MODULE 5: UNDERSTANDING THE BIG THREE:
LIMITS, TOLERANCE, AND POPULATION
LAW OF LIMITS, TOLERANCE, AND POPULATION
DYNAMICS
Limiting factors vs. Law of Tolerance
According to the National Geographic, a limiting factor
is anything that drives a population's size and slows or
stops it from growing. Some examples of limiting factors
are biotic (e.g. food, mates, and competition with other
organisms for resources) and abiotic (e.g. space,
temperature, altitude, and amount of sunlight available
in an environment). They are usually expressed as a
lack of a particular resource. Examples:
1. if there are not enough prey animals in a forest
to feed a large population of predators, then
food becomes a limiting factor
2. if there is not enough space in a pond for a large
number of fish, then space becomes a limiting
factor
 Limiting factors: environmental factors that
limit the size and growth of a population (ppt)
 Density-Dependent Limiting Factors are factors
that are affected by the number of individuals
in a given area
 Tend to affect larger populations more (ppt)
Limiting factors can also be classified as biotic or abiotic:
There can be many different limiting factors at work in a
single habitat, and the same limiting factors can affect
the populations of both plant and animal species.
Ultimately, limiting factors determine a habitat's
carrying capacity, which is the maximum size of the
population it can support.
Carrying Capacity
 Carrying Capacity: the maximum number of
individuals of a particular species that the
environment can normally and consistently
support
 An environment has a specific carrying capacity
for each different species
 The actual population size of a species is
normally either above or below the carrying
capacity
 If the population size gets much larger than
carrying capacity some limiting factor will bring
the population size back down
Law of Tolerance (Shelford’s Law) as a law stating that
the abundance or distribution of an organism can be
controlled by certain factors such as climatic,
topographic and biological requirements where levels of
these exceed maximum or minimum limits of tolerance
of that organism.
At this point, the population of our humankind which
may continue to shoot up statistically, but limited
access to the basic resources such as food, water and
shelter, not to mention also the competition that exist
among the people for whatever and whenever
resources are available, would dictate that changes in
population size (dynamics). Population dynamics refers
to changes that are predicted to occur in the members
of the population, which is significant for the
interpretation of survey data (census) for population
regulation.
Population is a group of individuals of the same species
that live together in a region. Members of the same
population rely on the same resources, are influenced
by similar environmental factors, and are bred with one
another.
 Population – all of the individuals of a species
that live together in one place at one time.
 Demography – the statistical study of
populations. It is used to predict how the size
of a population will change.
It can be measured in terms of size, age structure and
dispersion: ??
 Exponential growth curve: population growth plotted
against time.
Population Structure and Spatial Distribution
 As a population gets larger, it also grows at a
Natality and Mortality / Immigration and Emigration
faster rate.
There are factors affecting population size. These are  This is the maximum population growth under
the following: ideal circumstances.
 Includes plenty of room for each member,
a. Natality (Birth) – refers to the number of
unlimited resources (food, water) and no
individuals which are born alive. Usually it is
hindrances (predators).
measured as crude birth rate which is equal to
 Fact: No population exhibits this type of growth
the number of live births per 1,000 mid-year
for long.
total population
b. Mortality (Death) - refers to the number of Logistic model: This model accounts for the declining
individuals who die. Usually it is measured as resources available to populations as they grow.
crude death rate which is equal to the number
 It assumes the birth and death rates are not
of deaths per 1,000 mid-year total population
constant.
c. Immigration – number of individuals that enters
 As the population grows, births decline, and
a population
death rises.
d. Emigration – number of individuals that move
 Eventually birth=death so the population stops
out of a population
growing.
Population growth rate
Two models of population
 refers to the amount by which a population’s
size changes in a given time which may be
computed as:

(Birth rate + Immigration) – (Death rate + emigration) =

growth rate

 Define as the increase in the number of

individuals in a population. 
 A hypothetical population that has key
characteristics of the real population being
studied.
 Used by demographers to predict how a
population will grow.

Predicting Population Growth, con’t

 Nearly all populations will tend to grow

exponentially as long as there are resources
available.
 Two of the most basic factors that affect the
rate of population growth are the birth rate,
and the death rate.
 r (rate of growth) = (birth rate+ immigration) –
(death rate + emigration)
 a. The Exponential curve (also known as a J-curve)
occurs when there is no limit to population size.
b. The Logistic curve (also known as an S-curve)
shows the effect of a limiting factor (in this case
the carrying capacity of the environment).
Population Growth Strategies
There are 2 ways a population can prosper:
1. Depends on the rate of growth (r)
2. Influenced by the carrying capacity (K)
r-strategists: characterized by exponential growth,
which results in temporarily large populations, followed
by sudden crashes in population size. Ex. Insects,
bacteria, some plants
 live in unpredictable and rapidly changing
environments
 Reproduce quickly when conditions are
favorable
 Many offspring: small, mature rapidly, no
parental care
 r = rate of growth
K-strategists: characterized by a high degree of
specialization. Ex. Trees, whales, tigers, etc.
 Live in stable and predictable environments
 Can compete effectively
 Reproduce late in life
 Few offspring: large, mature slowly, often much
parental care
 K = carrying capacity
Human Populations:
 K- strategist characteristics
 In recent times however, man has learned to
expand the carrying capacity of his environment
by increasing food supply, combating pests and
curing diseases.
Can Earth support this increase?
 Damage to the planet will eventually reduce the
carrying capacity for humanity and slow the
growth of the human population.
AGE STRUCTURE refers to the number of percentage of
males and females in young, middle, and older groups
or decreases. This is an important factor in determining
whether the population of a country increases or
decreases.
This is constructed by population experts into three (3)
age categories:
1. Pre-reproductive (ages 0-14) – consisting of
individuals normally too young to have children
2. Reproductive (ages 15-44) – consisting of those
normally able to have children
3. Post-reproductive (ages 45 and older) – with
individuals normally too old to have children
Dispersion describes the distribution of individuals
within the population and may be random, uniform or
clumped
Factors Affecting Human Population
 Socio-economic: poverty, lack of recreation,
lack of Education
 Political
 Cultural
Types of Population Dispersion
Figure 5.2
Population Growth Patterns and Carrying Capacity
Figure 5.3 Types of Growth rate
Population density – a measure of how crowded the
population is or the number of individuals in relation to
space. For example, the 2019 population density in the
Philippines is 363 people per Km2 (939 people per mi2),
calculated on a total land area of 298,170 Km2 (115,124
sq. miles).
Reproductive Strategies and Limiting Factors
There are factors that limits the growth of a population
and this may be classified into density dependent and
density independent factors. Limiting factors such as
competition, are density-dependent because the effect
on each individual depends on the number of other
individual present in same area. Bad weather and fires
are density-independent because the effect on each
individual does not depend on the number of other
individuals present in the same area.
Reproductive Strategies:
r-selected – an exploiter of short-duration habitats;
staying below its carrying capacity and the operation of
density-dependent regulatory processes are of low
importance in its strategy. Examples are the following:
mice, rabbits, weeds and bacteria, which have a lot of
offspring, but a short life expectancy.
K-selected – relatively Low reproductive rate; stays
below its carrying capacity and density-dependence is
likely to be important in its population process.
Examples of organisms undergoing K-selection are
humans, elephants, people, and monkeys in which their
offspring are few but long-lived.
Climax Population and Ecological Succession
The structure and species composition of communities
and ecosystems change in response to changing
environmental conditions through a process called
ecological succession
Global Human Population
In 2020, the United Nation projected that the world
population will reach an estimate of 7.8 billion and by
year 2021, there will be 11 billion people worldwide.
Figure 5.4 shows the total population from 1950-2100.
Briefly, the ten (10) key findings of the report of World
Population Prospects 2019: Highlights as excerpted are
the following:
1. The world’s population continues to increase,
but growth rates vary greatly across regions.
2. Nine countries will make up more than half of
the projected population growth between now
and 2050.
3. Rapid population growth presents challenges
for sustainable development
4. In some countries, growth of the working age
population is creating opportunities for
economic growth.
5. Globally, women are having few babies, but
fertility remains high in some parts of the world.
6. People are living longer, but those in the
poorest countries still live 7 years less than the
global average.
7. The world’s population is growing older, with
persons over age 65 being the fastest -growing
age group.
8. Falling proportions of working-age people are
putting pressure on social protection systems.
9. A growing number of countries are experiencing
a reduction in population size.
10. Migration has become a major component of
population change in some countries.
Figure 5.4 United Nations’ World Population
Projections (1950-2100)
Based on the analysis of experts, the following are some
of the key environmental problems that were identified
whether this projected estimate of 3 billion people after
year 2020 and beyond, will receive adequate standard
of living without producing much devastation to the
environment:
Overpopulation – because of the sharp increase in
number of people in developing countries; and
Overconsumption – because of high rates of resource
use per person in developed countries; if this is wasteful
and excessive, can intensify the environmental impact
or ecological footprint.
Technological advances – have allowed the humankind
to overcome the environmental resistance that all
populations face and to increase the earth’s carrying
capacity to our advantage.
Population Dynamics and Sustainable Development
Goals
Accordingly, the population, consisting of people all
over the world, is at the center of sustainable
development. The four global demographic
‘megatrends’ such as population growth, population
ageing, migration and urbanization, were identified to
have important implications to economic, social
development and environmental sustainability. The
report of the United Nations on World Population
Prospects (2019) would have shown that majority of the
fastest growing populations are dwelling in the poorest
countries and they are causing too much pressure on
already strained resources and challenging policies
aiming for sustainability and inclusivity.
landscapes within biomes, and biomes within the
biosphere”.
Biodiversity
 is the shortened form of two words "biological"
and "diversity".
 simply means the diversity, or variety, of plants
and animals and other living thins in a particular
area or region.
 Also means the number, or abundance of
different species living within a particular region

Therefore, one of the recommendations of the UN Types of Biodiversity: (ppt)

World Population Prospect Highlights report (2019) is 1. Habitat diversity
for societies to adapt to demographic realities in - Different habitats, niches, species interactions
anticipation of future trends as well as incorporation of - An assemblage of different species living in the
that information into Government policies and same area and interaction with the
planning. They also emphasized that inclusive growth is environment.
needed to support a projected population of 835 million - The number of habitats in an ecosystem or
people from 2019 up to 2030. Remember that 2030 is biome
the date that targets to achieve the 17 SDGs. - Example: Coniferous Forest meeting a meadow
and Ocean meeting a beach
2. Species diversity
MODULE 6: - different kinds of organism, relationship among
UNDERSTANDING BIODIVERSITY, HEALTH, AND species
ECOSYSTEM STABILITY - refers to the number of kinds of species being
found
What is Biodiversity?

In this topic, you will be connecting biodiversity, health,

and ecosystem stability by understanding their
definitions. The term biodiversity or biological diversity
notably has been defined in many ways, but the two
most acceptable definitions will be presented here
accordingly:

1. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992:

“The variability among living organisms from all sources

including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine, and other
aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of
which they are part; this includes diversity within
species, between species and of ecosystems.”

2. EO Wilson 1998:

“The variety of life at every hierarchical level and spatial

scale of biological organizations: genes within
populations, population within species, species within
communities, communities within landscapes,
 3. Genetic diversity - Industrialized nations make up 25% of the
- different genes and combinations of genes world’s population but use 75% of its resources.
within populations - US makes up only 5% of world’s pop--causes
- allows population of a species to adopt to 33% of world’s pollution!
environmental change
- The range of genetic material present in the
population of a single species
- Genetic diversity of potato in India

Threats of Biodiversity (How humans are negatively

impacting biodiversity):

1. Habitat destruction/fragmentation
2. Population growth
- Increasing population means greater demand
for food, shelter, fuel and water.
- This often leads to habitat loss, pollution,
resource scarcity and overconsumption (in
areas with enough money)
- Humans are coming into greater (more
frequent) contact with previously wild areas
with high biodiversity

3. Pollution
- Pollution can alter the habitat to the point
where some plants and animals will not be able
to adapt.
- Global Climate Change-many species are
intolerant to changes in temperature--affects
feeding relationships and breeding patterns.
- Acid rain/Air pollution-these types of issues do
not respect borders. US acid rain fell in Canada
destroying sugar maple forests which upset the
amount/quality of maple syrup produced.
4. Invasive Species
5. Overconsumption

- Individuals consuming way more resources than

needed to survive – sometimes more than is
needed for a high standard of life
Hence, biodiversity encompasses variety of biological respiratory and uro-genital tracts, contributes
life at more than one scale (see also Fig. 6.2A). to our nutrition, can help regulate our immune
system, and prevent infections.

The different levels of biodiversity are the following:

What is ecosystem stability?
 Genetic Diversity – the variety of genetic
material within a species or a population Ecosystem
 Ecosystem Diversity – the variety of terrestrial
Biodiversity at the ecosystem level refers to the variety
and aquatic ecosystems found in an area or on
of living organisms interacting with each other and their
the earth
physical environment and conservation of biodiversity
 Species Diversity – the number and abundance
of species present in different communities
 Functional Diversity – the biological and
chemical processes such as energy flow and
matter recycling needed for the survival of
species, communities, sand ecosystems

What is health?

Health, according to the World Health Organization

(WHO), is a state of complete physical, mental, and
social well-being and not merely the absence of disease
or infirmity. It is also:

1. one of the most basic human rights,

2. one of the most important indicators of
sustainable development and,
3. the conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity is vital for the continue functioning
of ecosystems at all scales as well as for the
delivery of ecosystem services that are essential
for human health.

The links between biodiversity and health are

manifested at various spatial and temporal scales. In
fact, the interconnection of biodiversity, human health
and the respective policies and activities can be traced
from planetary-scale biomes to human microbial
interactions:

 At planetary scale- biodiversity and ecosystems

play a critical role in determining the state of
the Earth System, regulating its material and
energy flows and its responses to abrupt or
gradual change.
 At a more intimate level, the human at the ecosystem level deals with the management of
microbiota – the symbiotic microbial these interactions.
communities present on our gut, skin,
An ecological system (or ecosystem) is a network of
interactions among living organisms and between these
organisms and their local environment.
As the basic unit of interest in the study of ecology, an
ecosystem has often been referred to as one of the
larger entities in the biological hierarchical scale or
ascending levels of organization in biology (e.g. cells-
tissues-organs-organisms-populations-species-
communities-ecosystems-landscape-biosphere).
Characteristics of an ecosystem:
 Ecosystems have structures with physical
(abiotic) and biological (biotic) components,
spatio-temporal patterns (e.g. vertical layering
seasonal changes) and some degree of
predictability (e.g. ecological succession,
seasonal migration).
 Ecosystems carry on multiple, interdependent
processes (e.g. photosynthesis, decomposition,
nutrient cycling, interactions among trophic
levels in the food chain.
 Ecosystems are dynamic. They are regulated by
biological, physical, and social agents of change
Accordingly, the classification of ecosystems is affected
by people’s perception of the natural world. Thus, any
classification must take context into account, clearly
articulating parameters and criteria for setting
objectives and delineating the scope of an investigative
study or management strategy.
Biodiversity and ecosystem stability
The state or condition of an ecosystem is often
described within the context of ecological integrity,
ecosystem health, or level of degradation:
Ecological Integrity
 An ecosystem with ecological integrity is one
that has persistence (i.e capable of sustaining
the functioning of the communities) and
adaptability (i.e capable of enduring stress
through recovery, regeneration or modification
 Ecosystems that have lost their ecological
integrity are considered “biologically dead”
Healthy Ecosystems
 A healthy ecosystem has the ability to maintain
itself with minimum human intervention and
repair itself when some natural or
anthropogenic disturbances occur
 An ecosystem is said to be healthy if it can
maintain its structure and functions over a
period of time even in the presence of
environmental stress
Degraded Ecosystems
 A degraded ecosystem is often referred to as
the one that is “unhealthy” or “deteriorated”
 An unhealthy ecosystem is one that is incapable
of maintaining its integrity over time
What are the signs of unhealthiness in terrestrial
ecosystems?
 Decline in species diversity and a shift in species
composition to more stress-tolerant species i.e.
displacement of native by alien species
 Disease outbreaks and pest infestations e.g.
pantropical disease (which could be due to
monoculture)
 A decrease in the symbionts of plant roots (e.g.
mycorrhizae)
Environmental Indicators:
 Environmental indicators are biological,
physical, chemical and socio-economic
parameters or measures used in assessing the
quality and sustainability of a given ecosystem
 It gauges the condition and vitality of an
ecosystem
Benchmark Sites:
 A yardstick against which comparisons can be
made
 Attributes of a pristine or minimally disturbed
natural area are commonly used in setting the
standards for a healthy ecosystem
Therefore, the definition of an ecosystem integrity,
stability or health is focused in general on a healthy
ecosystem:
 one that performs its various functions well
 where equilibrium is maintained
 dependent upon biodiversity
Ecosystem Approach (EA)
The Ecosystem Approach according to the Convention
on Biological Diversity (2000) is a strategy for the
integrated Management of land, water and living
resources that promotes conservation and sustainable
use in an equitable way. It further states that it is based
on the application of appropriate scientific
methodologies focused on levels of biological
organization, which encompasses the essential
structure, processes, functions and interactions among
organisms and their environment. It recognizes that
humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral
component of many ecosystems.
Ecosystem Services
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005 defined
Ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from
Ecosystems. There are different types of ecosystem,
services and they include the following (see Fig.6.2A):
 provisioning services – the products people
obtain from ecosystems. Examples: food,
freshwater, timber, fibers, medicinal plants
 regulating services – benefits obtained from the
regulation of ecosystem processes. Examples:
regulation of climate, water and some human
diseases
 supporting services – that are necessary for the
maintenance of all other ecosystem services.
Examples: biomass production, production of
atmospheric oxygen, soil formation and
retention, nutrient cycling, water cycling, and
provisioning of habitat
 cultural services – the non-material benefits
people obtain from ecosystems. Examples:
spiritual enrichment, cognitive development,
reflection, recreation and aesthetic experience
such as knowledge systems, social relations and
aesthetic values
Ecosystem services can be also classified into two based
on the benefits and functions we derived from
biodiversity:
The idea of ecosystem services, in a form of natural
capital has been included in the continuous evolution of
biodiversity concept; and generally, it is considered
more as support to environmental functions. The
ecosystem’s functions and provision of goods and
services that are essentials to human health and well-
being, are fortified by biodiversity.
Deforestation and Forest Management
Deforestation is the natural or anthropogenic that
converts forest land to non-forest (IPCC 2012).
Rehabilitation cannot fully restore the original or former
condition of a degraded ecosystem. However, it can
provide substantial opportunities for conserving
biodiversity and improving ecosystem functions,
including water management.
Rehabilitation through Reforestation in the Philippines
Has been used in the Philippines to revitalize marginal
and degraded public areas.
Performance success in reforestation by civil society is
not fully monitored but can potentially contribute to
forest rehabilitation, if properly implemented.
Use of Exotic Species in Reforestation
The Philippine forestry statistics revealed that the tree
species used in reforestation were mostly exotic
species. Examples are the following:
 Gmelina arborea (47%)
 Acacia auriculiformis (9%)
 Amazinia mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla
(9%)
 Philippine Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) (12%)
Extent and mechanisms of displacement of native
species in reforestation areas planted to exotic species
are unknown.
The use of fast-growing species in place of native
species in reforestation has persisted because of several
reasons:
 inadequate supply of native seeds/seedlings for
reforestation
 slow regeneration and growth rates of native
species
 poor appreciation or understanding of the
watershed value of natural forest stand against
that of a reconstructed forest or tree plantation
  misguided notion of the general public that
simply greening an area is as good as ecosystem
restoration
 absence of adequate data on forest biodiversity
Natural Regeneration
Pertains to the process of allowing an ecosystem to
recover on its own through natural succession. From the
biodiversity point of view, natural regeneration is the
most appropriate rehabilitation method but only when
the protection of the rehabilitation is sustained.
Ecological enrichment through agroforestry
Ecological enrichment is a method used to
repair/rebilitate degraded areas through certain
approaches, such as agroforestry.
Rehabilitation of forest reserves and Protected areas
Planting native wild food plants in the rehabilitation of
protected areas in the Philippines can attract seed-
dispersing birds and mammals. It can also serve as a
physical barrier to the influx of unwanted species into
the forest interior.
Slash-and Burn Agriculture-deforestation in Philippine
uplands often begins with commercial logging,
frequently followed by slash-and-burn agriculture. This
traditional form of farming is referred to as “swidden
farming” or “shifting cultivation” or locally known as
“kaingin” .It usually involves 3 basic steps: 1.) felling of
trees ( usually in second-growth forests and logged-over
areas), 2.) burning of forest debris, and 3.) clearing the
site for crop production.
Forest Ecosystem in the Philippines
The Philippine forest ecosystem currently consists of
patches of old growth (primary) and second-growth
forests, ranging in size from small to quite large. The
old-growth forests, sometimes referred to as “virgin
forests”, is not in the true sense “untouched” because it
has actually been used and modified for hundreds of
years by indigenous peoples.
Lowland rainforest
 supporting more than 200-300 woody species
and numerous other species of plants and
animals, covering about 60-70% of the land area
of the country in the early 1900s.
 It is now the most degraded forest type in the
Philippines because of over-harvesting of the
highly prized timber (Philippine Mahogany) and
associated non-timber products (e.g. rattan,
wildlife) as well as the conversion of forests to
agriculture and other uses.
 Because lowland tropical rainforests have thin
topsoil and low nutrient content, the removal of
vegetation makes them highly vulnerable to soil
erosion, esp. during heavy rainfall.
Montane (mossy) forest
 Located at about 1000-3,000 meters in
elevation
 Dominated by tree species in the oak and laurel
families
 With numerous ferns and epiphytes
 With high rainfall and the trees and the forest
floor are shrouded with thick mats of moss that
excel at receiving and slowly releasing rainwater
forming the headwaters of most of the rivers in
the Philippines and play an especially important
role in hydrology
 Removal of forest often causes catastrophic
floods and landslides at this elevation but
severe drought at lower elevation.
 Grades into mossy forest or upper montane
forest.
 This forest type is sometimes called “cloud
forest” because it is often covered with rain
clouds
 Trees are stunted (2-8 meters) and twisted due
to high winds and steep terrain
 The leaves of trees are usually smaller, harder,
and thicker than those found at the lower
altitudes; forest floor is covered with slowly
decomposing organic matter.
Pine Forest
 Pine forests in the Philippines are of two-types-
one type is dominated by Benguet Pine (Pinus
insularis) in the Central Cordillera) at 1,000-
2,5000 meters elevation, and the other type is
dominated by Mindoro Pine (Pinus merkusii) in
northwestern Mindoro.
 These species are fire tolerant.
Coastal forests
  These include mangrove, beach, and karst
forests:
 The mangrove forest is dominated by
evergreen, woody trees (e.g. Rhizopora,
Avicennia), which adapt to varying levels of
salinity.
 The mangrove forest forms an interphase
between the terrestrial lowland forest
ecosystems and the marine notably seagrass
beds and coral reefs.
Beach forest
 found along sandy and gravely beaches along
the seacoast.
 It forms a narrow strip of vegetation dominated
by widely distributed species such as Terminalia
cattapa, Casuarina equisetifolia, Acasia
farnesina.
 Much of the beach forest in the country has
been indiscriminately removed to give way to
tourism and human settlement.
Karst forest
 a special forest type found in several coastal
areas in the country.
 Karst is a limestone landscape formed by
minerals in solution in natural waters
 Because soil moisture and nutrients are limiting,
only a few but highly distinctive species survive
on coastal mountains
Species Approach
Did you know that species can be used as indicators of
biodiversity and ecosystem condition?
 A single species/taxon or a species assemblage
(functional group/guild) has often been used as
indicator of the conditions of natural ecosystem
 Species richness is sometimes preferred as an
ecological indicator because of its high level of
precision
Biodiversity Indicators:
Keystone species – Is one upon which many other
species depend for biological necessities (food, shelter,
etc.). Such organisms have a vital role in ecosystem
processes because their loss or decline could result in
the collapse of biological integrity
- Examples are fruit bats and forest birds, insect
pollinators, snake, burrowing crab
Sensitive species – the disappearance of certain
organisms from a site could be an indication of their
sensitivity to habitat degradation
- Examples are Haplonycteris fischeri (bat
species), Cynopterus brachchyotis
Tolerant Species – species that can be used to assess
the extent of pollution
- Examples are green mussels
Endemic species – indicators of the status of habitats
and ecosystems
- Examples are endemic birds
Other Useful Indicators:
Umbrella Species – usually one with large habitat or
range and which exerts a major ecological influence on
the community (e.g. Pithecophaga jefferyi)
Flagship species – either plants or animals that have
captured the support and sympathy of the general
public; used as rallying calls for conservation. (e.g
Bubalus mindorensis)
Charismatic species – also nominated as flagship
species because of their appeal to the general public;
many tend to be large, brightly colored or endowed
with unique and interesting features (e.g. Pithecophaga
jefferyi).
What are the threats to Species?
The following are considered threats to species and are
also considered as drivers to the loss of biodiversity. An
acronym ‘HIPPCO’ will be used for you to easily
remember them. Again, these also affect human health
directly and through their impacts on biodiversity (see
also Fig.5.2B):
H – is for Habitat destruction, degradation, and
fragmentation
 Rate of biodiversity loss is closely linked to the
rate and extent of deforestation
 Loss of habitat has been identified as a primary
threat to about 85-90% of the birds, mammals
 and amphibians listed as threatened with
extinction
 Habitat loss in the Philippines is caused mainly
by the extensive removal of vegetation and
fragmentation of forests
 The country is considered one of the most
critical areas of global conservation concern
because of the rapid loss of vegetation cover.
I- is for Invasive Species
 An invasive species is an introduced foreign
species that has successfully established itself in
a new habitat and subsequently displaced
native populations due to competition or
predation
 They are also called as alien species, exotic or
non-native species of plants and animals
introduced, accidentally or deliberately to a
place that is not part of their natural habitat or
distributional range. Exotic species, esp. those
that were introduced to an area with no natural
predators or competitors, will flourish in their
new habitats.
What are Alien Species in the Philippines?
Invasion by alien species in the Philippines may be
attributed to one or any combination of the following
mechanisms:
1. Transport of organisms to a new habitat – this
could be between islands or countries.
2. Establishment and propagation of the alien
species in the new habitat – either natural or
man-made habitats, such as enclosures,
artificial ponds, reforestation areas, and
gardens.
3. Uncontrolled spread from initial population
over large area – either through deliberate
release or accidental escape.
Alien plants the replacement of endemic plants by alien
species, usually closely associated with deliberate
vegetation clearing, is one of the major causes of
biodiversity loss in the Philippines.
Examples:
 hagonoy (Chromolaena odorata)
 ayam (Lantana camara)
 water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes)
 cogon (Imperata cylindrica)
Alien terrestrial animals to enhance the Filipino diet
with animal protein as well as supplement the meager
income of lowland farmers, exotic animals have been
introduced in the Philippines.
Examples:
 Americal bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana)
 Golden apple snail (Pomaceae canaliculata)
 Central American cane toad (Bufo marinus)
 House mouse (Mus musculus)
 Ricefield rat (Rattus exulans)
Alien Freshwater Fish - with limited information
Examples:
 catfish from Thailand (Clarias batrachus)
 molly fish (Mollienesia latipinna)
 common carp (Cyprinus carpio)
 Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
 janitor fish (Hypostomus plecostomus)
Insect Pests – suspected to have been accidentally
introduced into forest plantations
Example:
 shoot borer (Hypsipyla robusta)
P- is for Population growth (human pressure)
 Population size increases through births and
immigration and decreases through deaths and
emigration.
 The average number of children born to women
in a population (total fertility rate) is the key
factor that determines the size of population.
P- is for Pollution
 Pollution comes in different forms (solid, liquid,
gaseous) and composition (organic, inorganic)
and causes a wide range of direct and indirect
effects on ecosystems and living organisms
including humans (plastics, organochlorines).
C- is for Climate Change
 Global warming has the potential of generating
large-scale and long-term changes in the
climate. The vulnerability of small islands is
often associated with increased occurrence of
extreme weather conditions.
O- is for Overexploitation
Exploitation of plant and animal resources is a major
direct cause of species extinctions
 Over-exploitation of forests for timber and
other non-timber products, either legally or
illegally, has decimated the native vegetation
cover
 Over-harvesting of marine and freshwater
resources
 Wild animals are over-collected for domestic
and international trade:
Domestic use and trade in wildlife – biodiversity loss
due to over-utilization of and trade in many species
 Trend may be attributed to increasing poverty,
and human population pressure, ignorance
about the limits of nature, improved hunting
technology, efficiency in transportation and
travel.
International trade in wildlife
 A lucrative business
 Wild plants and animals are sold on market
either dead or alive.
Regulation of international trade through CITES
 Primary global mechanism that regulates the
trade in wildlife across international borders
MONITORING PHILIPPINE BIODIVERSITY
The vast destruction of forest and natural water
habitats, environmental pollution and overexploitation
of the resources, usually anthropogenic in nature, has
threatened a big loss of biodiversity in the country. The
loss of biodiversity consequently results to
endangerment of species.
Nature. The National Integrated Protected Areas
System Act of 1992 (Republic Act No. 7586, NIPAS Act)
was enacted “to secure for the Filipino people of
present and future generations the perpetual existence
of all native plants and animals through the
establishment of a comprehensive system of integrated
protected areas within the classification of national park
as provided for in the Constitution” (Section 2, NIPAS
Act).
The NIPAS Act provides the legal framework for the
establishment and management of protected areas
(PAs) in the Philippines, and that the use and enjoyment
of these protected areas must be consistent with the
principles of biological diversity and sustainable
development. It is the classification and management
of all designated PAs, in order to maintain essential
ecological processes and life support systems, preserve
genetic diversity, ensure sustainable use of resources
found therein, and maintain their natural conditions to
the greatest extent possible.
Purpose. To secure for the Filipino people of present
and future generations the perpetual existence of all
native plants and animals through the establishment of
a comprehensive system of integrated protected areas
within the classification of national park as provided for
in the Constitution.
Scope. All areas or islands in the Philippines proclaimed,
designated or set aside, pursuant to a law, presidential
decree, presidential proclamation or executive order as
national park, game refuge, bird and wildlife sanctuary,

To prevent from further destruction, and in the hope of

recovering what have been lost, the Philippines have
formulated, implemented or joined international
agreements and convention to monitor its biodiversity.
Below are some important governing bodies for the
protection, preservation and conservation of natural

National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS)

wilderness area, strict nature reserve, watershed,
mangrove reserve, fish sanctuary, natural and historical
landmark, protected and managed landscape/seascape
as well as identified virgin forests before the effectivity
of NIPAS dated June 10, 1992.
Protected Areas. NIPAS shall encompass outstandingly
remarkable areas and biologically important public
lands that are habitats of rare and endangered species
of plants and animals, biogeographic zones and related
ecosystems, whether terrestrial, wetland or marine, all
of which shall be designated as "protected areas".
and their status, it is a powerful tool to inform and
catalyze action for biodiversity conservation and policy
change, critical to protecting the natural resources we
need to survive. It provides information about range,
population size, habitat and ecology, use and/or trade,
threats, and conservation actions that will help inform
necessary conservation decisions.
The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (Figure 6.3;
Table 6.1) are intended to be an easily and widely
understood system for classifying species at high risk of
global extinction.

The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria aims to:

Provide a system that can be applied consistently by

different people;

 Improve objectivity by providing users with

International Union for the Conservation of Nature
clear guidance on how to evaluate different
IUCN is a membership Union composed of both factors which affect the risk of extinction;
government and civil society organizations. It harnesses  Provide a system which will facilitate
the experience, resources and reach of its more than comparisons across widely different taxa;
1,300 Member organizations and the input of more
than 15,000 experts. This diversity and vast expertise
makes IUCN the global authority on the status of the
natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it.

Vision: A just world that values and conserves nature.

Mission: Influence, encourage and assist societies to

conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and
ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable
and ecologically sustainable.

Governance: IUCN's strength and mandate cthreome

from its diverse and powerful membership; more than
1,300 Member organizations which provide the vision
and oversight for the Union and its work.

Operation: UCN is a democratic Union that brings

together the world’s most influential organizations and
top experts in a combined effort to conserve nature and
accelerate the transition to sustainable development.

What is the IUCN Red List?

Established in 1964, IUCN’s Red List of Threatened

Species has evolved to become the world’s most
comprehensive information source on the global
conservation status of animal, fungi and plant species.

The IUCN Red List is a critical indicator of the health of

the world’s biodiversity. Far more than a list of species
  Give people using threatened species lists a
better understanding of how individual species
were classified

Convention in the International Trade of Endangered

Species of flora and fauna (CITES)

It is an international agreement between governments.

The negotiations for the convention were completed in
1973 and it came into full force in 1975 after being
signed by 132 countries. It was the first broadly
accepted global environmental agreement to use trade
measures as a way to protect the environment.