cube tensile strength of concrete As area of steel materials
n axial force ratio μ friction coefficient

Core-tube

Steel column

Profile steel sheet

Concrete

Floor
Steel frame
Inter mediate fasteners
Composite Shear wall Composite Walls

Fig. 1. Applications of composite walling system in building. (a) Double skin profiled steel sheet composite wall [5]. (b) Double skin flat steel sheet composite wall [6].
(c) Profiled-flat skins composite wall [83].
 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
Fig. 2. Classifications of double-skinned composite walls.
Fig. 3. Profile steel sheets in filled with concrete composite wall [39].
Fy
;max≤
3 (2)
Hilo et al. [2] investigated the axial load behavior of an existing
DPSCW produced by Wright [33]. Three-dimensional (3D) finite
element (FE) models were developed based on the effects of PSS
thicknesses, an embedded octagon cold-formed steel thickness,
and an embedded octagon cold-formed steel (CFS) supported by
two stiffeners with different shapes. Tangential behavior and a
penalty friction coefficient of 0.5 were assigned to represent the
surface interaction between the core concrete and the embedded
octagon CFS and between the PSSs and the core concrete. The
ultimate axial load of the CW increased by approximately 3.3%
77
when PSS thickness increased and by 55% when the thickness of
the embedded octagon CFS increased. Ultimate axial load in-
creased by 78% when a T-shaped stiffener was added to the
DPSCW.
Hilo et al. [12] investigated the structural behavior of DPSCW
strengthened with embedded cold-formed steel tubes (ECFSTs)
with bar stiffeners subjected to axial loading. Nonlinear FE ana-
lytical results were compared with an existing experimental test
[33], and reasonable accuracy was achieved. Tangential behavior
and a penalty friction coefficient of 0.5 were assigned to represent
the surface interaction between the core concrete and the em-
bedded octagon CFS and between the PSSs and the core concrete.
Different ECFS shapes with various thicknesses and special bar
stiffeners were used to strengthen the DPSCW. The effects of
various variables on the DPSCW were investigated, including the
thicknesses of the PSS and ECFST, as well as the shapes of ECFST
with and without bar stiffeners tied to the ECFST internal surfaces.
The results compared with the predicted values calculated from
the design Euro Code (EC4) showed that the variables significantly
influenced the behavior of DPSCW.
Hilo et al. [13] generated FE models that were validated and
developed to simulate the axial load behavior of an existing ex-
perimental DPSCW created by Wright [33]. The validated FE
models were utilized to perform comprehensive parametric stu-
dies to investigate the strengthening shape effect. The parametric
study presented information on the effect of ECFS thickness,
number of ECFS, and ECFS shapes on the load-resisting behavior of
CWs. Tangential behavior and a penalty friction coefficient of
0.5 were assigned to represent the surface interaction between the
core concrete and the embedded octagon CFS and between the
PSSs and the core concrete. All FE models were compared with EC4
Eq. (3) and a reasonable degree of accuracy was achieved. The FE
model simulated the stresses, concrete cracking, failure mode, and
buckling patterns in the PSS and ECFS. The developed FE models
 78
Table 1
DPSCWs with various infill materials, interactions, loadings and study types.

No Author, Year and Ref. Infill type Interaction type Loads type Type of study Parameters studied Remarks
no.

1 Rafiei et al. (2015) Self consolidating concrete Intermediate bolts Axial Load Analytical and PSSs yield strength, concrete type, Investigated the effect of using ECC, SCC and mild over
[5] (SCC) (fasteners) experiment high strength steel on the structural behavior of the
Engineered cementitious DPSCW.
composites (ECC)
2 Hilo et al. (2015) [2] Normal concrete Tie-constraint option Axial load Numerical compared PSSs thickness. Employed the FEA to found the effect of the embedded
with existing experiment Adding embedded octagon tubes octagon cold form steel tubes the on structural beha-
to the CW. vior of the DPSCW
Adding stiffeners to the octagon
tubes.
3 Hilo et al. (2015) [12] Normal concrete Tie-constraint option Axial load Numerical verified with Different embedded tubes shapes Investigated the effect of the effect of the embedded
existing experiment and with various thicknesses. cold form steel tubes on the structural behavior of the
EC4 Special bar stiffeners used to DPSCW
strengthen the CW.
PSS thicknesses.
4 Hilo et al. (2015) [13] Normal concrete Tie-constraint option Axial load Numerical verified with Thickness effect of three different Compared with Euro Code 4 (EC4) [14] design

S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100

existing experiment and shapes of embedded cold form specifications.
EC4 steel tubes.
Number of the embedded cold
form steel tubes.
5 Hilo et al. (2014) [15] Normal concrete Tie-constraint option Axial load Numerical verified with PSSs thickness. Employed the FEA to find the effect of the embedded
existing experiment Embedded rectangular tube rectangular cold form steel tubes on the structural
thicknesses. behavior of the DPSCW
Embedded rectangular tube
shapes.
6 Edalati et al. (2014) No infill Natural interaction Lateral load Analytical and numerical PSS thickness Found that the corrugated depth has greater effects on
[16] Corrugation depth in the corru- stiffness, of the sinusoidal plates compared to the tra-
gated plates. pezoidal corrugated plates.
The corrugation length of the
infill of the corrugated plates
7 Rosario-Galanes and No in fill Screwed connections Lateral load Analytical and numerical Fatigue criteria. Developed method for the fatigue life prediction of
Godoy (2014) [17] Types of connections. steel thin-walled folded plates.
Thicknesses of steel folded plate
cladding.
8 Wang et al. (2014) No in fill Welding Combined Numerical Width of wall. Compared with an analytical study.
[18] loadings Compared with Span of wall.
analytical Boundary Conditions.
Profiled angle and PSS shape.
9 Cao et al. (2014) [19] Fired common brick. Tapping screw Cyclic loading Experiment With/without PSSs Found that the stiffness of the reinforced concrete wall
was improved when reinforced with PSS bracing
10 Rafiei et al. (2013) Normal and high compressive Intermediate fasteners Axial load Experiment and Concrete compressive strength. Proved that increasing number of intermediate fas-
[1] strength concrete. numerical Steel strength. teners will increase the shear load capacity of the
Interface connector spacing. DPSCW with optimum spacing.
11 Prabha et al. (2013) Light weight foamed concrete Through–through studs Axial load Analytical and Different configuration of studs Proposed new method to determine the axial re-
[20] experiment Different profiled steel sheet sistance of composite walls.
edge boundary conditions.
12 Taormina et al. High performance concrete Normal interaction Thermal load Experiment Concrete type. Described the performance of DPSCW subjected to
(2012) [21] Varying temperatures (0, 300, varying elevated temperatures is described based
400 and 500 °C). overall failure modes.
13 Mydin and Wang Lightweight foamed concrete Through-through bolts Axial load Analytical and PSS thicknesses. Proved that by increasing the load capacities of the
(2011) [22] (LFC) and welded experiment Three edge conditions of the panels with stopping edge and welded edge can be
sheeting. attributed to the increased effective width of the steel
The density of the LFC. sheeting.
Type of interactions.
14 Rafiei et al. (2010) Normal concrete Intermediate bolts Axial load Experiment PSS yield strength Found that using mild over high strength steel will
[23] (fasteners) exhibit more ductile wall behavior and energy ab-
sorbing capacity.
15 Eom et al. (2009) Normal concrete Tie bars welded to the Cyclic loading Experiment Plate thickness. Found that the walls failed primarily from local buck-
[24] PSSs Shape of cross section. ling of the steel plates, because of the tensile residual
Dimension of cross section. strain which developed under cyclic loading.
Strengthening method for wall
base.
16 Hossain et al. (2005) Normal concrete Intermediate bolts Cyclic loading Numerical compared Shear interaction at the sheet-con- Employed the FEA to find the effect of intermediate
[25] (fasteners) with existing experiment crete interface. bolts on the ultimate axial load capacity and the
Number of intermediate bolts ductility.
17 Hossain and Wright Micro-concrete Bolts Axial load Numerical compared Full or partial composite action. Found that the performance of a model with joint
(2005) [11] with existing experiment With/without joint interface. elements connecting steel and concrete layers is better
than full composite.
18 Khandaker et al. Normal concrete Bolts Cyclic loading Analytical and With/without bolts. Derived a design procedure which is illustrated with
(2004) [26] experiment Construction and Service Stages worked-out design examples.
19 Hossain and Wright Micro- concrete Bolts Combined Analytical and PSS only. Derived new equations for shear strength and stiffness.
(2004) [27] loadings experiment Infill Concrete only.
Interaction between the PSS and
infill concrete.
20 Hossain and Wright Micro- concrete Bolts Axial load Analytical and Interaction between the PSS and Analytical models for the shear strength and stiffness
(2004) [10] experiment infill concrete. of the wall are derived.
21 Hossain and Wright Micro- concrete Intermediate Bolts and Axial load Analytical and PSS only. Derived simple analytical models for the shear strength
(2004) [28] corners pins experiment Infill Concrete only. and stiffness of the CW.
Full composite wall system.

S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100

PSS type.
22 Hossain and Wright Micro- concrete Threaded roads Combined Analytical and Depth of walls. Analytical models for shear and flexural strengths for
(2004) [29] loadings experiment With/without Bearing plate DSCEs were developed.
23 Hossain and Wright Micro- concrete Threaded roads Axial load Analytical and PSSs type. Found that the trough sections were more highly
(2004) [30] experiment stressed than the crest sections.
24 Uy et al. (2001) [31] Reinforced concrete Intermediate bolts and Combined Experiment and PSS design. Revealed that due to the thin-walled nature of the
corners pins loadings numerical Loading type. sheeting, local buckling was significant.
25 Hossain (2000) [32] Normal concrete Threaded rod with nuts Combined Analytical and Openings dimensions. Studied the effect of the opening on the vertical and
and spacers rod loadings experiment PSS types. lateral load behavior of the DSCW
26 Wright (1998) [33] Normal, light weight and high Hooks welded to the PSS Combined Analytical and PSS types. Compared with EC4 [14] and B.S. 8110 [34] design
compressive strength concrete loadings experiment Concrete materials. specifications.
Loading types.
Wall thickness.
Interactions between the PSS and
the infill concrete.
27 Wright (1998) [35] Normal, light weight and high Hook and tie Hook Combined Analytical and PSS types. Compared with EC4 [14] design specifications.
compressive strength concrete loadings experiment Loading types.
Wall thickness.
Type of Interactions.
28 Hossain and Wright Normal concrete Threaded rod with nuts Axial load Analytical and With/without threaded rod. Analytical models derived for plain and profiled con-
(1998) [36] and spacers. experiment Interaction types. crete panel.
29 Hossain and Wright Micro-concrete Intermediate bolts and Axial load Analytical, experiment Plain and profiled panels. Developed equations for the profiled concrete panel
(1998) [37] corner pins and numerical Type of loading. based on an equivalent plain concrete panel.
30 Bradford et al. Normal concrete Intermediate bolts and Axial load Analytical and Loading type Investigated the effect of short- and long-term beha-
(1998) [38] corner pins experiment vior of axially loaded.
31 Wright and Gallo- Highly workable concrete Cold-formed lipped Axial load Analytical and Depth/thickness of walls. Compared with EC4 [14] and B.S. 8110 [34] design
cher (1995) [39] channel welded to the experiment Construction and service stage. specifications.
PSS Interaction type.
32 Wright et al. (1994) Normal concrete Fasteners bolts Combined Experiment and Loading types Compared with EC4 [14] design specifications.
[40] loadings numerical
33 Wright et al. (1991) Normal concrete Welded stud connectors Axial load Analytical and Loading type. Presented the failure mode with ultimate loading for
[41] experiment Concrete compressive strength. each test.
PSS thickness.
Thickness/depth ratio.
Interaction studs.

79
80 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
were able to simulate the structural behavior of the CW, and the
effects of the ECFS reduced the buckling of the PSS and increased
the axial load resistance of the CW system.
PEC 4=A c f ′C +As f y
(3)
Hilo et al. [15] presented FE models to investigate the axial load
behavior of a DPSCW strengthened with embedded rectangular
CFS. Seven FE models were established to study the effectiveness
of various thicknesses of the PSS, embedded rectangular CFS
without stiffener, and embedded rectangular CFS with stiffeners
with two different shapes. A tie-constraint option in ABAQUS [42]
was used to represent the surface interaction between support
plates and other wall parts. The results confirmed that the ulti-
mate axial load of the DPSCW increased by approximately 3.3%
when PSS thickness increased and that adding two embedded
rectangular CFS with or without stiffeners to the DPSCW improved
the ultimate axial load of the CW.
Rafiei et al. [1,23] presented FE models developed and validated
to simulate the behavior of a novel DPSCW system subjected to in-
plane loadings. The FE model simulated stresses, failure mode,
buckling patterns in the PSS, and concrete cracking found com-
parable with those obtained from experiments. The author in-
vestigated the effect of the material and the steel–concrete inter-
action parameters (concrete compressive strength, steel strength,
and interface connector spacing) on the structural behavior of
DPSCWs. Moreover, to verify the effect of interaction type on
DPSCW behavior, the study investigated the performance of two
FE models that use “surface tie constraints” and “contact surface”
to simulate the PSS–concrete interface behavior and compare
them. The FE model using “contact surface” was found to provide a
better simulation of the behavior of experimental CWs. The study
also provided information on the optimum spacing of interface
connectors, as presented in Fig. 5, to prevent shear buckling of PSS
before failure.
Prabha et al. [20] presented the details of an experimental
study on the effect of axial capacity and behavior of DPSCWs.
Different configurations of studs and sheet edge boundary condi-
tions were carried out on wall panels with five small-scale load
tests (Fig. 6). Five experimental DPSCWs were tested and designed
with through–through studs to connect the PSS and the core
concrete. Some specimens had two studs in the wider plate width
portion, some had no connections, and others had tack-welded
channels on both sides as confined edges. The spacing between
the studs was 400 mm along the height direction. In total, 58 studs
were provided, and some had tack-welded edges. An axial com-
pression loading was distributed over the concrete surface, and
failure modes were observed. Axial load resistance of the DPSCWs
was found to increase with the degree of confinement provided by
the studs and sheet edge conditions. Based on the failure modes
obtained from the tests, a new method was proposed to determine
the axial resistance of CWs.
Mydin and Wang [22] presented an experimental and analy-
tical investigation on the structural behavior of the DPSCW system
under axial compression. The study verified the effect of PSS
thickness and type on DPSCW axial load behavior. Experimental
results included failure modes, maximum loads, and load–vertical
strain responses. A full bond between the PSSs and the concrete
core was achieved using through–through studs to represent the
full composite action. Using the effective width method for the
PSSs, the load-carrying capacities of the test specimens were cal-
culated and compared with the experimental results. The for-
mulation produced calculation results in good agreement with the
experimental results. Based on the outcome, the ultimate load
capacity of the DPSCW system in axial compression, taking into
consideration the effective width and concrete strength reduction
factor for profiled shape, could be calculated using Eq. (4).
Ns=0. 63A c fcu +beff tf y (4)
Hossain and Wright [11] described the FE modeling of the shear
behavior of DPSCWs. Four FE models were developed and char-
acterized by their approaches to simulate steel–concrete interface
behavior allowing either full or partial composite action. The PSSs
were connected to the test frame shear rig through intermediate
bolts, which provided the mechanical connection between a pair
of steel sheeting and concrete core in wall specimens to represent
the full interaction composite action. The performance of the de-
veloped FE models was validated through small-scale model tests.
FE models simulate strength, stiffness, and strain characteristics
reasonably well. The performance of a model with joint elements
connecting steel and concrete layers was found better than that of
full composite models (without interface or joint elements) and
other models with interface elements.
Hossain and Wright [36,37] described the behavior of DPSCWs
that use PSSs and micro-concrete and confirmed that the diagonal
tension limit state should be a design criterion, and the shear re-
sistance of the DPSCW could be derived from its equivalent plain
concrete panel. The studies used pairs of PSSs connected together
at the ends and at the center by threaded rods passing through
spacers. Compared with plain concrete panels, the state of stress
within the panel and its boundaries changed because of profile
geometry. The studies found that a reduction factor could be in-
troduced into the design equation to consider the effect of hys-
teretic load application. FE simulation of the profiled panels was
found to be sufficient for predicting pre-cracking behavior.
Bradford et al. [38] investigated the axial load behavior of
DPSCWs. The walls provided a viable alternative to reinforced
concrete or masonry walls in frame structures. The study pre-
sented a rigorous analysis of DPSCWs when subjected to a sus-
tained axial service load.
Wright [39,40] and Wright and Gallocher [39,40] generated a
DPSCW to resist axial shear load. To create the composite section,
special PSSs were used. A special PSS named (Richard Lees Ltd.)
Super hollow rib with a 0.9 mm gauge thickness, formed using Z28
galvanized steel, and infill with concrete was used to generate a
novel DPSCW. This PSS was designed with special corrugated skin,
which provided high interaction with the infill concrete to re-
present the composite action. The study described the walling
system, the proposed construction methodology, and four fill-scale
pilot tests on axially loaded wall elements. The main advantage of
the DPSCW was associated with its ease of construction.
Wright et al. [41] described scale model tests on wall, floor,
beam, column, and beam column specimens. Basic failure modes
were defined for each load type, and more detailed observations
regarding the structural action of this form of construction were
given. The structural system provided a suitable medium for
construction with predictable, and therefore safe, characteristics.
2.1.2. Under cyclic loading
Cao et al. [19] investigated the seismic performance of one-bay,
two-story, and one-third scale designs in two specimens with and
without reinforced PSS braced with infill walls. The study pre-
sented three steps to connect the frame to the PSS: (1) Installing
PSS to the beams and columns, which were connected by two steel
rods. (2) Welding a steel channel onto the PSS and the masonry
wall. (3) Tapping screws to connect the PSS to the channel steel.
Hysteretic curves, stiffness degradation curves, envelope curves,
and energy dissipation capacities were presented based on ex-
perimental data. The ultimate load of the strengthened specimen
was improved by 225%. The stiffness of the specimen reinforced by
PSS bracing increased by 108%.
 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100 81

Fig. 4. A cross-section for DPSCW with connections (dimensions in mm). Rafiei et al. [5].

Hossain et al. [25] presented the cyclic loading behavior of
DPSCWs infill with normal concrete. To reach the partial interac-
tion between the PSSs and the infill concrete, the study used in-
termediate bolts (fasteners) to connect the materials and transfer
the loadings. The study compared the numerical result with an
existing experiment and accuracy was achieved; the parametric
was the effect of the shear interaction at the PSS–concrete inter-
face and the number of intermediate bolts. As a result, FEA was
employed to find the effect of intermediate bolts on ultimate axial
load capacity and ductility.
Eom et al. [43] performed cyclic testing to investigate the
seismic behavior of DPSCWs with rectangular and T-shaped cross
sections. The study used a tie bar with different spacing to verify
full interaction type on the structural behavior of DPSCWs. The
wall specimens failed mainly by tensile fracture of the welded
joints at the wall base and coupling beams, or by local buckling of
the steel plates. In particular, the ductility of the walls was sig-
nificantly affected by strengthening methods used for the wall
base. Load-carrying capacities of the isolated and coupled wall
specimens were evaluated using plastic stress distributions in
their cross sections, which provided satisfactory predictions.
Khandaker et al. [26] presented the development of design
guidelines for the use of the DPSCW system for framed shear walls
in buildings. Results of comprehensive experimental and theore-
tical investigations were used to validate the design equations and
to suggest the values of design parameters. The design equations
were simple and could be used safely for design purposes. Design
procedures were illustrated with worked-out design examples.
The proposed composite-framed shear wall was considered a vi-
able shear-resisting element in buildings.
2.1.3. Under lateral loading
Edalati et al. [16] examined nonlinear FE analyses for the be-
havior of DPSCW shear walls under lateral pushover loads. A
comparison was made between the behaviors of steel shear walls
with sinusoidal corrugated plates and trapezoidal corrugated
plates. The effects of the thickness of corrugated plate, the corru-
gation depth in corrugated plates, and the corrugation length of
the infill of corrugated plates were investigated. In the wall with
constant dimensions, trapezoidal plates had higher energy dis-
sipation, ductility, and ultimate bearing than sinusoidal waves
while decreasing steel material consumption.
Rosario-Galanes and Godoy [17] documented wind-induced
failure around screwed connections in roof and wall cladding

Fig. 5. Location of the tie constraints at each side of the wall to simulate intermediate connections. (a) No constraint, (b) 4
5 ¼20 constraints, (c) 4
11¼ 44 constraints
(128 mm c/c), and (d) 9
23¼ 207 constraints (64 mm c/c). Rafiei et al. [1].
82 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
Fig. 6. Some of the test specimens for Prabha et al. [20].
systems made with steel sheet cold-formed panels during high
wind events. The study developed an analytical model that could
be employed for the fatigue analysis of steel cold-formed cladding
systems. Parametric studies were used to formulate suitable yet
simple fatigue criteria. Fatigue failure was predicted in different
load configurations, connection types, and thicknesses of steel
folded plate cladding.
2.1.4. Under thermal loading
Taormina et al. [21] presented a novel form of the DPSCW
system infill with special concrete. The study concentrated on the
performance of CW made of non-traditional emerging high-per-
formance concrete (HPC) subjected to elevated temperatures and
axial loading. The use of HPC improved the strength, ductility, and
durability characteristics of the DPSCW system. Experimental
variables included the use of engineered cementitious composites
as infill and varying temperatures (0 °C, 300 °C, 400 °C, and
500 °C). The performance of the walls subjected to varying ele-
vated temperatures was described based on residual axial
strength, physical changes, load–deflection response, stress–strain
characteristics, concrete cracking, steel sheet buckling, and overall
failure modes.
2.1.5. Under combined loading
Wang et al. [18] investigated the influences of structural para-
meters on the load-bearing capacity of DPSCWs. Uniform trans-
versal pressure and vertical compression were applied until the
wall failed. To reach the full tie interaction between the PSS and
the infill material, the study welded the PSS to the steel column.
For the specific PSS, the vertical compression resistance decreased
when the wall width increased. The vertical resistance of the PSS
whose tensioned flanges were connected with the side columns
was more than that whose compressed flanges were connected
with the side columns.
Hossain and Wright [10,27,28] presented the results of small-
scale experimental tests on DPSCW models (Fig. 7) and its com-
ponents that were manufactured from very thin sheeting and
micro-concrete were tested under monotonic and cyclic shear
loading conditions. The PSSs were connected to the test frame
shear rig through intermediate bolts, which provided the me-
chanical connection between the pair of steel sheeting and the
concrete core in the wall specimens to represent the full interac-
tion composite action. The effect of load application (either
through both steel and concrete or through concrete only) on the
behavior of CWs was also investigated. The heavily instrumented
small-scale tests provided information on the load–deformation
response, strength, stiffness, strain condition, sheet–concrete in-
teraction, and failure modes. Analytical models for shear strength
and stiffness were derived with modification factors to consider
the effect of quasi-static cycling loading. The shear load–de-
formation response, as indicated in transformed shear simulation,
was obtained from the corresponding diagonal load–deformation
response indicated in the test simulation via Eq. (5).
Δ
V = Pcos∅d and δ =
cos ∅d (5)
The shear stiffness of the profiled concrete core was derived
based on the strain energy approach. The shear flexibility (Cc) and
stiffness (Kc) of the concrete core are expressed in (Eq. (6)).
1 2b ( 1+Vc )
Cc = =
kc Ec ateq (6)
Model tests on PSS, profiled concrete, and CWs revealed that
the ultimate shear capacity of CWs can be conservatively obtained
from the summation of individual shear resistances of the sheeting
and concrete cores. The ultimate shear resistance of CWs for
monotonic shear could be derived through Eq. (7).
Dx1/4 Dy3/4 a Dx1/4 Dy3/4 a f ′c f ′t ateq
vw=72β +0. 074ateq fcu =72β +
b2 b2 f ′c +f ′t (7)
Hossain and Wright [29] presented the behavior of DPSCWs
subjected to combined bending and described shear deformation.
Small-scale model tests on DPSCWs were manufactured from
micro-concrete and very thin sheeting. The tests used pairs of PSSs
connected together at the ends and at the center by threaded rods
passing through spacers. The study investigated flexural and shear
behavior along with analytical analysis. The model tests provided
information on the strength, stiffness, strain conditions, and fail-
ure modes of DPSCWs. The detailed development of analytical
models for strength and stiffness and their performance validation
by model tests was presented. The modified shear resistance
equation for DSCEs is presented in Eq. (8).
Vwb = βφ f ‵c . a ⎡⎣ teqc + 2nαteqs ⎤⎦ (8)
Uy et al. [31] considered an extensive experimental program
conducted on DPSCWs subjected to combined bending and com-
pression. Local buckling was significant because of the thin-walled
nature of the sheeting. These experiments and independent tests
were then successfully used to calibrate a numerical model, which
incorporated the effects of local buckling.
Wright [33] investigated full-scale tests of DPSCWs that were
examined experimentally to verify the effects of PSS types, con-
crete compressive strength, interaction type, and loading type on
the structural behavior of DPSCWs. Modifications based upon plate
buckling theory for steel and an empirical model for concrete were
proposed that provided closer agreement between experiments
and the commonly used squash load design formula (Eq. (9)).
N =0. 6fcu A c +0. 87As f y (9)
Test 12 was subjected to axial loads applied at a nominal ec-
centricity 0.05 times the width of the wall as shown in Fig. 8.
Loading was applied through stiff bearing plates onto a horizontal
 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
Fig. 7. Detail of composite wall, profiled steel sheeting and concrete core. Hossain
and Wright [27].
bar lying along the wall and then applied onto stiff capping plates.
The study used a comprised hook of mild steel that was spot-
welded to the PSS, as presented in Fig. 9, to represent the com-
posite action between PSS and infill concrete, and to achieve full
interaction action.
2.1.6. Effect of openings
Hossain [32] compared the behavior of a novel form of DPSCW
with and without openings under axial loading. Previous studies
focusing on DPSCW without openings confirmed the potential of
using vertical and lateral load-resisting structural elements. The
presence of the holes and their location in pierced walls can sig-
nificantly affect the behavior of the walls. Eight pilot tests con-
ducted on walls manufactured from two different types of PSS are
presented in Fig. 10. The tests were carried out to provide in-
formation on the effect of openings on load–deformation re-
sponse, strength, stiffness, stress–strain condition, buckling, and
failure modes. This investigation explored the potential applica-
tion of composite walling as shear or core walls in buildings that
allow openings for doors and windows.
Welded rod and hook assemblies were installed in the models,
at the top and bottom of the DPSCW. This installation allowed a
more effective transfer of load from the top of the wall to the
bottom and mobilized the interaction between the sheet and the
concrete. The top and bottom of the holes in two pierced Spandek
walls were also strengthened by installing a welded rod and hook
assembly to act as a lintel beam to support the concrete and en-
sure proper connection between the pair of sheets. The study also
presented the load–deformation responses for both pierced and
non-pierced walls, as shown in Fig. 11. The non-pierced walls were
found to have a greater axial load capacity than pierced walls.
Pierced walls exhibited greater axial deformation than non-
pierced walls. Although the axial load capacity per unit length of
the Trimdek walls was greater than the Spandek walls, the latter
had higher strength in terms of net concrete area.
2.2. Double-skinned flat steel sheets infill with concrete composite
walls
DFSCWs typically consist of thick or thin concrete walls with
two exterior steel faceplates. The concrete core is poured between
the steel plates and is attached to the steel faceplate using me-
chanical connectors [44], as shown in Fig. 12. Owing to the unique
materials, many studies have investigated the performance of
DFSCW for use in tunnels, blast-resistant shelters, gas-retaining
structures, and building structures [45]. DFSCWs have also been
used effectively as primary and secondary shield walls in third-
generation nuclear power plants [46]. A complete summary of this
section is presented in Table 2.
83
Fig. 8. Detail of eccentric load application in test 12 [33].
2.2.1. Under axial loading
Epackachi et al. [45] presented a simplified model for the
analysis of flexure- and flexure-shear-critical rectangular steel
plate composite DFSCWs. A reliable, straightforward method was
presented to calculate the monotonic force–displacement re-
sponse of DFSCWs. The proposed analytical model was verified
using the results of FE analyses of DFSCWs with three aspect ratios
(¼0.5, 1, and 2), reinforcement ratios ranging from 2% to 5%, wall
thicknesses of 254, 508, and 762 mm, and concrete compressive
strengths of 27.5 and 48.3 MPa. The results of the analyses using
the simplified model compared very favorably with those obtained
through the FE analysis of validated LS-DYNA models. The accu-
racy of the proposed method to simulate the monotonic response
of multi-story SC walls was investigated. The effect of shearing
force on the moment–curvature relationship was considered by
reducing the yield stress of the steel faceplates. The effect of
flexure–shear interaction on the response of the infill concrete was
ignored. An effective yield stress was calculated and presented in
Eq. (10).
⎛ 3γ +3−K 2 ⎞ ⎛ VL ⎞
f ye =f ′ y ( )
1−ξ 2 , ξ= 3⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟≤1
⎝ 3 (γ +2)2 ⎠ ⎝ M ⎠ (10)
Zhang et al. [44] presented the development of a steel plate
slenderness limit to prevent the occurrence of local buckling be-
fore yielding in compression, that is, the slenderness criteria or
requirement for non-slender steel faceplates in DFSCWs. Ad-
ditionally, the study included the development of analytical and
numerical models compared with an existing experiment con-
ducted by [75] to investigate composite action in DFSCWs using
shear force–interfacial slip models for shear studs. These models
were used to evaluate the effects of shear stud spacing and
strength on the level of composite action in DFSCWs, development
length of steel faceplates, and influence of partial composite action
on the overall DFSCW flexural stiffness. Steel-headed shear studs
were used to provide composite action between steel plates and
concrete infill of DFSCW, and to prevent the local buckling of steel
faceplates. Stud spacing should be designed to provide adequate
development length for steel faceplates in DFSCW and to preclude
local buckling before yielding.
84 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
Fig. 9. Detail of final load transfer device [33].
Parametric analysis results are presented in Fig. 13 as a plot of
normalized strain (εcr/εy) versus the normalized plate slenderness
ratio (Eq. (11)). The analysis results shown in Fig. 13 were similar
to the results from the experimental database. The results follow
the trend of the Euler column curve with pinned–fixed end con-
ditions (K ¼0.7). No data points were observed within the sha-
dowed region, which implies that when Eq. (11) is less than 1.0,
yielding in compression occurs before local buckling. In the AISC
Specification [76], compression members are categorized as slen-
der or non-slender depending on their plate slenderness ratio and
limits.
s /tp = 1. 0 f y /E
Song et al. [51] generated a failure criterion model to analyze
the ultimate strength of DFSCWs subject to biaxial membrane
Fig. 10. Pilot tests of DPSCW with different types of PSS Hossain [32].
Fig. 11. Axial load deformation response for Spandek walls. Hossain [32].
forces, which are tension and compression on each side of the wall
and in-plane shear. Failure criterion was demonstrated in principal
stress space. Test data in the literature of steel concrete CWs was
summarized in the study, and seven shear wall tests were con-
ducted to verify the model. As a result, the bearing capacity of steel
and concrete could be superimposed, and the equivalent com-
pressive strength for DFSCWs in the direction of the x-axis and y-
axis expressed as Eq. (12). The equivalent tensile strength for
DFSCWs in the direction of the x-axis and y-axis can be expressed
as Eq. (13).
fcx =fcy =(1 + Φ) fc (12)
(11)
ftx = fty = Φfc (13)
Aykac et al. [52] investigated the influence of externally bonded
 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
Fig.12. Details of the double skinned flat steel sheet in filled with concrete composite walls.
perforated steel plates on load capacities, rigidities, and ductility of
hollow brick infill walls subjected to monotonic diagonal com-
pression (Fig. 14). The spacing of the bolts connecting the plates to
the wall had a larger effect on the behavior of the brick wall
compared with the thickness of the strengthening plates. Increase
in plate thickness resulted in a considerable improvement in the
behavior of the wall only if the plates were connected to the wall
with closely spaced bolts. This strengthening technique was found
to increase the energy absorption capacities of the walls by be-
tween 4 and 14 times the capacity of the reference wall. The
strengthened walls reached ultimate loads 30–160% greater than
the reference wall, and all strengthened walls remained intact
until the end of the test.
The main objectives of the study of Choi et al. [56] was to de-
scribe the compressive behavior and to determine the squash load
of DFSCW structures using ordinary and eco-oriented cement
concrete. The major parameters of the study were the material of
the concrete and width–thickness (B/t) ratio of surface steel plate.
Six DSCW specimens were tested under axial compression loading.
To reduce emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), some of the cement
in weight was replaced by Hwangtho (red clay), which is a tradi-
tional and environmental material. The failure behavior, buckling
behavior of the surface steel plate, effective buckling length fac-
tors, and plate buckling coefficient were discussed.
The primary objectives of Choi et al. [61] were to determine the
squash load of the DFSCW and to describe the buckling patterns.
Major variables in the study were width–thickness (B/t) ratio and
yield strength of surface steel plates. Six DFSCWs were tested, and
the results included maximum strength, buckling pattern of steel
plates, strength of headed studs, and behavior of headed studs.
The headed studs were installed on the inner surfaces of both steel
plates of the DFSCW. The headed studs were vertically spaced at
200 mm, i.e., B ¼200 mm, to provide B/t ¼33. The headed studs
were also installed at the top and bottom plates to prevent an
initial slip and to distribute the compression force evenly during
the loading phase. Based on the test results, the effects of B/t ratio
on the compressive strength were also discussed. LVDTs were in-
stalled to measure vertical displacement and to check for any ec-
centricity during the initial loading phase. LVDTs were installed at
the four corners of the specimen as presented in Fig. 15. The study
presented recommended effective length coefficients and dis-
cussed the effects of varying the yield strength of the steel plate.
To provide a more conservative design equation to predict the
compressive strength of SC walls, Eq. (14) was adopted.
Pn = 2Ap Fcr + 0. 85fck A c
(14)
Kim and Choi [65] investigated a series of experimental
85
programs on DFSCWs subjected to pull-out displacement loading
to identify the component roles in the transfer of forces. Such
connections are supposed to transfer shear force through friction
on the interface between the steel surface and the concrete sur-
face, as well as shear resistance of the bottom steel plate attached
to the wall. Studs on the steel wall plate with the shear plate were
welded to the walls by fillet welding. The first stirrup was placed
280 mm from the support. The 13 mm-diameter head studs were
spaced 180 mm apart. In addition, one of the reinforced concrete
slabs had a shear plate welded to the wall, while the other had no
shear plate. Shear resistance at the interface was enhanced by the
shear capacity of the shear plate and by friction caused by the
compressive force along the wall plate. Shear friction resistance
along the wall plate was reduced from experimental observation.
The appropriate design strength of the connection is proposed in
Eq. (15) for a practical design purpose.
Vn = Asp + Vfrsp = 3My/L w + ∅μAs Fy (15)
Liang et al. [69] studied the local and post-local buckling
strength of DFSCWs under biaxial compression and in-plane shear
using the FE method. Critical local buckling interaction relation-
ships were presented for steel plates with various boundary con-
ditions that include the shear stiffness effects of stud shear con-
nectors, by placing concrete between two steel plates welded with
headed stud shear connectors at a regular spacing, as illustrated in
Fig. 16. Stud shear connectors were used to resist shear between
the steel plates and the concrete core, as well as the separation at
the interface. A geometric and material nonlinear analysis was
employed to investigate the post-local buckling interaction
strength of steel plates in biaxial compression and shear. The in-
itial imperfections of steel plates, material yielding, and the non-
linear shear–slip behavior of stud shear connectors were con-
sidered in the nonlinear analysis. Design models for critical
buckling and ultimate strength interactions were proposed to
determine the maximum stud spacing and ultimate strength of
steel plates in DFSCW panels.
Clubley et al. presented two studies [70,71] on DFSCW speci-
mens, but one was experimental and numerical, while the other
one was a numerical study only in detail. The studies also focused
on a DFSCW that consists of double steel plates connected by an
array of transverse friction welded shear connectors and filled
with concrete. The experimental and numerical analyses of the
shear strength of each friction weld subject to push out load were
discussed in the studies. To simulate the constraint provided
within a larger panel, 16 mm-diameter threaded steel studs were
placed perpendicular to the shear connectors before the concrete
was cast. The early standard specimens had a single concrete
 86
Table 2
DFSCWs with infill materials, interactions, loadings and study types.

No. Author (s), Year Infill type Interaction type Loads type Type of study Parameters studied Remarks
and Ref. no.

1 Epackachi et al. Normal and high com- Headed steel studs and tie Axial load Analytical and Reinforcement ratios ranging. Presented a simplified model for analysis of flexure- and
(2015) [45] pressive strength roads numerical Wall thicknesses. flexure-shear-critical DSCW
concrete Concrete compressive strengths.
2 Bruhl et al. (2015) Normal concrete Headed steel studs and tie Impact load Analytical, experiment Missile weight. Generated design method and compared well with nu-
[46] roads and numerical Missile velocity merical analysis results.
3 Zhang et al. (2014) Normal concrete Shear connectors and Axial load Experiment and Headed steel studs. Presented the effects of shear connector design on the
[44] headed steel studs numerical The steel faceplate thickness and yield level of composite action
stress
Shear connector spacing, stiffness and
strength.
4 Varma et al. (2014) Normal concrete Shear connectors and Combined Numerical verified Steel plate thickness. Developed the interaction surface in principle force
[48] headed steel studs loadings with existing Studs properties. space for two notional halves (top and bottom) of the
experiment DSCW.
5 Johnson et al. High compressive Headed steel studs and tie Impact load Analytical and Tie bar spaces. Studied the DSCW load deformation behavior or re-

S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100

(2014) [49] strength concrete roads numerical Tie bars and shear sistance function, under missile impact.
Stud diameters.
Steel plate thickness.
Full wall thickness.
6 Epackachi et al. Normal concrete Headed steel studs and tie Cyclic loading Experiment and Wall thickness, reinforcement ratio, Employed the FEA to find the effect of the connector
(2014) [50] roads numerical studs and tie bars spacing spacing on the impact peak shearing resistance of the
DSCW.
7 Song et al. (2014) Normal concrete Partial interaction Axial load Analytical verified with Failure criterion for the composite walls Compared with the models presented by Varma et al.
[51] existing experiment is developed based on theory of plastic 2014 [48].
limit analysis.
8 Aykac et al. (2014) Hollow brick Post-tension anchor bolts Axial load Experiment compared Anchor bolts spacing. Compared with analytical study done by Saneinejad and
[52] with analytical Plate thickness. Hobbs, 1995 [53]
9 Nie et al. (2014) [6] Normal concrete Studs and vertical stiffen- Combined Analytical and Shear-span-to-depth ratios. Derived simplified formula
ers transversely loadings experiment Different values of N/Nu
10 Hu et al. (2014) Normal concrete Stiffeners, batten plate and Cyclic loading Analytical and Axial compression ratio. An analysis program was developed to analyze the mo-
[54] studs experiment Concrete strength. ment–curvature behavior of concrete-filled steel plate
Steel content ratio. composite shear walls.
Boundary element concrete
confinement
11 Epackachi et al. Normal concrete Shear studs bonding and Cyclic loading Experiment and Concrete thickness. Employed the FEA to find the effect of the connector
(2014) [55] tie rods. numerical Reinforcement ratio. spacing on the cyclic loading behavior of the DSCW.
Stud and tie bar spacing.
12 Choi et al. (2014) Two type of concrete Natural interaction Axial load Experiment Ordinary and eco-oriented cement Suggested a simplified rule to evaluate the buckling
[56] concrete. stress for surface steel plate.
Width–thickness (B/t) ratio of surface
steel plate.
13 Varma et al. (2013) Normal and high com- Shear studs bonding and Combined Numerical verified Full bond and partial bond. Verified the numerical models with an existing study
[57] pressive strength tie rods and interior web loadings with existing Steel plate position. done by Akiyama et al. 1989 [58]
concrete. plates. experiment
14 Epackachi et al. Normal concrete Tie rods and shear studs Cyclic loading Experiment and Wall dimensions. Presented the effect of the interaction type on the cyclic
(2013) [59] welded to the faceplates. numerical Studs spacing. behavior of the DSCW.
Tie rod spacing.
Reinforcement Ratio.
Steel plate slenderness ratio.
15 Nie et al. (2013) High compressive Studs and vertical stiffen- Combined Analytical and Steel plate thickness Proved that the section analysis method can give sa-
[47] strength concrete ers transversely loadings experiment Steel plate thickness of boundary tisfactory predictions for most of the specimens when
columns. compared to the test results.
Mesh reinforcement.
16 Xiaowei et al. Reinforce concrete Studs and vertical stiffen- Combined Experiment and Shear span ratio. Proved that the maximum slippage of the shear wall
(2013) [60] ers transversely loadings numerical Loading type. occurs at the tension side of the wall bottom where the
 concrete cracks and the axial force–moment curve has a
parabolic property.
17 Ji et al. (2013) [3] Normal and high com- Tie bolts and U-shaped bar Combined Analytical and Concrete compressive strength. Proposed simplified formulas used to evaluate the flex-
pressive strength loadings experiment Area ratios of steel tubes and of steel ure strength of the composite walls.
concrete plates.
18 Choi et al. (2013) Normal concrete Studs Axial load Analytical and Width-thickness (B/t) ratio of steel plate. Compared the results with various analytical studies.
[61] experiment Yield strength steel plate.
Studs spacing.
19 Jiaru et al. (2012) Normal concrete Tie bolts and U-shaped bar Combined Analytical and Axial force ratio. Proposed simplified formulation to evaluate the lateral
[4] loadings experiment The area ratios of steel tube. load-carrying capacity of the ST–RC composite walls.
Concrete filled steel tube.
Cross-sectional shape of walls.
20 Mullapudi et al. Normal concrete Tie-bars and shear studs Impact load Numerical Thickness of the wall. Used FEA to find the effect of aircraft impact loading on
(2012) [62] Thickness of the steel plate. the DSCW behavior.
Diameter of tie bars
21 Varma et al. (2012) Normal concrete Normal interaction Thermal load Analytical Loading types Developed new formula to account for concrete cracking
[63] of DSCWs.
22 Varma et al. (2011) Normal concrete In-plane shear stiffeners Cyclic loading Analytical and With/without orthogonal grids of long- Developed equations and evaluated with the experi-
[64] experiment itudinal and transverse rebar. mental results.
Plate thickness.
Stud diameter.

S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100

Stud spacing.
23 Kim and Choi Normal concrete Studs and welding Axial load Experiment Steel Plate size Compared the friction coefficients at the interface be-
(2011) [65] With/without steel plate and studs. tween the steel and concrete with the specified in ACI
Steel plate thickness. 318 [66].
24 Zhou et al. (2010) Reinforced concrete Shear studs Cyclic loading Numerical Thickness of shear wall. Proved that the thickness of the steel plate can improve
[67] Reinforcement ratio. the bearing capacity of CSPSW obviously as well as the
Thickness of steel plate and spacing of shear studs calculated.
Spacing of shear studs.
25 Zhao and Astaneh- Reinforced concrete Bolts. Cyclic loading Experiment With/without steel sheet. Proved that the effect of the PSS and bolts was positive
Asl (2004) [68] With/without bolts. on the behavior of the DSCW.
26 Liang et al. (2004) Normal concrete Welded stud and shear Axial load Analytical and Boundary conditions. Proposed design models.
[69] connectors numerical Shear stiffness effects.
Stud shears connector.
27 Clubley et al. Normal concrete Shear connectors and Axial load Experiment and Shear connectors. Proved that the effect of the shear connectors, plate
(2003) [70] welding numerical Steel plate thickness. thickness and spacing on the axial behavior of the DSCW
Plate spacing were positive.
28 Clubley et al. Normal concrete Shear connectors and Axial load Numerical Shear connectors. Employed the FEA to find the shear connectors, plate
(2003) [71] welding Steel plate thickness. thickness and spacing on the axial behavior of the DSCW.
Plate spacing
29 Katsuhiko Emori Normal concrete Partitions welded to the Combined Experiment and Width thickness ratio. Found that the FEA load displacement relationship and
(2002) [72] plates loadings numerical Composite wall design. strengths are comparable in close agreement with the
Cross sections. shear test result.
Loading system
30 Takeda et al. (1995) Normal concrete Partitioning webs and Axial load Experiment Steel plate thickness. Presented results describing a restoration force char-
[73] shear bars Number of partitioning webs. acteristics of a large loop area.
Presence or absence of stud bolts.
31 Link and Elwi Normal concrete Steel diagram plates wel- Axial load Analytical experiment Loading types. Adopted a secant method in order to enhance numerical
(1995) [74] ded to the steel plates and numerical Boundary conditions. stability.

87
88 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
Fig. 13. Finite element analysis of critical stress of steel faceplate [44].
Fig. 14. Monotonic diagonal compression test setup for Aykac et al. [52].
Fig. 15. LVDT locations for test specimens. Choi et al. [61].
block; later, double-ended specimens had two concrete blocks,
which were loaded simultaneously (Fig. 17). Generally, two shear
connectors were used in each concrete block. However, one dou-
ble-ended panel with 700 mm plate spacing contained four shear
connectors at each end and one small standard panel was cast
without the constraining studding. The test inventory was com-
posed of five standard specimens and seven double panels. FE
analysis using nonlinear discrete element models was used to
examine the local behavior of concrete filled panels. Results from
FE analysis were compared with experimental data for accuracy
and behavior trends. Conclusions drawn indicated the presence of
several possible failure modes in the shear connection.
Takeda et al. [73] carried out an experimental program to
investigate the behavior of DFSCWs. Seven wall panel specimens
were tested under repetitive in-plane pure shear loading. Each
specimen (1200 mm
1200 mm
200 mm) was made by con-
necting a pair of surface steel plates with partitioning webs and
shear bars and filling the formed boxes with concrete. Surface steel
plate thickness, number of partitioning webs, and the presence or
absence of stud bolts were investigated.
Link and Elwi [74] presented the ultimate and post-peak ca-
pacity of DFSCWs subjected to transverse and longitudinal loading.
The main application of these CWs lies in the design of offshore
structures subjected to large forces from wave action or moving.
Nonlinear FE analysis was used to determine both post-peak ca-
pacity and ultimate strength for the selected CW systems. The
frictional and contact interface between steel and concrete was
modeled. Results indicated that the descriptor “composite” should
be interpreted loosely. Separation and slippage between the con-
crete infill and the steel plate occurred on the tension side under
flexural loading. Positive composite action could be provided by
imbedded stiffeners or shear studs. The advantage obtained from
composite action was offset by the complexity of the construction
and detail. Numerical results were compared with those obtained
from experiments for a variety of wall geometry and loading
configurations. Insight into the behavior of the walls was readily
obtained in terms of the modes of failure, load-carrying mechan-
ism, stress redistribution, and post-peak response.
2.2.2. Under cyclic loading
Epackachi et al. [50] investigated the behavior of large-scale
DFSCWs composed of steel faceplates, infill concrete, headed steel
studs anchoring the faceplates to the core concrete, and tie rods
connecting the two faceplates through the infill to represent the
full interaction between steel plate and infill concrete subjected to
cyclic lateral loading. The testing program involved four rectan-
gular SC wall specimens with an aspect ratio (height-to-length) of
1.0. The design parameters considered in the investigation were
wall thickness, reinforcement ratio, stud spacing, and tie bar
spacing. Pre-test analyses, global force displacement responses,
contributions of the steel faceplates and infill concrete to lateral
resistance, load transfer between faceplates and infill concrete,
and damage to the faceplates and infill were documented. Four
DFSCWs failed in a flexural mode characterized by tensile cracking
of the concrete, tensile yielding of the steel plates, crushing of
concrete at the toes of the wall, outward local buckling of the steel
faceplates, and fracture of the steel faceplates. The walls achieved
the peak shearing strengths estimated through simplified proce-
dures and ABAQUS. Pinching of the force–displacement response
was observed at displacements greater than those associated with
peak load. The sequential progression of damage in the four
DFSCWs was identical: (1) crushing of concrete at the toes of the
wall, (2) outward buckling and yielding of the steel faceplates at
the base of the wall, (3), tensile cracking of the concrete at both
ends of the wall, and (4) tearing of the steel faceplates along their
welded connection to the base plate. Fig.18 shows photographs of
the damage to the DFSCWs at the end of the test.
Hu et al. [54] developed an analysis program based on a fiber
section analysis approach using refined material constitutive
Fig. 16. Cross section of double skin composite panel designed by Liang et al. [69].
 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
Fig. 17. Standard size test panels—also used in previous testing. Clubley et al. [70,71].
models to analyze the moment–curvature behavior of DFSCW. The
accuracy of the program was verified against available test results.
A parametric study was then performed on 6379 configurations to
study the effect of variables such as axial compression ratio, con-
crete strength, steel content ratio, and boundary element concrete
confinement on the deformation capacity of the DFSCW cross
sections. The results were analyzed to develop simplified formulas
based on geometric and material inputs for calculating ultimate
curvature, which is defined as Eq. (16). The curvature was asso-
ciated with a 15% loss in moment capacity. The inverse of the di-
mensionless ultimate curvature, based on ignoring boundary col-
umn concrete confinement and strain hardening (∅u l w ) t , was
found to have an approximately linear relationship with the axial
compression ratio seen in Eq. (17). The formulas for calculating
ultimate curvature can be further used to calculate the drift ca-
pacities and ductility of shear CW. For the given DFSCW cross
section, the bending moment–curvature (M–ϕ) relationship, while
subjected to a constant axial compression, can be obtained from
the fiber section analysis method, as shown in Fig. 19.
N
n2=
f y As + fc 0 A c (16)
( ∅u l w )t = C n 1+ C
1 2 2 (17)
Epackachi et al. [55] presented results of a numerical and ex-
perimental investigation on the behavior of large-scale DFSCW
subjected to cyclic lateral loading. The testing program involved
four DFSCW specimens with an aspect ratio (height-to-length) of
1.0. The design parameters considered in the investigation in-
cluded wall thickness, reinforcement ratio, stud spacing, and tie
bar spacing. Shear studs bonded the faceplate to the infill, whereas
tie rods linked the faceplates. The diameter of the studs and tie
rods was 0.375 in for all the walls; the studs and tie rods were
fabricated from 50 ksi steel. Details of the testing program were
provided in Epackachi et al. [50]. The general-purpose FE program
LS-DYNA [77,78] was used for numerical studies. The FE models
were validated using the test data of DFSCW.
Epackachi et al. [59] summarized the experimental behavior of
four large-sized DFSCWs subjected to cyclic in-plane loading. The
walls had an aspect ratio of 1 and were flexure critical. A bolted
DFSCW was studied with a focus on inelastic responses, which is
expected for beyond-design basis shaking of nuclear power plant
structures. Several design parameters were investigated, including
infill concrete thickness, reinforcement ratio, stud spacing, and tie
bar spacing. Pre-test analysis, force–displacement responses, and
damage to the steel plates and infill concrete were documented.
89
The walls achieved the peak shear strengths calculated using
simplified procedures and ABAQUS [42]. To enhance the interac-
tion between the steel plates and the core concrete, the study used
tie rods and shear studs welded to the faceplates where the con-
nectors were typically constructed from cross-wall. As a result, the
pinching of the force–displacement response was observed at
displacements greater than those associated with peak load. The
post-peak load behavior of the walls was affected by the faceplate
slenderness ratio.
Varma et al. [64] presented a simple mechanistic representa-
tion of the complex in-plane shear behavior of DFSCW, and a de-
sign equation for calculating in-plane shear stiffness and strength
(Eqs. ((18)–21)). These equations were compared and evaluated
using existing experimental results. Additionally, these equations
were further verified by conducting a large-scale in-plane shear
test using a unique test setup and approach. Results included the
measured cyclic shear force–strain response of the DFSCW panel,
the shear strains, and the principal strains, which were measured
in the steel plates. The experimental results were shown to verify
behavior theory.
uncr
K xy = Gs As + Gc A c
(18)
fc′ ⎛ Ec A c + Es As ⎞
Sct = ⎜ ⎟
1000 ⎝ Ec ⎠ (19)
cr 1
K xy =Ksc +Ks= +G s A s
4 2 ( 1 − vs )
0 . 7 Ec Ac
+ Es As (20)
Ks + Ksc
Y
Sxy =V nin= × As Fy
3Ks2 + Ksc
2
(21)
Zhou et al. [67] presented a cyclic softened membrane model
based FE program for the seismic analysis of different DFSCWs
under cyclic load. The effect of the thickness of reinforced concrete
shear wall, reinforcement ratio of RC shear wall, thickness of steel
plate, and spacing of shear studs were considered.
Zhao and Astaneh-Asl [68] investigated and performed ex-
periments on three-story composite shear wall specimens. Two
half-scale specimens were tested, and both showed high ductile
behavior and stable cyclic post-yielding performance. The speci-
mens were able to tolerate 33 cycles of shear displacements and
reach a maximum inter-story drift of more than 0.05. In the pre-
sent paper, inter-story drift is defined as the lateral movement of
the floor over the story height. Bolts were prepared to connect the
reinforced concrete walls to the steel plate shear walls, thus en-
suring composite action by bracing the steel plate shear wall to the
90 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
Fig. 18. Damage to DFSCW at 3.3% drift angle [50].
Fig. 19. Calculation procedure for the moment–curvature relationship [54].
reinforced concrete shear wall and preventing the overall buckling
of steel plates. A cross section for the models is presented in
Fig. 20. During late cycles and after shear yielding of the steel
plate, inelastic local buckling of the steel plate shear wall occurred
in the areas between the bolts. The results and their implications
on seismic design were summarized and discussed.
A comparison of the results of the experiment with the ana-
lytical results of the sheer force–drift displacement of the shear
wall is shown in Fig. 21. Consistency was observed for pre-cracking
stiffness, post-cracking stiffness, ultimate strength, residual dis-
placement, and energy dissipation. The hysteretic behavior pro-
vided accurate measurements of the pinching effect, residual
displacements, ductility, and energy dissipation capacity.
2.2.3. Under impact loading
Bruhl et al. [46] studied the design of DFSCW using a three-step
method subjected to missile impact. The minimum thickness of
the steel plate for the CWs was computed to prevent perforation
because of missile impact. A complete experimental database of
130 DFSCWs was tested and used to verify the method. Generated
3D FE models were also utilized to predict the behavior and local
failure of DFSCWs subjected to missile impact. The local failure
mechanism associated with missile impact on DFSCW is presented
in Fig. 22. The analytical design procedure contains the 10 created
formulas; the authors divided the procedure into three steps to
design the DFSCW subjected to missile impact. To achieve the full
composite action between the steel sheets and the core concrete,
the authors used tie roads and headed steel studs. The tie roads
connected the two faceplates through the infilling, whereas the
headed steel studs were used to anchor the faceplates to the infill
concrete. The parametric studies indicated that the design method
compared well with the results of the numerical analysis for all
cases within the defined range of applicability of the design
method. The design conclusions and tools applied to missile im-
pacts including the force of a tornado. The residual velocity (Vr) of
the projectile was estimated via Eq. (22).
⎧ 1 ⎫ 2
Vr = ⎨ ⎬ Vo − VP2
( )
⎩ 1+WCP /W ⎭ (22)
In their study, Johnson et al. [49] intended to find the DFSCW
load deformation behavior or resistance function under missile
impact for input to an SDOF model. Based on pseudo-static non-
linear FE analyses, the DFSCW load deformation behavior under a
central concentrated load was investigated for some typical wall
panel configurations. System parameters were varied to assess
their effects on the resistance function. Based on biaxiality con-
siderations, an allowable central displacement in the steel plate
corresponding to the development of an allowable effective biaxial
strain could be calculated. While the allowable ductility for DFSCW
may be less than that of RC walls, the much larger reinforcement
percentage for DFSCW affords them superior impact resistance. A
design-by-analysis approach was presented, consisting of the de-
velopment of the panel resistance function, representation of the
impulsively loaded panel as an equivalent SDOF system, and a
solution of the nonlinear equilibrium equation for the panel re-
sponse. To represent the full composite interactions between the
 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
Fig. 20. Traditional composite shear walls done by Zhao and Astaneh-Asl [68].
infill concrete and the flat steel plates, tie bars with different
spacing, diameters, and reinforcement ratios were used, as pre-
sented in Fig. 23.
Mullapudi et al. [62] conducted an impact analysis of DFSCW
composed of surface steel plates, tie bars, shear studs, and con-
crete; the study discussed the use of a simplified model of a fic-
titious wall to be analyzed using LS-DYNA [77,78]. The concrete
constitutive model was based on the Winfrith concrete model,
which covers all aspects of concrete behavior, including cracking.
The model was used to conduct a series of numerical studies to
evaluate the effect of several parameters on the behavior of the
wall. These parameters included thickness of the wall, thickness of
the steel plate, and diameter of the tie bars. The study used tie bars
to connect the steel sheet to the core concrete. The maximum tie
bar spacing was designed according to ACI 349 [66]. Shear re-
inforcement was set in the entire wall using the beam action. For
this paper, a deformed bar with a tie bar diameter of 7.5 mm was
used in the analysis. The studies mentioned several conclusions
regarding the global and local behavior of the steel plated concrete
wall system. All the loads were applied as time varied with uni-
form pressure over the area, as indicated in Fig. 24.
2.2.4. Under thermal loading
Varma et al. [63] presented experimental and analytical eva-
luations for DFSCW subjected to accident thermal loading to de-
velop nonlinear temperature gradients through varying wall
thickness and concrete cracking. Concrete cracking significantly
reduced the stiffness of the DFSCW, thereby decreasing thermally
induced forces and moments. The study included recommenda-
tions to estimate the structural stiffness of DFSCW subjected to
accidental thermal loading, thus approximating the maximum
moments induced because of thermal gradients and developing
linear elastic FE models of DFSCW for conducting dynamic seismic
analysis. Based on this discussion, an effective flexural stiffness
(EIeff) was proposed in Eq. (23) for the out-of-plane flexural stiff-
ness of DFSCW, which takes into account the reduction of stiffness
because of concrete cracking and thermal effects.
91
Fig. 21. Analytical and experimental load–displacement curves for Zhou et al. [67].
⎛ ∆Ts ⎞
EIeff =( Es Is+αEc Ic ) ⎜ 1 − ⎟≥Es Is
⎝ 150F ⎠ (23)
Comparisons of the initial portion of the in-plane shear force
strain response of DFSCW specimens tested with and without
thermal loading effects are presented in Fig. 25; S2-00-TH and S4-
00-TH are specimens (with reinforcement ratios of 2.3% and 4.5%
respectively) that were exposed to thermal cracking first. Speci-
mens S2-00-NN and S4-00-NN were tested without thermal
loading. The comparisons show that accidental thermal loading
eliminated the first (un-cracked) branch of shear force–strain
behavior.
2.2.5. Under combined loading
Varma et al. [48] presented the verification and development of
the mechanics-based model and detailed a nonlinear FE model for
predicting the behavior and failure of DFSCW panels subjected to
combinations of in-plane forces and moments. The results from
these investigations were used to develop an interaction surface in
principle force space that can be used to design or check the
adequacy of DFSCW panels. Findings showed that the interaction
surface is easy to develop because it consists of straight line seg-
ments connecting anchor points defined by the DFSCW section
strengths in axial tension, in-plane shear, and compression.
However, to use these approaches, the SC wall section must have
the adequate shear connector, tie bar strength, and spacing to
prevent non-ductile failure modes.
Nie et al. [6] focused on the effective stiffness of the shear CW
subjected to axial and lateral loadings and considered several
design practices addressing the shear stiffness by employing a
stiffness reduction factor; a model called plane combination truss
model for the effective shear stiffness of the CW was proposed
based on the theory of the fixed angle truss model in the study.
The formula for calculating the effective shear stiffness of the
composite shear wall was derived based on this model. Total ef-
fective stiffness was obtained by combining the effective shear
stiffness and the effective flexural stiffness, in which the flexural
stiffness could be obtained using the fiber model. The predictions
for effective stiffness correlated well with the results of a series of
tests on shear CW. The stress state of cracked concrete and steel
sheet elements based on fixed angle theory are presented in
Fig. 26. The formula of deformation can be expressed, as presented
in Eq. (24), and the shear stiffness can be obtained by deriving the
relationship of Eq. (25).
∆v, h = ∆c /sin ∅c + ∆s (24)
92 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
Fig. 22. Impact sequence of missile on steel plate reinforced concrete wall. (a) Prior to impact, (b) at impact and (c) after impact.
Fig. 23. Typical DFSCW Section with headed steel studs and tie roads done by [49].
Ke, v = V /(∅total × H ) (25)
Varma et al. [57] presented the lateral load behavior of a 1/10th
scale model of a pressurized water reactor containment internal
structure (CIS). The entire CIS, including the reactor cavity walls
and steam generator compartments, was made of DFSCW. Recent
advancements in FE modeling techniques and computer-based
numerical analysis approaches have enabled detailed numerical
analysis and evaluation of the lateral and cyclic load behavior of
the 1/10th scale DFSCW CIS. The study presented the development
of FE models for the 1/10th scale structure, comparison and eva-
luation of analytical results with experimental results and ob-
servations, and overall lateral load–deformation behavior of the
complete structure, including the formation of ductile energy
Fig. 24. Load area for Riera force history with fuselage, wings and turbines.
dissipating mechanisms. Moreover, the study provided shear stud
bond interaction and composite action between the steel face-
plates and concrete infill. The studs were modeled using connector
elements in ABAQUS [42]. These connector elements can be used
to model the mechanical connection between any two nodes in
the FE mesh by specifying the fundamental force–displacement
and moment–rotation relationships for the connected degrees of
freedoms. The tests were done by Akiyama et al. [58]. Fig. 27
presents the results from the monotonic analyses with the en-
velopes of the cyclic lateral load–deformation responses from the
experiment.
To improve the ductility of the DFSCW in super high-rise
buildings, Nie et al. [47] analyzed a DFSCW subjected to high axial
compressive force and seismic effect, and proposed a new detailed
DFSCW. This DFSCW is composed of concrete-filled steel tubular
columns at the two boundaries and concrete-filled double-steel-
plate wall body, which is divided into several compartments by
vertical stiffeners transversely connected by distributed batten
plates. Twelve specimens were tested under large axial compres-
sive force and reversed cyclic lateral load. No evident buckling of
surface steel plates could be observed because of the reasonable
width-to-thickness ratios of steel plates and properly arranged
batten plates; hence, surface steel plates and infill high-strength
concrete could work compatibly in the whole loading process.
Based on the test results, the stiffness and strength degradations
were analyzed, and the deformation characteristics of all the
specimens were discussed in detail. The test setup is illustrated in
Fig. 28. The axial force was first applied to the specimen by a
vertical hydraulic jack. The axial compressive force N was calcu-
lated from Eq. (26) when nd was selected as 0.5.
(
nd = 1. 25N / fc A c /1. 4 + f y As /1. 11 ) (26)
Ji et al. [3] proposed an innovative DFSCW where the two steel
 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
Fig. 25. Initial portion of in-plane shear force vs. shear strain of specimens tested by Ozaki et al. [79] and noted by Varma et al. [63].
plates are connected by tie bolts with a concrete-filled space be-
tween the plates; the DFSCW were subjected to combined axial
and cyclic loading. The rectangular steel tubes and steel plates
were connected by full-penetration square-groove welding.
U-shaped bars were used to provide the shear transfer along the
interface between the steel tube and wall web concrete by the
shear-friction mechanism. The U-shaped bars were connected
with the steel tubes through fillet welds. The fillet weld was de-
signed to have a higher strength than the tensile strength of the
U-shaped bars. The seismic behavior of the CWs was examined
through a series of experiments, in which five slender rectangular
wall specimens were subjected to axial forces and lateral cyclic
loading. The specimens failed in a flexural mode, which was
characterized by local buckling of the steel tubes and plates,
fracture of the steel tubes, and concrete crushing at the wall base.
Various parameters were discussed in the study. Fig. 29 describes
the three DFSCW sections in detail. Simplified formulas used to
evaluate the flexure strength of the CWs were proposed in the
loading classification section of this review paper. The evaluated
results were consistent with the test results, with errors not higher
than 10%. Axial force was found to be one of the critical concerns
for the design of a ductile structural wall. An increase in axial force
ratio increased the depth of compression zone of the wall section,
and consequently decreased the ductility of the wall. For the CW,
the axial force ratio was given in Eq. (27). The axial compressive
loads were applied to the specimens and the corresponding axial
force ratios. Specimens SW1 and SW2 had similar axial force ra-
tios, with a design value of 0.45–0.49 and a test value of ap-
proximately 0.25. Specimens SW3–SW5 had similar axial force
ratios with the design value of 0.36–0.39 and the test value of 0.20.
Fig. 26. Stress state of the composite element. (a) Concrete element and (b) steel element.
93
Nd
nd =
( ) (
fc, d A − ∑ ( A a − Ap ) + ∑ fa, d A a + fp, a Ap ) (27)
Xiaowei et al. [60] presented a new type of shear wall structure
subjected to axial force and bending moment as presented in
Fig. 30. The structure consisted of a double-skinned flat steel sheet
filled with concrete composite; this DFSCW has high loading ca-
pacity, superior ductility, and good crack-resistant behavior. An
elaborate FE analysis of the DFSCW was conducted to simulate the
whole process and determine the behavior of the shear wall. The
load–displacement relationship was obtained, and the slippage
characteristic of the steel plate–concrete interface was intensively
investigated by enforcing the spring elements at the interface. The
influence of the axial compression ratio and the steel plate thick-
ness was determined by parametric analysis. The study used the
FE analysis method to generate the interaction behavior of the
DFSCW. The models covered the surface-based interaction with
hard contact in the normal direction and spring element in the
tangential direction. Experiments of the studs were performed to
find the load–slippage relation curve, which is a key factor for
simulating the interface behavior. The conclusions proved that the
maximum slippage of the shear wall occurred at the tension side
of the wall bottom where the concrete cracked and the axial force–
moment curve had a parabolic property. The relevant conclusions
are useful for the routine design practice of tall buildings.
Jiaru et al. [4] proposed an innovative DFSCW shear wall called
steel-tube-reinforced concrete, with steel tubes embedded at the
wall boundary elements and fully anchored within the foundation.
This arrangement is supposed to enhance the seismic performance
of the wall. A series of quasi-static tests was performed to examine
the behavior of the DFSCW when subjected to high axial forces
and lateral cyclic loads. To represent the full interaction, the study
94 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100

Fig. 27. Comparison of lateral load–displacement responses from monotonic

analyses.

Fig. 29. Dimensions and details of DFSCW (unit: mm).

Nsw=f yv Asw, t (31)

2.3. Profiled flat sheets filled with concrete composite walls

Fig. 28. Test setup provides the compression and cyclic loading for Nie et al. [47]. 1
– Girder of load frame; 2 – column of load frame; 3 – specimen; 4 – hydraulic jack;
5 – load head; 6 – extending tube; 7 – actuator; 8 – steel pedestal; 9 – lead screw;
10 – handle jack.
used steel tubes, and vertical reinforcement was extended to the
foundation beam and top beam to achieve full anchorage. The
anchorage depth of the steel tubes within the foundation beams
was not less than three times the tube’s diameter. The deformation
capacity of the rectangular-shaped CWs increased with the area
ratios of the steel tube and DFSCW, and decreased with the ap-
plied axial force ratio. According to the force equilibrium and
moment equilibrium with respect to the centroid of the wall, Eqs.
(28)–(31) were established to calculate the axial load applied at
the top of the wall, flexural strength at the wall bottom section
under the axial compressive force, and the reaction forces pro-
vided by the wall concrete in compression. The evaluated results
were consistent with the test results, with errors not more than
10%. A nearly linear behavior of the specimens was observed be-
fore cracking, and the stiffness of the specimens decreased sig-
nificantly after cracking, as indicated in Fig.31.
N = Nc − Nsw + Ncfst − A a fa
Mp = 0. 5Nc ( h w − x) + As f y ( h w − 2as ) + NCFST ( 0. 5h w − a a )
+ A a fa ( 0. 5h w − a a ) + Nsw d
Nc =αfc b w x
The DFPCW system consists of two sheets filled with or with-
out concrete, where one of the sheets is profiled while the other is
flat. This CW system is a lightweight composite structural system;
the profiled sheet is usually made of CFS, while the flat sheet is
made of dry board, plaster board, PRIMAflex, Cemboard, or ply-
wood. Both of the sheets are attached by self-drilling, self-tapping
screws, or other connection techniques (Fig. 32). The system was
invented by Wright et al. [8] as a flooring system with various
advantages; it can be applied to various structures such as roofs
and walls [9]. The DFPCW system was used widely as flooring and
bearing wall systems in the lightweight construction of buildings
and office spaces in factories because of its superiority in in-
stallation techniques. A complete form of summary of this section
is described in Table 3.
2.3.1. Under axial loading
Wan Badaruzzaman et al. [84] conducted tests of the PSSDB CW
system. Experiments were conducted on various PSSDB wall
samples, with and without infill materials, to study its effect on
the PSSDB load-bearing wall performance. In the study, the PSSs
were attached to the Cemboard via self-drilling and self-tapping
(28)
screws spaced at 200 mm center to center to reach the composite
action. Panels filled with polystyrene mortar showed better axial
load performance than panels without infill materials.
Tian et al. [85] presented a full-scale experimental study on the
(29)
structural performance of load-bearing wall panels made of CFS
frames and boards. Six different types of C-channel studs, a total of
(30)
20 panels with one middle stud, and 10 panels with two middle
 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
Fig. 30. Basic parameters of the calculation example for Xiaowei et al. [60].
studs were tested under vertical compression until failure. The
boards were attached to the frame by 5 mm self-drilling screws.
For all panels, screw spacing on each track (top, bottom, left, and
right) was fixed at 300 mm, whereas screw spacing on the middle
stud varied from 300, 400, and 600 mm. Results indicated that
screw spacing affects the load-carrying capacity of a stud.
Benayoune and Wan Badaruzzaman [86] conducted experi-
mental and numerical studies to investigate the effect of the
PSSDB height, width, and H/t ratio on axial load behavior. The
study found that the ultimate axial load of the FE models is ap-
proximately 19% less than the experimental obtained value. In the
study, the PSSs were attached to the Cemboard via self-drilling and
self-tapping screws spaced at 200 mm center to center to reach
the composite action. The PSS was the main structure, whereas the
dry board was found to be very instrumental in delaying elastic
deflection despite carrying a small portion of the load.
Ahmed et al. [9] constructed and proposed a CW structure
consisting of a PSS connected to dry boards by self-drilling and
self-tapping screws as an alternative to traditional forms of roof
construction. The proposed efficient axial load-bearing structural
system consisted of an assembly of individual DSCW panels con-
nected by steel angle plates at the ridges, formed to the required
shape, width, and span. An analytical model using the FE method
was proposed. The PSS was idealized as an equivalent homo-
geneous orthotropic thin-shell plate element of constant thick-
ness. Two directional plate elements were proposed in modeling
the connection between the PSS and the dry board to include
biaxial shear deformation. The proposed analytical method was
used to analyze the results of full-scale folded plate DSCW tests
and was found to yield positive results.
Wan Badaruzzaman and Wright [89] described an innovative
lightweight thin-walled PSSDB they had developed over several
years of research. Mechanical screws were used to represent the
composite action and to transfer the loading through of the PSS
and DB. The PSSDB system used load-bearing wall panels and a
folded plate roof structure. A special PSS type, which was a deri-
vative of the PSSDB system, was awarded three gold medals. Many
projects described in this study have also garnered awards.
95
Fig. 31. Typical envelope curve of lateral force versus top displacement for Jiaru
et al. [4].
2.3.2. Under combined loading
Gandomkar et al. [80] investigated the natural frequencies of
the PSSDB system. The study presented three experimental tests
with varied screw spacing. FE models were developed and verified
by comparing their results with the results of the experimental
test. When the axial load was applied as a flooring system or CW
system, these panels were categorized as either low-frequency
floor or high-frequency floor to determine the occurrence of re-
sonance, design criteria, and whether or not these would be
comfortable for humans.
Xiao et al. [81] described the compression-bending behavior of
12 shear wall specimens with high axial compression ratios under
low-frequency cyclic lateral loading. The effect of different con-
crete strengths was studied. To represent the full interaction be-
tween the PSS and the infill concrete, the FSS and PSS were welded
together and shear studs were arranged uniformly on the SSS to
guarantee that the reinforced concrete, SSS and PSS would work
together. Damage pattern, hysteretic characteristics, loading ca-
pacity, and deformation capacity of specimens were studied in the
experiment. The embedded SSS in the middle and PSS at both ends
effectively improved the loading capacity of specimens, as pre-
sented in Fig. 33. Based on test results, suggestions were proposed
and adopted in the structural design of the Mega Tower of China
World Trade Centre to reduce wall thickness for improved building
economy.
Gunalan et al. [82] described fire behavior by testing light-
gauge steel stud walls protected by the new CWs. The study used
channel section studs to connect the plasterboards on both sides
of the steel wall. The tested plaster boards were 25 mm thick. Four
studs were used at a spacing of 600 mm and bolted to the plas-
terboards with fasten screws. These studs were attached to the top
and bottom tracks made. All the studs and tracks used were fab-
ricated from galvanized steel sheets that have a nominal base
metal thickness of 1.15 mm and minimum specified yield strength
of 500 MPa. Numerical validation of the test results was also
presented in the study. Numerical analyses were carried out using
the FE program Abaqus [42]. Three test LSF wall specimens were
built and tested with a 25 mm-thick insulation sandwiched be-
tween two plasterboards on both sides of the steel wall frame.
2.3.3. Effect of openings
Hamzah et al. [83,87] conducted experimental and numerical
studies to determine the effect of screw spacing, square window
opening (Fig. 34), and butt joints vertically positioned on the
PSSDB wall panel. This system was designed as load-bearing wall
panels and was analyzed under axial compressive load. The self-
tapping and self-driving screws with stiffness 620 N/mm were
used to effectively bond both the PSS and DB as composite com-
ponents. The carbonized steel screws were 25 mm long. The
96 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100

Fig. 32. Profiled steel sheet dry board composite wall system [86].

deformation profile of the PSSDB wall panel system showed a
single curvature deformation profile, maximum lateral displace-
ment at the two-thirds wall panel height, and critical sections at
the upper corners of the square opening. The FE analysis provided
an accurate prediction of the structural behavior of the PSSDB wall
panel system.
Awang et al. [7] proposed a PSSDB CW panel constructed using
a double-skinned PRIMAflex (dry board) attached to the central
core of CL660 (PSS). The width of the wall panel was 660 mm.
However, a typical PSSDB wall panel with window opening with
lengths (heights) differed according to the tapered height of the
wall. The structural composite action was achieved using me-
chanical self-drilling and self-tapping screws. A tapping self-driv-
ing screw stiffness of 620 N/mm was selected to effectively bond
both the PSS and DB as composite components. The carbonized
steel screws were 25 mm long. Compared with traditional building
systems and materials, the PSSDB system eliminates the use of
conventional timber formworks, columns, and roof trusses in

Table 3
PFSCW with infill materials, interactions, loadings and study types.

No Author, year and Ref. Infill type Interaction type Loads type Type of study Parameters studied Remarks
no.

1 Gandomkar et al. With or without Self-drilling and Combined Experiment and Number and spacing of Proved that the PSSDB system with
(2013) [80] concrete self-tapping screws loadings numerical screw. lower screw spacing has higher first
t/d of Peva45 and natural frequency.
plywood.
Boundary
conditions.
Type of supports.
2 Xiao et al. (2012) [81] Reinforced Welding and shear Combined Experiment Concrete strengths Found that the embedded steel plate
concrete studs loadings Thickness of the in the middle and PSS at both ends
steel plate improved the loading capacity.
3 Gunalan et al. (2010) Rockwool Shear studs Combined Experiment and External insulation Found that using of external insulation
[82] loadings numerical (glass fiber and rock increases the fire resistance of LSF
fiber). walls significantly even at higher
Insulation location loads.
4 Hamzah et al. (2009) No in full Self-tapping self- Axial load Experiment and Screw spacing. Employed FEA to find the effect of the
[83] driving screws Numerical Square window opening and screw spacing on the
opening. behavior of the PSSDB
5 Awang et al. (2008) No infill Self-drilling and Axial load Experiment Thickness and type of Described the application of PSSDB
[7] self-tapping screws dry Board, Cemboard system as a structural component in
and PSS constructing innovative lightweight
Connector's type. composite school classroom modules.
Window opening.
6 Badaruzzaman et al. Polystyrene ce- Self-tapping, self- Axial load Experiment Sheet plate materials. Proved that the panels filled with
(2004) [84] ment mortar driving screws With/without screw. polystyrene mortar better than panels
With without infill without infill materials.
7 Tian et al. (2004) [85] No infill C-channel stud Axial load Experiment Stud location. Investigated the failure mode for the
Type of board. experimental models with the ulti-
Screw spacing mate loading
8 Benayoune, and Ba- No infill Intermediate bolts Axial load Experiment and Wall height. Employed FEA to investigate the axial
daruzzaman (2000) numerical Wall width. load behavior of the PSSDB
[86] H/t ratio.
9 Hamzah et al. (2003) No infill Self-tapping self- Axial load Experiment and Square opening. Investigated the effect of the opening
[87] driving screws Numerical Screw spacing. on the structural behavior of the CW
10 Ahmed et al. (2000) No infill Self-drilling, self- Axial load Experiment and Width and span of Employed FEA to verify the effect of
[9] tapping screws Numerical composite wall. various loading behavior of the PSSDB
Loading locations.
Boundary condition.
11 Badaruzzaman and No infill Self-drilling, self- Axial load Experiment Loading direction and Used the PSSDB system as wall and as
Wright (1998) [88] tapping screws. location flooring systems.
 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
Fig. 33. Steel plate reinforced concrete shear wall. Xiao et al. [81].
buildings. The proposed system also has numerous advantages;
the panel is lightweight, making construction less labor-oriented
and less time consuming, ensuring the optimization of materials,
and providing better finished products.
3. Discussions
This paper summarized 75 previous studies on DSCWs since
1990. The studies were classified based on the variations in the
design shapes and loadings. Out of the 75 studies, 33 investigated
on the behavior of DPSCWs, 31 assessed on the performance of
DFSCWs, 11 considered on PFSCWs. Among all of these previous
studies there is only 4 research works focused on the effect of the
openings on DSCW systems. These previous studies considered the
effect of various loadings (axial, cyclic, lateral, impact, thermal, and
combined loadings) on the DSCWs. A bubble chart was generated
to provide clear presentation about the number of studies (re-
presented as the bubble size) for each type of loading and each
type of DSCW classified in the study, as presented in Fig. 35.
3.1. Double-skinned profiled composite walls
Various studies investigated the structural behavior of the
DPSCW system subjected to various types of loadings (axial, cyclic,
lateral, thermal, and combined loadings) to present a clear un-
derstanding about the effectiveness of this type of CW as a main
structural part. Based on this review, 18 studies investigated the
axial load behavior of DPSCWs, 4 analyzed the cyclic load behavior
of DPSCWs, 2 assessed the lateral load behavior of DPSCWs, 1 in-
vestigated the thermal load behavior of DPSCWs, and 8 analyzed
the effect of combined loadings on the structural behavior of
DPSCWs. Meanwhile, no research work was conducted to in-
vestigate the impact of loading behavior of the DPSCW, as noted in
Fig. 35. On the other hand, this study found that these CW systems
effectively can resist the loadings because of the unique materials
of the system.
Fig. 34. PSSDB system with square opening and the main materials [83].
97
This paper presented many interaction types in literature to
describe the composite action between the plate sheets and infill
materials, either through experimental or numerical. Through–
through bolt interaction was the most effective type to represent
the composite action in transferring the loading through the
materials.
However, clear gaps were found in the literature, such as the
lack of studies that investigated the effect of impact loading on the
structural behavior of the DPSCW, which is vital to understand the
performance of the DPSCW system and its implication to safety in
nuclear facilities and similar industries. Furthermore, this review
revealed that only one study investigated the behavior of en-
gineered cementitious composite as an infill material, which is a
very ductile material that can effectively resist cyclic loading
compared with normal concrete. A limited number of studies fo-
cused on the strengthening of DPSCW with embedded materials,
such as steel or composite columns.
This review study suggests using the DPSCW system to ensure
the safety of nuclear facilities. The effect of thermal, impact, and
explosion loading on the system must be investigated further
because of the lack of studies on these important types of loadings.
This study also suggests analyzing the behavior of DPSCW infill
with engineered cementitious composite subjected to various
types of loading to provide comprehensive information about this
new and ductile infill material. To increase the ultimate load re-
sistance of the DPSCW system, this study proposes to strengthen
the system by embedding it with high-ductility materials, such as
cold form, hot rolled, and mild steel materials with thin thickness,
and of various shapes or sections connected to the PSS with
through–through bolts and in-filled with concrete. Consequently,
future studies can be conducted to identify the benefits of
strengthening the system with special techniques to attain high
ductility.
3.2. Double-skinned flat composite walls
In summary, the DFSCW system is a very useful alternative to
conventional RC walls to enhance the safety of nuclear facilities
98 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
Fig. 35. Numbers of research works for each type of DSCW subjected to each type
of loading.
because of its economic and structural efficiency. The system was
examined using various designs and subjected to various types of
loading (axial, cyclic, impact, thermal, and combined). Results
show that the DFSCW system can effectively resist the loadings
with high ductility.
This review found that 12 studies investigated the axial load
behavior of DPSCWs, 7 studied the cyclic load behavior of DPSCWs,
3 analyzed the impact load behavior of DPSCWs, 1 assessed the
thermal load behavior of DPSCWs, and 7 investigated the effect of
combined loadings on the structural behavior of DPSCWs. How-
ever, no research work has been carried out on the lateral or ec-
centric loading behavior of the DFSCW, as indicated in Fig. 35.
This study presented many types of interactions in literature,
and found that the DFSCW system with headed steel studs and tie
roads welded to the FSSs is very effective.
At present, no study has been conducted to investigate the
effect of using engineered cementitious composite as an infill
material for the DFSCW system. No analyses have been made
about strengthening the DFSCW system using steel or composite
embedded columns to increase ductility and ultimate load
resistance.
This review paper suggests more future research works on the
effect of lateral and eccentric loading on the DFSCW performance
to provide in-depth information for the validity of using DFSCW
when subjected to various loadings. The study also suggests en-
hancing the FSS with diagonal stiffeners of various shapes to in-
crease ductility and ultimate load resistance.
3.3. Profiled flat skin composite walls
A brief summary is providing of 11 studies that investigated the
behavior of the PFSCW system subjected to various types of
loadings. Results revealed that the use of PFSCW is still a relatively
new practice in composite walling, and PFSCW is a very useful
structural part for use in the construction of two-story buildings.
However, only five studies investigated the axial load behavior of
the PFSCW, and only three analyzed the effect of combined load-
ings on the structural behavior of the PFSCW. The interaction type
between the flat and profiled plate was achieved using a fasten
screw in all previous studies. This screw is considered a very useful
tool to transfer the loading through the materials and is a very
popular technique to achieve composite action between the
materials.
Various gaps in the literature of PFSCW have also been iden-
tified: first, no study has been conducted to investigate the effect
of cyclic, lateral, impact, and thermal loads on the structural be-
havior of the PFSCW. Second, few studies try to analyze new
techniques to enhance interaction, such as the through–through
Fig. 36. Number of studies that investigated the effect of openings on the behavior
of DSCWs.
bolts, hocks, and tie rods. Third, no studies focus on strengthening
PFSCW with embedded ductile material based on the effects of
using embedded materials, such as cold form, hot rolled and mild
steel on the structural behavior of the PFSCW. A limited number of
studies have attempted to analyze the infilling of PFSCW with
concrete or another material.
Furthermore, this study suggests future investigation on the
effects of different types of loadings on the structural behavior of
the PFSCW. The effects of infill materials and the benefits of
strengthening the PFSCW with embedded columns of different
materials and sections are also suggested.
3.4. Effect of openings on double-skinned composite walls
The openings are very important for architects concerned with
infrastructure designed with DSCW. A limited number of studies
have analyzed the effect of openings on the structural behavior of
DSCWs subjected to any type of loadings. Thus far, only three
studies have investigated the effect of rectangular opening on the
structural behavior of the PFSCW, and only one has analyzed the
effect of the same type of opening on the DPSCW, meanwhile,
there is not any study has been conducted to determine the effect
of the openings on the structural behavior of the DFSCW as pre-
senting in Fig. 36.
Various gaps existed in the literature, particularly in the effects
of openings on the structural behavior of the DSCW systems. In the
future, some studies should investigate the effect of rectangular,
circular, square, or trapezoidal openings on the structural behavior
of the DSCW. A type of strengthening mechanism around the
openings to transfer the loading to the sheets, infill materials, or
directly to the support, whether it was embedded or in external
parts, must be designed. Determining the effect of openings on the
behavior of the DSCWs subjected to all the mentioned loadings is
recommended in this study.
4. Conclusions
A review of present knowledge in literature on DSCWs was
stated and reported in this paper. DSCWs were divided and clas-
sified based on plate sheets status (flat, profiled, and dry board)
and applied load (axial, cyclic, lateral, impact, thermal and com-
bination of two loads). Each previous research work was presented
and summarized in paragraph form, each containing the para-
metric studies, results and discussion, and conclusions. Data col-
lected in the past 25 years were classified and summarized in
Tables 1–3. The tables included the types of infill materials, in-
teraction, loading type, study type (analytical, experimental and
 S.J. Hilo et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 97 (2015) 74–100
numerical), parameters studied, and remarks for each study.
The structural behavior of DSCW has been extensively studied
in the past decades. Experimental and analytical solutions have
been conducted and proposed by authors to understand the real
behavior of the DSCW. Recently, verifications and developments of
FE methods have taken a significant place in designing and ana-
lyzing DSCW. Many numerical models were generated using FE
software, such as ABAQUS, LUSAS, ANSYS, LS-DYNA, and MSC.
MARC, to study the effect of various parameters on the behavior of
DSCWs, which could not be tested experimentally because of the
high cost of a full scale or prototype. Generally, this paper found
that using FE tools is useful for predicting the behavior of DSCW;
FE results have shown consistency with reasonable accuracy when
compared with the available experimental results. Numerous
analytical solutions were applied and developed in various studies
(i.e., modified compression field theory, steel sheet yielding the-
ory, lower bound theory, three-step method theory, yield line
theory, and fixed angle theory). These solutions are useful for
predicting the ultimate resisting capacities of DSCW with various
designs status and subjected to different types of loading, with an
acceptable accuracy, when comparing the experimental and FE
analysis data. Several analytical solutions that adopted the use of
design codes (i.e., EC4, ACI, AISC, British, Chinese, and Australia,
standards) are safe to use; however, these are overly conservative.
The behavior of DSCW is well understood for the three types of
CWs in this study. However, gaps, weak points, and suggestions
were pointed out for future research. A limited number of studies
investigated the benefits of strengthening the DSCW with em-
bedded steel of various shapes, and the effect of the openings on
the DSCW behavior, which it very important to structural de-
signers and architects. No study has been conducted to examine
the connection between the DSCW and composite flooring sys-
tems, such as the PSSDB or any other systems. In-depth in-
vestigations must be undertaken to determine the behavior of the
DSCW when subjected to eccentric and thermal loading because of
the lack of studies in this field, and to gain a more thorough un-
derstanding of each type of DSCW.
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support for the
study and the study leave from the University of Technology,
Baghdad, Iraq.
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