ERYTHROCYTES

Erythrocytes (from the Greek ἐρυθρός ‘red’, and κύτος ‘bag’),

also called red blood cells or red blood cells, are the most
numerous cells in the blood.
Hemoglobin is one of its main components, and its function is to
transport oxygen to the different types of tissues in the body.
Human erythrocytes, as well as those of other mammals, lack
nuclei and mitochondria, so they must obtain their metabolic
energy through lactic fermentation.
The amount considered normal in the human species fluctuates
between 4,500,000 (in women) and 5,400,000 (in men) per cubic
millimeter (or microliter) of blood, that is, approximately 1000
times more than leukocytes.
An excess of red blood cells is called polycythemia and a
deficiency is called anemia.
Red blood cells are commonly used in transfusions in clinical
practice and have been suggested as carriers for drugs and
nanoparticles.
 DESCRIPTION:
The erythrocyte is a biconcave disk between 5 and 7.5 μm in
diameter, 7 of 1 μm in thickness, and 80 to 100 femtoliters in
volume. The cell has lost its residual RNA and mitochondria, as
well as some important enzymes; therefore, it is unable to
synthesize new proteins or lipids. Their cytoplasm mostly
contains the pigment hemoglobin, which gives them their
characteristic red color (which may be darker depending on their
oxygenation) and is responsible for the transport of oxygen.8 9.
However, this description applies to mammalian erythrocytes,
since in the rest of vertebrates, with some exceptions,
erythrocytes lack the biconcave shape and are usually larger than
those described above. This is because the red blood cells of
other vertebrates still have a nucleus.

Red blood cells are derived from compromised stem cells called
hemocytoblast. Erythropoietin, a growth hormone produced in
kidney tissues, stimulates erythropoiesis (that is, the formation
of erythrocytes) and is responsible for maintaining an
erythrocyte mass in a constant state. Erythrocytes, like
leukocytes, originate from the bone marrow.

The red cell concentration varies according to sex, age, and

geographic location. Higher concentrations of red blood cells are
found in high altitude areas, in males and in newborns.
Decreases below the reference range generate a pathological
state called anemia. This alteration causes tissue hypoxia.
Increased red blood cell count (polycythemia) is less common.

Hemolysis is the destruction of aged erythrocytes and occurs in

macrophages of the spleen and liver. The essential elements,
globin and iron, are conserved and reused. The heme fraction of
the molecule is catabolized to bilirubin and biliverdin, and is
eventually excreted through the intestinal tract. The rupture of
the erythrocyte at the intravascular level releases hemoglobin
directly into the blood, where the molecule dissociates into α
and β dimers, which bind to the transport protein, haptoglobin.
This transports the dimers to the liver, where they are later
catabolized to bilirubin and excreted.
What are white blood cells?
Your blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells,
platelets, and plasma. Your white blood cells make up only about
1% of your blood, but their impact is great. White blood cells are
also called leukocytes. They protect you against disease and
illness. Think of white blood cells as your immune cells. In a
sense, they are always at war. They flow through your
bloodstream to fight viruses, bacteria, and other foreign invaders
that threaten your health. When your body is in danger and a
particular area is under attack, white blood cells rush to help
destroy the harmful substance and prevent disease.
White blood cells are made in the bone marrow. They are stored
in the blood and lymphatic tissues. Because some white blood
cells have a short life of 1 to 3 days, your bone marrow is always
making them.Types of white blood cells Your white blood cells
include:

• Monocytes. They have a longer lifespan than many white blood

cells and help break down bacteria.
• Lymphocytes create antibodies to fight bacteria, viruses, and
other potentially harmful invaders.
• Neutrophils. They kill and digest bacteria and fungi. They are
the most numerous type of white blood cell and your first line of
defense when you attack an infection.
• Basophils. These tiny cells seem to sound an alarm when
infectious agents invade your blood. They secrete chemicals like
histamine, a marker for allergic disease, that help control the
body's immune response.
• Eosinophils. They attack and kill parasites and cancer cells and
help with allergic responses.
Problems that affect white blood cells
Your white blood cell count may be low for a number of reasons.
This includes when something is destroying cells faster than the
body can replace them. Or when the bone marrow stops making
enough white blood cells to keep you healthy. When your white
blood cell count is low, you are at great risk for any disease or
infection, which can become a serious health threat.
Your healthcare provider can do a blood test to see if your white
blood cell count is normal. If your count is too low or too high,
you may have a white blood cell disorder.
Several diseases and conditions can affect white blood cell levels:
• Weakened immune system. This is often caused by diseases
such as HIV / AIDS or cancer treatment. Cancer treatments, such
as chemotherapy or radiation therapy, can destroy white blood
cells and leave you at risk for infection.
• Infection. A higher than normal white blood cell count usually
means you have some type of infection. White blood cells
multiply to destroy the bacteria or virus.
• Myelodysplastic syndrome. This condition causes abnormal
blood cell production. This includes white blood cells in the bone
marrow.
• Blood cancer. Cancers, including leukemia and lymphoma, can
cause an abnormal type of blood cell to grow out of control in
the bone marrow. This results in a much higher risk of infection
or serious bleeding.
• Myeloproliferative disorder. This disorder refers to various
conditions that trigger excessive production of immature blood
cells. This can result in an unhealthy balance of all types of blood
cells in the bone marrow and too many or too few white blood
cells in the blood.
• Medicines. Some medications can increase or decrease the
body's white blood cell count.
Conditions such as extreme physical stress caused by injury or
emotional stress can also trigger high levels of white blood cells.
Also inflammation, childbirth or the end of pregnancy, smoking
or even extreme exercise.

Red blood cells:

A blood cell, also called a hematopoietic cell, hemocyte, or
hematocyte, is a cell produced through hematopoiesis and found
primarily in the blood. The main types of blood cells include red
blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and
platelets (thrombocytes). Together, these three types of blood
cells make up a total of 45% of blood tissue by volume, and the
remaining 55% of the volume is made up of plasma, the liquid
component of blood.

Red blood cells

Red and white blood cells as seen under a microscope using a

blue slide stain

The darker red blood syringes have deoxygenated blood, while

the brighter red ones have oxygenated blood.
Red blood cells, or erythrocytes, mainly carry oxygen and collect
carbon dioxide through the use of hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that gives red blood
cells their color and facilitates the transport of oxygen from the
lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the
lungs to be exhaled.
Red blood cells are the most abundant cells in the blood and
represent around 40-45% of its volume. Red blood cells are
circular, biconcave, disc-shaped, and deformable to allow them
to pass through narrow capillaries. They have no nucleus. Red
blood cells are much smaller than most other human cells.

Red blood cells are formed in the red bone marrow from
hematopoietic stem cells in a process known as erythropoiesis. In
adults, about 2.4 million red blood cells are produced per
second. The normal red blood cell count is 4.5 to 5 million per
mm3. Red blood cells have a lifespan of approximately 100 to
120 days. Once they have completed their lifespan, the spleen
removes them from the bloodstream.

Mature red blood cells are unique among cells in the human
body because they lack a nucleus (although erythroblasts do
have a nucleus).

The condition of having too few red blood cells is known as

anemia, while having too many is polycythemia.
The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is the rate at which red
blood cells sink to the bottom (when placed in a vertical column
after adding an anticoagulant). Normal ESR values are:

• 3 to 5 mm per hour in males.

• 4 to 7 mm per hour in females