METROLOGY AND

INSTRUMENTATION

MODULE 5

VISHAL NAIR
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
VISHAL NAIR 1
 Measurement and Metrology

 Science of measurement
 Depending on field of application
 Today (in broader sense) with some practical
terms

VISHAL NAIR 2
Practical terms related with measurement:

o Errors in measurements
o Methods of measurements
o Measuring Instruments
o Units of measurement and their standards
o Industrial inspection and its different
techniques
o Measuring instruments and accuracy

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Needs of Measurement and
Metrology
 To ensure that the part to be measured conforms to the
established standard.
 To meet the interchangeability of manufacture.
 To provide customer satisfaction by ensuring that no
faulty product reaches the customers.
 To coordinate the functions of quality control,
production, procurement & other departments of the
organization.
 To judge the possibility of making some of the
defective parts acceptable after minor repairs.
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Objectives of Measurement and Metrology

 Although the basic objective of a measurement is to provide the

required accuracy at a minimum cost, metrology has further
objectives in a modem engineering plant with different shapes
which are:
 To minimize the cost of inspection by efficient and effective use of
available facilities,
 To minimize the cost of rejection and re-work through application
of statistical quality control techniques.
 To maintain the accuracies of measurement.
 To determine the process capabilities and ensure that these are
better than relevant component tolerances.
 To do complete evaluation of newly developed products.
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 Modes of Measurement

 Based upon the number of conversions, three basic

categories of measurements have been developed.

 They are;
1. Primary measurement
2. Secondary measurement
3. Tertiary measurement

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 Modes of Measurement
1. Primary measurement
 Direct observation and comparison
 Not involvement of any conversion

Ex. Length, Height, Depth or Width etc. measurement.

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 Modes of Measurement
2. Secondary measurement
 >Indirect method >Involvement of one conversion
 Ex. Pressure or Temperature measurement

3. Tertiary measurement
 >Indirect method >Involvement of 2 conversion
 Ex. Measurement of rotating shaft

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Methods of Measurement

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Methods of Measurement
Type of Method Technique to measure
With contact Instrument is placed in contact
with the object. For ex. vernier
calliper
Without contact Instrument not placed in contact
with the object. (use of sensor)
Absolute or Based on the measurements of
Fundamental base quantities entering into the
definition of the quantity.

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Methods of Measurement
Type of Method Technique to measure
Comparative Based on the comparison of the
value of a quantity to be measured
with a known value of the same
quantity.
Null measurement Here, difference between measurand
value and known value
of same quantity with which it is
compared is brought to zero.

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Methods of Measurement
Type of Method Technique to measure
Substitutional Method Quantity to be measured is replaced by a
known value of the same quantity, so selected
that the effects produced in the
indicating device by these two values are
the same (a type of direct comparison).

Complementary Method The value of quantity to be measured is

combined with known value of the same
quantity.
Ex: Volume determination by liquid
displacement.

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Methods of Measurement
Type of Method Technique to measure

Transposition Quantity Value of quantity measured is first

to be measured is first balanced by an initial known value
balanced by a known A of same quantity, then measured
value and then balanced
by an other new known
by quantity is put in place of this
value. known value. Then, it is balanced
again by another value B. If the
position of element in equilibrium.

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 Methods of Measurement
Type of Method Technique to measure
Coincidence Measurements coincide with
certain lines and signals. Ex.
Callipers

Deflection The value of the quantity to be

measured is directly indicated by
the deflection of a pointer on a
calibrated scale

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Generalized Measurement System

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 Generalized Measurement System

Elements of measuring system

1. Primary sensing element

 Quantity under measurement makes its first contact with
primary sensing element.
 Sense the condition, state or value of the process
variable by extracting a small part of energy from the
measurand,
 and then produce an output which reflects this condition,
state or value of measurand.
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Generalized Measurement System

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Elements of measuring system

2. Variable conversion (transducer) element

 Convert one physical form into another form without
changing the information content of the signal.

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Elements of measuring system
3. Variable manipulation element
 Modifies the signal by amplification, filtration or other means so
that desired output produced according to some mathematical
rule for Ex. i/p x constant = o/p

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Elements of measuring system

4. Data transmission element

 Transmits the signal from one location to another
without changing its information contents.

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Elements of measuring system
5. Data processing element
 modifies the data before it displayed or finally
recorded
• perform mathematical operation such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, etc.
• to calculate average, statistical and logarithmic values
• to convert data into desired form.
• to separate undesired signal from output signal.
• to provide correction on the output signal.

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Generalized Measurement System

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 Generalized Measurement System

Elements of measuring system

6. Data presentation elements
 Provides a record or indication of the output
(i)Transmitting information (measured quantity) to another
location or devices.
(ii)Signaling : To give a signal that the pre-defined value
has been reached.
(iii)Recording : To produce a continuous record of
measured quantity in written form.
(iv)Indicating : To indicate the specific value on
calibrated scale.

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TYPES OF INPUT
i. Desired input
ii. Interfering input
iii. Modifying Input

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• Desired Inputs:
• It is defined as quantities for which instrument or the measurement
system is specifically designed to measure and respond.
• The desired input rD produces an output component cD = GDrD in
accordance with an input output relationship.
• Interfering Inputs:
• It represents the quantities to which an instrument or a
measurement system becomes unintentionally sensitive.
• The measurement systems are not desired to respond to interfering
inputs on account of their principle of working, design and many
other factors.
• The interfering input rI is operated upon by a transfer function GI to
produce an output in the same manner as a desired input is operated
upon by a transfer function, GD, to produce an output.

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• Modifying Inputs:
• Modifying inputs are defined as inputs which cause a change in
input-output relationships for either desired inputs or interfering
inputs or for both.
• Thus, a modifying input, rM, is an input that modifies GD and/or GI.
• The symbols GMD and GMI represent the specific manner in which
rM affects GD and GI respectively.
• These symbols, GMD and GMI are interpreted in the same general
way as GD and GI are.

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 Performance characteristics
 Important to select most suitable instrument for specific
measurement.

 Static Performance characteristics:

• Desired input to the instrument not change w.r.t time.

 Dynamic Performance characteristics:

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 Static Performance characteristics
 Readability: This term indicates
the closeness with which the scale
of the instrument may be read.
 Susceptibility of device to have its
indications converted into
meaningful number.

 Least count: It is the smallest

difference between two indications
that can be detected on the
instrument scale.

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Static Performance characteristics
 Range: It represents the highest possible value that can be
measured by an instrument or limits within which
instrument is designed to operate.

 Linearity: A measuring system is said to be linear if the

output is linearly proportional to the input.

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Static Performance characteristics
 Repeatability: It is defined as the ability of a measuring
system to repeat output readings when the same input is
applied to it consecutively, under the same conditions, and
in the same direction.

 Reproducibility: It is defined as the degree of closeness

with which the same value of a variable may be measured
at different times.

 System response: Response of a system may be defined as

the ability of the system to transmit & present all the
relevant information contained in the input signal.

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Static Performance characteristics

 Threshold: Min. value of i/p required to cause a

detectable change from ‘0(zero)’o/p.
 If i/p increased gradually from ‘0(zero)’, there will
be some min. value below which no o/p change
can be detected.

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Static Performance characteristics
 Hysteresis:
 Hysteresis is the maximum
differences in two output
(indicated values) at same
input (measurand) value
within the specified range
when input is continuously
increased from zero and
when input is continuously
decrcased for maximum
value.
 Maximum diff. between
increasing input value and
the decreasing input value at
the same output.
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Static Performance characteristics
 Calibration: Procedure of
making, adjusting or checking
a scale so that readings of an
instrument conforms to an
accepted standard.

 Sensitivity: Ratio of o/p

response to a specific range in
i/p.

 Dead zone: Largest change of

i/p quantity for which
instrument does not indicate
output.
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Static Performance characteristics
Drift: gradual variation or undesired change in o/p during
constant i/p.
•Span: proportional change in the indication or change along the
upward scale

Zero Drift: whole Zonal Drift:

calibration gradually Combination of both
shifts due to slippage
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Static Performance characteristics

 Loading effect:
Any instrument, invariably extracts energy from
system, the original signal should remain
undistorted. This is incapability of system to
faithfully measure signal in undistorted form.

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Static Performance characteristics

 Accuracy: It is degree to which the measured value

agrees with true value. Max. amount by which result
differs from the true value.

 Precision: It is repeatability or reproducibility of the

measurement. If instrument is not precise, great
difference in dimension measured again and again.

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The First Order Type System
During the dynamic period a first order differential equation is
sufficient to explain behaviour
Here’s an example
dHeight
τ + Height = K × Temp
dt
Solution to diff eqn
Where a step input is applied the solution to the above
equation is:
Height = InitialHeight + ∆Height 1 − e τ 
 −t

 
Does this make sense? Enter some values:
n For a step input of ice to boiling water, we have:

n Initial height = 0

n Final height = 100 100

After 1 time constant
63.2
Height = 63.2
After 5 time constants
Height = 100
τ Time 5τ
 In General
The differential equation that describes the first order system is:

dθ o
τ + θ o = Kθ i
dt
This equation is easily solved using Laplace transforms. The solution looks like this:

−t
θ o = Kθi (1 − e τ
)
Expand this equation and then think about it for a minute:
−t
θ o = Kθi − Kθ i e τ

This term varies with time, large

initially, almost zero at t=5t
This term eventually dominates
when the other dies away
Don’t forget that τ is the time constant and has units of seconds.
 Activity – Calculate exponential term
Think of the exponential term and, using a calculator, work out its magnitude at
different time values. Use the table and then plot the data below.

Time t = exp(-t/t ) 1 – exp(-t/t )

t
2t
3t
4t
5t

Time
Activity - Thermometer
Determine the time constant of a system
A thermometer was placed in beaker of water and left for a while to reach steady state.
A reading of 25ºC was obtained. The thermometer was then quickly placed in a beaker
of boiling water and the changing reading was recorded in the table below.
Determine the time constant

Time t = Temp ºC
2 62
4 80
6 90
10 97
14 99
18 100

Time
 Step Response
The typical response of the first order system to a step input is shown below:

? o,final

Output

? o,initial

Time
An alternative equation that relates the output to time is shown below (slightly different
to the last equation which had both the output and the input). The initial and final
values of the output must be known to use this equation but knowledge of the input is
not necessary.
−t
θ o = θ o,initial + (θ o, final − θ o ,initial )(1 − e τ
)
 Second Order System
A second order system is similar to the first order one in that it takes time for the output
to settle down to a new steady state value after a change is made to the input. The
difference is that with the second order system overshoot and undershoot are often
observed.

Underdamped

Output θo %

Critically damped

Overdamped

ω nt

The differential equation that describes the system is second order and has more
variables than the first order one. Hence, the variations in damping.
 Different Types of Input
The static characteristics refer to the results when a constant input is applied. What
happens if the input is not constant but is changing? How does the instrument
respond? That depends on the dynamic characteristics.
For example, a standard thermometer is suitable for measuring the temperature in this
room. This changes slowly during the day and night, without sudden changes.
Compare this to the measurement of cylinder temperature in a combustion engine.
This change extremely suddenly and by a large amount. The output from the standard
thermometer to this type of input would be useless.
Different instruments handle changing inputs in different ways.
To compare instruments fairly, we should apply the same type of input to each and
measure the result. An easily repeatable changing input is required.
There are three standard types of changing inputs
Step Input Ramp Input Sinusoidal Input
 Step Input
This is a an abrupt change from one steady input value to another. The response of the
system to it is called the transient response and is a measure of how well the system
can respond to sudden changes.
Think of the situation where a thermometer is suddenly moved from a beaker of ice and
water into a bath of boiling water.
Is this a step change in the input?
Describe what happens to the reading on the thermometer.
Does it take a long time to get to the new value?

Step Input
Input
Temp

Time
 Ramp Input
The ramp input varies linearly with time and the ramp response of the system is
observed to give the steady state error between the output and the input.
For example a thermometer is placed in a bath of water and ice and a constant heat is
applied to the bath. The thermometer reading is recorded as the bath temperature is
ramped from 0 to 100degC.

Ramp Input

Input

Time
 Sine Wave Input
The sine wave input is used to provide the frequency response of the system. It shows
how the system responds to inputs of cyclic nature at different frequencies.
How could this be implemented for the thermometer?
Is this easy or difficult?
What type of system is this most suited to?
The laboratory experiment with the LVDT uses a sine wave input.

Sine Wave Input

Input

Time
 Classification of Systems
A measuring system can be characterised by examining its behaviour to each of the
three test inputs.
What has been found is that different systems can produce identical forms of response.
For example, the response of the thermometer to the step change in temperature might
have an identical pattern to a pressure sensor that is exposed to a step change in
pressure.
Measurement systems can be classified based on their response into one of three groups
• Zero Order
• First Order
• Second Order
Each type of system has a different response to each of the three types of input we have
mentioned.
We will next look at these three groups.
 Zero Order
The zero order system is one whose output is proportional to the input no matter how
the input varies. The equation that describes this behaviour is:

Output θo = k x Input θi
θo = kθi
where θo is the output
θi is the input
k is a proportionality constant (= sensitivity)
Another way to describe a zero order system is that a new steady state output is
immediately provided when the input is changed.
Input

θi k Output
θo

Time

How would a zero order thermometer behave? Does one exist?

Rheostat/Potentiometer = zero order (input = movement, output = resistance)
 First Order
Many systems take time to reach a new steady state value. The definition of Steady
State exists is that the output stops changing - Important definition!
If the behaviour when a step input is applied is such that the output responds quickly
and then slackens as it reaches the new steady state value the system is first order.
The term first order is used because the relationship between the output and the input for
these systems is described by first order differential equation:
dθ o
a + b θ o = cθ i
dt
where a, b and c are constants.

This equation is normally written as follows:

dθ o
τ + θ o = Kθ i
dt
where τ=a/b and is the time constant in seconds
K=c/b and is the static sensitivity (units depending on application)
We will solve this equation later in the course.
 First Order Step Input
The response of a first order system to a step input is as follows:

Input
100%

63.2%
Output

Time τ Time 5τ

A thermometer is an example of a first order system. When a step change is applied to

it, the output follows the curve above.
Test it. Time how long it takes the thermometer to reach 63degC and time how long it
takes to reach 100degC (should take five times longer).
Can you think of any other first order systems?
 Sensor

A Device that receives and respond to a
signal or stimulus
 INTRODUCTION
• Transducer
– a device that converts a primary form of energy into a
corresponding signal with a different energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal,
electromagnetic, optical, chemical, etc.
– take form of a sensor or an actuator
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
– a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
– acquires information from the “real world”
• Actuator (e.g., heater)
– a device that generates a signal or stimulus

sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world actuator system
 Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
– convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
• General Electronic Sensor
– primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into electrical signal
– secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or digital values

real primary analo secondary usable

world transducer g transducer values
signal
sensor

• Typical Electronic Sensor System

input
signal sensor data microcontroller network
(measurand)
sensor signal processing display
analog/digital
communication
 Sensor Classification
• Passive
• Doesn’t need any additional energy source
• Directly generate an electric signal in response to an
external stimuli
• E.g. Thermocouple, photodiode, Piezoelectric sensor
• Active
• Require external power called excitation signal
• Sensor modify excitation signal to provide output
• E.g. thermistor, resistive strain gauge
 Sensor characteristics
• Span or Full scale input
– A dynamic range of stimuli which may be converted by
a sensor
– represents the highest possible input value that can be
applied to the sensor without causing an unacceptably
large inaccuracy
– g for accelerometer
• Full scale output
– algebraic difference between the electrical output
signals measured with maximum input stimulus and
the lowest input stimulus applied
– E.g. LM35
 Sensor characteristics
• Accuracy
– Accuracy is measured as a highest deviation of a
value represented by the sensor from the ideal or true
value at its input
– accuracy limits generally are used in the worst-case
analysis to determine the worst possible performance
of the system
– The inaccuracy rating may be represented in a
number of forms:
• Directly in terms of measured value ()
• In percent of input span (full scale)
• In terms of output signal
 Sensor characteristics
• Calibration
– determination of specific variables that describe the
overall transfer function
• Overall means of the entire circuit, including the sensor, the
interface circuit, and the A/D converter
– E.g. use of forward biased diode for temperature
measurement
• Transfer function v=a+bt
• Take measurement at two T’s and solve and determine a
and b
– V1=a+bt1 and V2=a+bt2
– For Non-linear function more than one point can be
required depending on the transfer function
– Another way is to use a piecewise approximation
 Sensor characteristics
• Calibration error
– inaccuracy
permitted by a
manufacturer when
a sensor is calibrated
in the factory

Error is systematic in
nature
 Sensor characteristics
• Hysteresis
– deviation of the sensor’s output at a specified
point of the input signal when it is approached
from the opposite directions
 Sensor characteristics
• Non-linearity error
– specified for sensors whose transfer function may
be approximated by a straight line
 Sensor characteristics
• Repeatability
– caused by the inability of a sensor to represent the
same value under identical conditions
– It is expressed as the maximum difference
between output readings as determined by two
calibrating cycles
– It is usually represented as % of FS
 Sensor characteristics
• Resolution
– the smallest increments of stimulus which can be
sensed
• Output impedance
– The output impedance Z is important to know to
out

better interface a sensor with the electronic circuit

– For a current generating sensor should have an
output impedance as high as possible and the
circuit’s input impedance should be low
– For the voltage connection, a sensor is preferable
with lower Z and the circuit should have Z as high
out in

as practical
 Classification of Transducers
Transducers

On The Basis of Transducers/

Active/Passive Primary/Secondary Analogue/Digital Inverse Transducers
principle Used

Capacitive

Inductive Transducers may be classified

according to their application, method of
Resistive energy conversion, nature of the output
signal, and so on.

14
 Selecting a Transducer
• What is the physical quantity to be measured?
• Which transducer principle can best be used to measure
this quantity?
• What accuracy is required for this measurement?
– Fundamental transducer parameters
– Physical conditions
– Environmental conditions
– Compatibility of the associated equipment
• Reducing the total measurement error :
– Using in-place system calibration with corrections performed in
the data reduction
– Artificially controlling the environment to minimize possible errors

15
 Transducer, Sensor, and
Actuator
• Transducer:
– a device that converts energy from one form to
another
• Sensor:
– converts a physical parameter to an electrical output
(a type of transducer, e.g. a microphone)
• Actuator:
• converts an electrical signal to a physical output
(opposite of a sensor, e.g. a speaker)

16
 1.DISPLACEMENT,POSITION &
PROXIMITY
• Displacement sensors are concerned with the
measurement of the amount by which some
object has been moved.
• Position sensors are concerned with the
determination of the position of some object in
relation to some reference point.
• Proximity sensors are a form of position sensor
and are used to determine when an object has
moved to within some particular critical distance
of the sensor. They are essentially devices
which give on/off outputs.
 1.1 Potentiometer Sensor

• Potentiometer is one of the common sensors for position

measurements.
• It relates the change in position (linear or rotary) into the change in
resistance, as shown in Figure a and b
 Cont….
• The resistance change is then converted to a
proportional voltage change in the electrical circuit of the
sensor.
• Hence, the relationship between the measured physical
variable, translational displacement x or rotary
displacement θ, and the output voltage for a ideal
potentiometer is

where the sensitivity, (k * Vr ) , of the potentiometer is a function of the winding

resistance and physical shape of the winding.
Potentiometer Picture
 1.2 Strain Gauge
• Strain gauge: it is an electrical conductor whose resistance changes as it is
strained.
• Structure of Strain Gauges
There are many types of strain gauges. Among them, a universal strain gage
has a structure such that a grid-shaped sensing element of thin metallic
resistive foil (3 to 6μm thick) is put on a base of thin plastic film (15 to 16μm
thick) and is laminated with a thin film.

Laminate film

Metallic resistive foil

(sensing element)

Plastic film (base)

• Principle of Strain Gages
Cont.…
• The strain gage is tightly bonded to a measuring object so that the sensing
element (metallic resistive foil) may elongate or contract according to the
strain borne by the measuring object.
• When bearing mechanical elongation or contraction, most metals undergo a
change in electric resistance.
• The strain gage applies this principle to strain measurement through the
resistance change. Generally, the sensing element of the strain gage is
made of a copper-nickel alloy foil.
• The alloy foil has a rate of resist-ance change proportional to strain with a
certain constant.
Let’s express the principle as follows:
ΔR = K.ε
R
where, R: Original resistance of strain gage, Ω (ohm)
ΔR: Elongation- or contraction-initiated resistance change, Ω (ohm)
K: Proportional constant (called gage factor)
ε: Strain
 1.3Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)

Principle of LVDT:

LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and

the displacement which is a non-electrical energy is
converted into an electrical energy.
And the way how the energy is getting converted is
described in working of LVDT in a detailed manner.
 Cont.…
• Construction of LVDT:
• LVDT consists of a cylindrical
former where it is surrounded by
one primary winding in the centre
of the former and the two
secondary windings at the sides.
Working of LVDT: Case 1:

On applying an external force which is the displacement,

if the core reminds in the null position itself without
providing any movement then the voltage induced in both
the secondary windings are equal which results in net
output is equal to zero

Esec1-Esec2=0
 Working of LVDT: Case 2:

When an external force is applied and if the steel iron

core tends to move in the left hand side direction then
the emf voltage induced in the secondary coil is greater
when compared to the emf induced in the secondary coil
2.
Therefore the net output will be
Esec1-Esec2
 Working of LVDT: Case 3:

When an external force is applied and if the steel iron

core moves in the right hand side direction then the emf
induced in the secondary coil 2 is greater when
compared to the emf voltage induced in the secondary
coil 1.
The net output voltage will be
Esec2-Esec1
Advantages of LVDT:
1)Infinite resolution is present in LVDT
2)High output
3)LVDT gives High sensitivity
4)Very good linearity
5)Ruggedness
6)LVDT Provides Less friction
7)Low hysteresis
8)LVDT gives Low power consumption.
Applications of LVDT:

1)LVDT is used to measure displacement ranging from fraction

millimeter to centimeter.
2)Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can be used as a device
to measure force, weight and pressure, etc..
Characteristics of LVDT:
 1.4 Optical Encoder
What is an encoder?
• An encoder is a device which converts a mechanical information of
a shaft or position into an electrical signal.

Encoder
 Cont.…
How is this accomplished?
As the code disc rotates, it shutters light from the LED and is received and
transmitted as square\sine waveforms

Receiver / Sensor

Code disc

Lens

Transmitter / LED

Shaft
 Cont.…
Types of Encoders

Encoder

Rotary Encoder Linear Encoder

Incremental Absolute Wire Draw Linear with Scale

Incremental Absolute
 Cont.…

incremental encoders Absolute encoders

 Cont.…

diode diode
Logical 0 Logical 1

Photo sensor Photo sensor

•Rotating disk •Rotating disk

blocking light allowing light through
•Photo sensor has a •Photo sensor has a
low logic output high logic output

•Continuous train of pulses formed as the photo sensor traverses

between logic high and logic low in response to the rotation of the disk
Absolute Optical Encoder
Absolute Optical Encoder
 1.5 Pneumatic Sensor
• Pneumatic sensors are displacement sensors and use compressed air
to measure the displacement of objects. Whenever the body whose
displacement we want to measure changes its position will result in
the change in air pressure.
• If we look at the working of pneumatic sensor, we have low pressure
air escape from the port in front of sensor. If we don’t have any object
in front of sensor, this air will escape and reduce air pressure in the
nearby output port. But if we have an object in the path of compressed
air then air will escape and increase air pressure at sensor output
port. The rise in output pressure depends upon the closeness of the
object.

These sensors
are used to
work for short
range
applications
ranging from 3
mm to 12 mm.
 1.6Hall Effect Sensor

• A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in

response to a magnetic field. Hall effect sensors are used for
proximity switching, positioning, speed detection, and current sensing
applications.
 2Velocity sensors
2.1 Tachogenerator
 The semiconductor element and the magnetic source are fixed relative to one another in a single
package.

 By moving the ferromagnetic member into the air gap between the magnetic source and the
semiconductor element, the flux linkage can be altered. This changes Vo.

 Suitable both as an analog proximity sensor and as a limit switch.

 The relationship between the output voltage Vo and the distance of a Hall effect sensor measured
from the moving member is non linear. Linear Hall effect sensors use calibration to linearize their
outputs.

DIGITAL TACHOMETER
WHERE USED:
DIGITAL TACHOMETER AS A MEASUREMENT DEVICE
 2.2Pyroelectric Sensor
This charge leaks away through the measurement circuit until the
charge on the crystal once again is balanced by the charge on the
electrodes.
 Cont.…
Pyroelectric (from the Greek pyr, fire, and electricity) materials, e.g.
lithium tantalate, are crystalline materials which generate charge in
response to heat flow.

Polarising a pyroelectric material

The effect of
temperature on the
amount of polarisation.
 Cont.…
The pyroelectric sensor thus behaves as a charge generator which
generates charge when there is a change in its temperature as a result of
the incidence of infrared radiation.

For the linear part of the graph shown below , when there is a
temperature change the change in charge is proportional to the change in
temperature.
 Cont…

When the sensor is idle, both slots detect

the same amount of IR, the ambient
amount radiant from the room or walls or
outdoors. When a warm body like a human
or animal pass by, it first intercepts one half
of the sensor, which causes a positive
differential change between t two halves.
When the warm body leaves the sensing
area, reverse happens, whereby the sensor
generate negative differential change.
Dual pyroelectric sensor
 3.FORCE SENSOR
3.1 Strain Gauge Load Cell
• A load cell is a “load transducer” which converts the weight or load acting on it
into electrical signals.
• A load cell is composed of an aluminum alloy spring element, strain gauges
(serving as sensors) and a bridge circuit.
• The strain gauges themselves are bonded onto four areas which become
considerably distorted in the spring element. The load cell detects the force of
the distortion as voltage change.
 4.PRESSURE SENSOR
4.1 Diaphragm LVDT WITH
DIAPHRAGM
4.2 BELLOWS
4.3TUBE PRESSURE SENSOR

BOURDON
TUBE
 4.4Piezoelectric actuators and sensors

Piezoelectric effect
(sensor)
An electric field is generated
due to a change in dimensions
of a material
(Curie brothers 1880)

Converse Piezoelectric effect

(actuator) + -
A change in dimensions of
a material due to the
Application of an electric field

- +
 Polarisation of a piezoelectric material
• Subject a piezoelectric material to a large voltage near the Curie temperature
then the dipoles align

dipole

• Curie temperature is the temperature above which the material loses its
piezoelectric property
 Practical Accelerometer Designs
Compression Type

 Advantages  Disadvantages
– Few Parts / Easy to Fabricate – Very high thermal transient
– High Resonant Frequency sensitivity
– High base strain sensitivity
 Piezoelectric Force Transducer

Preload stud

Electrical output

Piezoelectric element

• Can be used in tension and compression

• Fragile to moments
PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS
4.5 Tactile Sensor
• The term tactile sensor usually refers to a transducer that is sensitive to
touch, force, or pressure.
• The term tactile sensor usually refers to a transducer that is sensitive to
touch, force, or pressure.
• Tactile sensors are useful in a wide variety of applications
for robotics and computer hardware and even security systems.
5. Level Sensor
Cont.…

CAPACITIVE
METHOD

BALL
FLOAT
 6.Signal Conditioning
• Signal conditioning is the operation
performed on the signal to convert them to
a form suitable for interfacing with other
elements in the process control
 6.1Signal-level and bias changes

• The method to adjust the level

(magnitude) and bias (zero value) of
voltage signal
• For example

0.2 V – 0.6 V 0V–5V

Signal conditioning circuit
0.2 V – 0.6 V 0 V – 0.4 V 0V–5V
Zero shift Amplification
 6.2Linearization

• Often, the
characteristic of a
sensor is nonlinear
• Special circuit were
devised to linearize
signals
• Modern approach is
to use computer
software to linearize
 6.3Conversion

• The circuit to covert one form of signal or

physical values into the other form
– Resistance to voltage
• Typical conversion is to convert resistance
or voltage to 4 to 20 mA and convert back
to voltage at the receiving end
• Thus, voltage-to-current and current-to-
voltage circuits are essential
 6.4Digital Interface

• The use of computer is process control

requires the conversion of analog to digital
signal
– ADC
– DAC
 6.5Filtering
• Some signals input are spurious (contain more than 1 frequency)
• It is necessary to filter the frequency matched with the devices
• Example
– Highpass, lowpass, bandpass filter
– Band Pass Filters passes signals within a certain "band" or
"spread" of frequencies without distorting the input signal or
introducing extra noise. This band of frequencies can be any
width and is commonly known as the filters Bandwidth.
 Cont.…
• The passive filter networks use only passive elements such as
resistors, inductors and capacitors.
• The active filter circuits use the active elements such as op-
amps, transistors along with the passive element.
• Modern active filters do not use inductors as they are bulky,
heavy & non-linear.
• The inductors generate the stray magnetic fields. They
dissipate considerable amount of power.
 PASSIVE FILTERS
Four types of filters - “Ideal”

lowpass highpass

bandpass bandstop
 Realistic Filters:

lowpass highpass

bandpass bandstop
 Basic Active Filters
Low pass filter High pass

C R fb

R fb C R in
+
+ R in +
V in +
V in _ VO
_ V O
_
_

Band pass filter

R C 2
1

C 1 R 2 R fb
R 1 R 2
R i
+
V in
_ +
V O
_
 BAND STOP FILTER

C 1

R 1
R 1

R fb

R 2 R i
+ C 2 +
V in V O
_
_
 6.6Impedance Matching

• Connecting the sensors or process control

element with different impedance causes
signal reflection
• The network or circuit to match impedance
thus to reduce signal reflection
 6.7Concept of Loading

• When the sensor or circuit is connected to

load, this will introduce the uncertainty in
the measurement (amplitude of voltage)
• The output voltage is calculated using
voltage division as
 RL 
Vy = Vx  ÷
R
 L + R x 

 Rx 
= Vx 1 − ÷
 R L + R x 

• Output voltage is reduced by the voltage

drop
• To reduce the uncertainty, RL ≥ Rx
 7.Data acquisition
• Data acquisition (DAQ) is the process of measuring an
electrical or physical phenomenon such as voltage,
current, temperature, pressure, or sound with a
computer.
• Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals
that measure real world physical conditions and
converting the resulting samples into digital numeric
values that can be manipulated by a computer
 A DAQ system
Cont.… consists of sensors,
DAQ measurement
hardware, and a
computer with
programmable
software. Compared
to traditional
measurement
systems, PC-based
DAQ systems
exploit the
processing power,
productivity,
display, and
connectivity
capabilities of
industry-standard
computers
providing a more
powerful, flexible,
and cost-effective
measurement
Data acquisition system
Measurement Errors
 What is Error ?

 It is difference between indicated or

measured value and true value.

 It is impossible to made measurement

with perfect accuracy

VISHAL NAIR
Measurement Errors
 Types (Classification of Errors)

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Measurement Errors
 Gross errors
• Human mistakes
• Careless readings, mistake in recordings,
• improper application of instrument
• Can not treated mathematically
• Can be avoided only by taking care in reading
and recording

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Measurement Errors
 Systematic error
• Have definite magnitude and direction.
• Can be repeated consistently with repetition of
experiments.
• To locate these errors: repeated measurements
under different conditions or with different
equipment or possible by an entirely different
methods.

VISHAL NAIR
Measurement Errors
 Instrumental error
 Due to design or construction /assembly of
instruments
 Limiting accuracy
 Improper selection of instrument
 Poor maintenance
 For Ex. Errors due to friction, wear, slips,
vibration
 Errors due to incorrect fitting of scale at zero,
non-uniform division of scale, bent pointer.
VISHAL NAIR
Measurement Errors
 Operational error
 Misuse of instrument
 Poor operational techniques
 For Ex. Errors in flow measurement if flow-
meter is placed immediately after a valve or
a bend.

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Measurement Errors
 Environmental errors
 due to conditions external to the measuring
instrument, including conditions in the area
surrounding the instrument,
 such as effects of change in temperature,
humidity, barometric pressure, or magnetic
or electrostatic fields.
 For ex. Buoyant effect of the wind causes
errors on precise measurement of weights by
pan balance.
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Measurement Errors
 Environmental errors
 These errors may be avoided by
 (i) Use instrument under conditions for
which it was design and calibrated. This
atmospheric condition can be maintain by air
conditioning.
 (ii) Provide sealing certain components in
the instrument.
 (iiii) Make calibration of instrument under
the local atmospheric conditions
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Measurement Errors
 System interaction errors
 Interaction between system (to be measured)
and instrument body. So it change the
condition of the system.
 For Ex. A ruler pressed against a body
(system) resulting the deformation of the
body.

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Measurement Errors

 Observation errors :
 Due to poor capabilities and carelessness of
operators.
• i. Parallax : These errors may arise when the pointer and scale not
in same plane or line of vision of observer is not normal to the
scale.

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Measurement Errors
 Observation errors :
 Due to poor capabilities and carelessness of
operators.
ii. Personal bias: Observer tendency to read high
or low, anticipate a signal and read too
iii. Wrong reading,
wrong
calculations,
wrong recording
data, etc.
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Measurement Errors
 Random Error
 Accidental in their incidence
 Variable in magnitude and usually follow a
certain statistical (probability) law.
 Friction and stickiness in instrument
 Vibration in instrument frame or supports
 Elastic deformation
 Large dimensional tolerances between the
mating parts.
 Supply power fluctuations
 Backlash in the movement.
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End Of Module 5

VISHAL NAIR
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
MES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
PH: +91 9544487260

VISHAL NAIR