Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86

www.elsevier.com/locate/geothermics

Geochemical response to production of the Tiwi

geothermal field, Philippines
Fransiskus Sugiamana,*, Eugene Suniob, Philip Mollingc,
James Stimacb
a
Unocal Geothermal of Indonesia, Ltd., Sentral Senayan-1 Office Tower, 11th Fl.
Jl. Asia Afrika No. 8, Jakarta 10270, Indonesia
b
Philippine Geothermal, Inc., 12th Fl. Citibank Building, 8741 Paseo de Roxas,
Makati City, Philippines
c
Unocal Geothermal Technology and Services, 1160 N. Dutton Ave., Suite 200, Santa Rosa,
CA 95401, USA

Received 26 October 2001; accepted 17 June 2003

This paper is dedicated to Dr. A.P. Alcaraz, and many early geoscientists and engineers of PGI and NPC,
whose vision, creativity, and dedication fostered the development and understanding of Tiwi geothermal
system.

Abstract
The Tiwi geothermal field in Southern Luzon, Philippines, has been in commercial oper-
ation since 1979, reaching an installed capacity of 330 MW by 1981. The geochemistry of the
produced fluids has evolved through a number of reservoir processes that have been induced
by production. These include the influx of cool meteoric waters and injected fluids, the
migration of acidic fluids from the southwestern margin of the reservoir, and the development
of an extensive steam cap with associated production of superheated steam. Ancillary chal-
lenges resulting from these processes include scaling and corrosion of wellbore casings and
pipelines. The most serious problem was the massive influx of cool meteoric recharge in the
early 1980s, which drowned production in the initial development area. This recharge, how-
ever, now provides beneficial mass and pressure support to the current production area.
Despite these operational challenges and after more than 23 years of commercial operations,
the Tiwi field remains a major geothermal resource.
# 2003 CNR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Geochemistry; Reservoir; Recharge; Superheat; Scaling; Tiwi, Philippines

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +6221-5798-4568; fax: +6221-573-0991.

E-mail address: fjsugiaman@unocal.com (F. Sugiaman).

0375-6505/$30.00 # 2003 CNR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.geothermics.2003.06.004
58 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86

1. Introduction

The Tiwi geothermal field is located in Southern Luzon, Philippines, on the Bicol
Peninsula. The Philippine Commission of Volcanology (COMVOL) investigated this
area for its geothermal potential from 1964 to 1971. COMVOL prepared geologic
maps, identified surface manifestations, and drilled seven shallow wells (up to 189 m
depth) in the Naglagbong sector of the field (Fig. 1). The deepest of these wells
produced sufficient steam to run a 2.5 kW generator. An urgent need for indigenous
energy created by the global oil shock of the early seventies prompted the Philippine
government to seek out an experienced geothermal production company to com-
mercially develop Tiwi. A service contract was signed between National Power
Corporation (NPC) and Unocal’s subsidiary, Philippine Geothermal, Inc. (PGI) in
1972. Under this contract, NPC is the field owner and power generator and PGI is
the steam field operator. PGI sited and drilled the first deep exploration well in the
Naglagbong sector on the basis of geological information developed by COMVOL
and other government agencies. The well successfully tapped and proved a high-
temperature geothermal resource suitable for commercial development.
Further geologic and geophysical investigations proceeded concurrently with
development drilling in the Naglagbong area. Step-out drilling to the south and west
proved some 420 ha of productive reservoir. A 2  55 MWe initial power develop-
ment was commenced in 1975 and commercial power generation began in 1979 just
as a second round of OPEC price increases rocked world energy markets. Two fur-
ther 2  55 MWe power plants were constructed over the following 2 years and by
late-1981, 330 MW of generating capacity was in full operation (Alcaraz et al.,
1989).
The Naglagbong sector became the major production area during the initial
exploitation of the Tiwi geothermal field (Horton et al., 1981). Within the first 2
years of production, reservoir pressure decline led to rapid expansion of a steam cap
throughout the shallow reservoir. As early as 1982 cool meteoric water influx began
negatively impacting production from the Naglagbong area (Gambill and Beraquit,
1993). PGI commenced an aggressive make-up well drilling program in the western
portion of the field to maintain generation, and by 1987 the western sectors of
Kapipihan and Matalibong had replaced Naglagbong as the main production areas.
By 1983, reinjection of brine to selected infield wells was tested as a means of
minimizing the surface disposal of produced fluids. These attempts were not expec-
ted to be sustainable in the long-term due to injection breakthrough, but the practice
expedited transition to full injection. Infield injection was phased-out by 1986 in
favor of edgefield injection into southern Naglagbong. About 45–50% of waste
brine was injected back into the Naglagbong reservoir from 1984 to 1988 with a
variety of positive and negative impacts on neighboring wells (Santos and Car-
andang-Racela, 1993). Outfield injection began in early 1987, including hot brine
injection in the southeast and steam condensate injection to the north of the
Naglagbong sector. The injection capacity of these areas was progressively expanded
until 1993. Outfield injection of cold brine north of Matalibong was also imple-
mented in 1992, and fieldwide injection of produced fluids was achieved by 1993.
 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86
Fig. 1. Location of the study area. (a) Map of the Philippines showing the locations of the Tiwi field and regional tectonic features. (b) Map of the Tiwi
geothermal field showing the reservoir outline, wellhead locations and four production areas. Abbreviations: N=Naglagbong; K=Kapipihan; B=Bariis;
M=Matalibong.

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60 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86

Monitoring of geochemical trends has been instrumental in managing reservoir

change at Tiwi. Steam cap development, meteoric water influx, acid fluid produc-
tion, and injection breakthrough have all impacted the reservoir chemistry during
exploitation. This paper describes both the initial-state chemical characteristics of
the system, and the chemical changes occurring with time. Emphasis is placed on the
western side of the field, because the Bariis, Matalibong, and Kapipihan sectors
provide the current steam production. Substantial steam supply after 23 years of
commercial operations testifies to both the resilience of the reservoir, and the
diligence and ingenuity of PGI and NPC in solving operational problems.

1.1. Geology

The Tiwi field is located on the northeastern flank of Mt. Malinao, an extinct and
eroded Quaternary stratovolcano with multiple satellite domes and lava flows. The
field is located between the left-lateral Philippine fault and the Philippine trench,
which are related to subduction of the Pacific plate beneath the Eurasian plate
(Defant et al., 1990). Tiwi is divided into four geographic sectors: Bariis, Matali-
bong, Kapipihan and Naglagbong (Fig. 1). The geothermal heat sources for the field
may be associated with small dacitic to andesitic domes located south of the
Kapipihan and Bariis sectors, as well as a broader heat source beneath Mt. Malinao.
Core studies, supplemented by cuttings from other wells, reveal that the reservoir
rocks consist dominantly of andesitic lavas with lesser epiclastic and pyroclastic
rocks. In the Naglagbong area, the reservoir rocks are underlain by weakly meta-
morphosed sedimentary rocks at 1500 m mean sea level (msl), which are hot
(> 315  C) but relatively impermeable (Gambill and Beraquit, 1993). In the western
reservoir, the metamorphic basement has not been encountered to drilled depths of
about 2500 m msl.
Hydrothermal alteration at Tiwi can be grouped into argillic, propylitic, phyllic
and advanced argillic assemblages. The argillic alteration is found at the top and
sides of the reservoir as a cap rock. This alteration assemblage is dominated by
smectite clay, with lesser amounts of mixed layer illite–smectite, mixed layer smec-
tite–chlorite, quartz and calcite. The base of this cap rock defines the shape of the
top of the reservoir (Fig. 2). The thinnest cap rock is found in the northeastern part
of Naglagbong, where the reservoir top is shallowest. The reservoir top also shal-
lows locally in the North Matalibong, South Kapipihan and Bariis areas. As will be
described later, steam caps developed in these shallow zones upon exploitation. The
argillic assemblage thickens and the reservoir top deepens in the area between the
Kagumihan and Tiwi faults (Fig. 2).
The reservoir rocks are dominated by propylitic alteration, which is characterized
by epidote, illite, chlorite, wairakite and adularia, indicating a neutral-pH fluid. A
phyllic assemblage consisting of sericite, quartz and pyrite is prominent at deeper
levels in the southern part of the field. Advanced argillic alteration is found as thin
layers associated with faults in the southern part of the field and patches of
advanced argillic alteration are also found along some faults that extend to the NE.
Both high- and low-temperature advanced argillic alteration assemblages are
 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86
Fig. 2. Map of the reservoir top and major structures in the Tiwi geothermal field. Contours are in meters mean sea level (msl). Reservoir top interpreted from
changes in rock alteration, changes in temperature, and location of first productive zones.

61
62 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86

present. The high-temperature assemblage is characterized by pyrophyllite, diaspore,

alunite and dickite, which occur within the reservoir. The low-temperature assem-
blage is characterized by kaolinite, alunite and jarosite and is found in the cap rock.
These advanced argillic assemblages indicate reaction of host rocks with highly
acidic fluid (Hemley et al., 1969, 1980). Acid fluid production is not associated with
all occurrences of advanced argillic alteration, indicating that some of this alteration
is relict.
Well Mat-25, completed in the high-productivity Matalibong sector, was con-
tinuously cored from about 790–2440 m depth ( 450 to 2100 m msl), providing
samples for Unocal- and US Department of Energy-funded research on liquid-
dominated geothermal systems. Core samples allowed a more detailed under-
standing of the stratigraphy, alteration, and fracture density and orientation. Aver-
age matrix porosity in this well declines with depth from > 10% at 800 m to < 4% at
2440 m, with local correlation of high matrix porosity and highly fractured intervals
(Stimac et al., this issue). There is a dramatic decrease in the number of fractures
below 2195 m or 1855 m msl (Nielson et al., 1996). Microearthquake events also
become rare below 1500 m msl in this area. Moore et al. (2000) documented mul-
tiple stages of veining that suggest cycles of rejuvenation and waning of hydro-
thermal activity over the past 300,000 years. The most recent veining event (< 50,000
years ago) has a mineral assemblage of illite and chlorite, which is in equilibrium
with initial-state fluid chemistry and temperature (Bruton et al., 1997). Shallow core
samples of fossil silica terraces intercalated with sedimentary rocks from the
Naglagbong area also indicate multiple cycles of hydrothermal activity in the eastern
part of the system.
Major structures have been identified at the Tiwi field through aerial photo inter-
pretation, field mapping, microearthquake patterns, and lithologic offsets deter-
mined from well data. Patterns of advanced argillic alteration and acid fluid
migration are also related to faults. Although numerous structures have been map-
ped, the two structures that play the most important role in the fluid flow are the
Kagumihan and Tiwi faults (Fig. 2). They appear to transmit fluid along their strike,
but act as semi-permeable barriers between the eastern and western reservoirs.

1.2. Chemical monitoring program

During the early exploration and development phases, brine and gas analyses were
obtained from surface hot springs, pools, and fumaroles, and from produced fluids
during well discharge tests. These early data establish the pre-exploitation baseline
for the reservoir fluid chemistry. When commercial operations started in 1979, a
geochemical monitoring program was established to track chemical changes in the
reservoir fluids in response to mass withdrawal and pressure reduction. The program
includes comprehensive water and gas analyses for the production wells. Shallow
observation wells drilled in the vicinity of the Naglagbong hot spring provided data
on the chemical composition and fluid flow paths of the shallow meteoric water that
invaded the Naglagbong area. Tritium and stable isotope surveys were also con-
ducted to gain a better understanding of reservoir processes such as meteoric water
 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86 63

influx. At present, all production wells are sampled for water and gas analyses at
least four times per year while the injected fluids are sampled and analyzed twice
per year. Tritium surveys are done every other year to monitor the entry of per-
ipheral fluids, especially on the western portion of the field where most of the wells
produce only steam. Stable isotope surveys are conducted less frequently for
specific projects.

1.3. Initial state model

Measured temperature and fluid chemical trends identify at least three neutral-
chloride upflows in the Tiwi reservoir (Fig. 3). The westernmost Bariis upflow is
located in the vicinity of the B-7 well. A second upflow with distinct chemistry is
located in the southern part of the Kapipihan sector, in the vicinity of the K-21 and
K-22 wells. This upflow, known as the South Kapipihan Upflow, is separated from
the Bariis upflow by the Tiwi and Kagumihan faults. Some evidence exists for a
third upflow associated with the Naglagbong fault in the southern Naglagbong area
under initial conditions (Hoagland and Bodell, 1991). Well N-48 is the most likely
site of this third upflow based on its high measured and geothermometry temper-
atures, and nearly constant brine composition for 6 years. Since this upflow area was
progressively invaded by meteoric fluid, and there are limited data to define its
importance, more detailed discussion is unwarranted.
Upflow locations are spatially associated with major faults, and we apply the
combined conduit-barrier fault model of Caine et al. (1996) to these structures. In
this model, fault cores act as permeability barriers due to the presence of gouge,
whereas the surrounding damage zones act as conduits. This permeability model is
supported for the Kagumihan and Tiwi faults by fluid flow patterns inferred from
chemical and pressure trends with time.
Patterns in measured temperature, fluid chemistry and geothermometry, and
alteration indicate that fluid from the Bariis upflow reaches shallow levels through
the damage zone of the Kagumihan fault, and flows to the northeast through the
Matalibong sector (Fig. 3). The outflow in the north Matalibong area is indicated by
temperature reversals and the presence of deep clay alteration in M-14 and M-21.
Under initial conditions, deep upflows in South Kapipihan and Naglagbong
ascended and flowed to the northeast (Fig. 3). Numerous thermal springs occurred
in the area of intersection of Tiwi, Naglagbong and Kagumihan faults. The most
prominent chloride spring was the Aqua Pool, or Naglagbong chloride hot spring
(Fig. 3). This spring had a chloride concentration of 4100 mg/l with B/Cl ratios and
Na–K–Ca (Mg) thermometer temperatures similar to Tiwi reservoir fluid. This
spring was a surface manifestation of an outflow plume that was bounded by the
argillically-altered caprocks and the underlying metamorphic basement and is read-
ily evident in the initial-state temperature distribution (Fig. 4). The upflow and
outflow from South Kapipihan may be primarily confined to the southeast side of
the Tiwi fault. Patterns of chloride with time indicate that fluid flows parallel to the
strike of the Tiwi and Takla faults, which confirms that these faults provide
important controls on fluid flow. As the liquid level in Naglagbong dropped due to
 64
F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86
Fig. 3. Initial-state hydrologic model showing the locations of upflows, major faults, and directions of the outflows. Only wells discussed in the text are shown.
Note the outflows later became zone of recharge due to production-related pressure declines.
 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86
Fig. 4. NE-SW cross-section of the eastern side of the field showing measured initial-state temperature and major alteration type. The temperature profile
indicates that upflow fluids from South Kapipihan flowed northeast to discharge at the Naglagbong chloride hot spring prior to exploitation.

65
66 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86

production, significant influx of meteoric water occurred along faults that had
served as outflow pathway prior to exploration.
The initial chloride concentration of the Tiwi reservoir ranged between 4300 and
5000 mg/kg, except for the outflow near the Naglagbong thermal area, which had
chloride concentrations up to 6400 mg/kg. The quartz and Na–K–Ca geothermo-
meters showed an average initial reservoir temperature of 260  C with maximum
temperature of 315  C in the upflows. The initial non-condensible gas (NCG) con-
centration varies between 1.55 and 8.36 wt.% in steam, with an average of 3.13
wt.% in steam. These values are not adjusted for sampling pressure, since the ana-
lytical errors are greater than the adjustment for sampling pressure. Non-con-
densible gas is high in CO2 (more than 98 mol% in the dry gas), but low in CH4 and
NH3. The low CH4 and NH3 concentrations are inferred to be due to the paucity of
organic-rich sedimentary rocks in the Tiwi area. Geothermal systems hosted pri-
marily in volcanic, plutonic, or organic-poor sedimentary sequences are typically
low in these components, whereas systems hosted by organic-rich sedimentary rocks
have more elevated concentrations (e.g., Goff and Janik, 2002).

2. Response to production

The following sections will discuss the various reservoir processes that have
occurred during the exploitation of the Tiwi field. Attention is focussed on the
western part of the reservoir, where the bulk of current production is derived.

2.1. Naglagbong meteoric recharge

One of the major reservoir processes occurring during the early exploitation of the
field was the formation and collapse of the Naglagbong steam cap. Significant
declines in water level and pressure under extraction led to entry of overlying aqui-
fers into the reservoir along major faults. Dilution of reservoir brine at some wells
was noted almost immediately, and production declines began in this area as early as
1982, 3 years after commercial production commenced. Further studies indicated
that shallow meteoric water was entering the system along the Tiwi and Naglagbong
fault intersections in the vicinity of the Naglagbong chloride spring. Attempts to
mitigate the influx were largely unsuccessful, and steam production in Naglagbong
sector declined from 655 kg/s in 1982 to less than 50 kg/s in 1993 (Gambill and
Beraquit, 1993). While this cold influx proved fatal to production wells near its entry
point in the early 1980s, more distant wells benefited from the mass recharge and
pressure support it provided. Chemical trends and measured temperatures and
pressures indicate that this dilute fluid is heated as it traverses the Naglagbong sec-
tion of the reservoir and flows into the southern Kapipihan and Matalibong sectors.
Naglagbong meteoric recharge can easily be identified by high tritium and low
chloride concentrations (Fig. 5). The source and fluid composition of the dominant
meteoric component was characterized by sampling a series of shallow observation
wells drilled in the vicinity of the Naglagbong spring (Table 1).
 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86 67

Fig. 5. Chloride and tritium concentrations from K-11. Naglagbong meteoric recharge has resulted in
declining chloride and increasing tritium concentrations since 1986. The increase in chloride concentration
between 1981 and 1986 was due to injectate return from N-11, one of the Naglagbong infield injectors.

Table 1
Endmember chemical composition of fluids contributing to Tiwi reservoir compositiona

pH Cl SO4 Mg HCO3 Na K Ca SiO2 d18O dD 3

H

A 7.16 25 38 12 333 89 32 38 135 –4.5 –30 1.99

B 5.60 4850 61 0.06 5016 2647 783 54 638 na na 0.04
C 5.75 4300 59 0.06 7076 2441 582 40 648 –3.4 –33 0.11
D 3.20 3100 550 8.12 4650 1672 310 22 509 –2.8 –33 un
a
A=Naglagbong meteoric recharge, obtained from several observation wells at 77 m below ground
level; B=Bariis upflow; C=South Kapipihan upflow; D=acid fluid. Values represent reservoir fluid
concentrations, except for pH, which was measured from separated brine. Units are as follows: con-
centrations in mg/kg; d18O and dD in % versus V-SMOW; 3H in tritium units (TU); na=data not avail-
able; un=below detection limit (0.02 TU).

Analysis of chloride and tritium trends with time indicates that the dilution front
advanced rapidly from the Naglagbong park area into the eastern Tiwi reservoir
between 1981 to 1986 (Fig. 6). After 1986, the rate of advancement slowed due to
two factors. First, the influxing fluid had to fill a larger reservoir volume through
time. Second, the Kagumihan and Tiwi faults acted as semi-permeable barriers that
tended to confine the Naglagbong meteoric water to the Naglagbong and Kapipihan
areas. The presence of these semi-permeable barriers is supported by measurements
of the reservoir liquid level. In 1999, the liquid level in Naglagbong was 600 m
higher than the liquid level in Kapipihan over a relatively short distance (Fig. 7).
Precision gravity data also strongly suggest the presence of these barriers (Protacio et
al., 2001). Comparison of precision gravity surveys done in 1979 and 1990 shows
development and expansion of distinct gravity lows in the Naglagbong and Matalibong
 68
F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86
Fig. 6. Advance of Naglagbong meteoric recharge through time, based on chloride and tritium data. Contours represent arrival time of dilution due to MR.
Note that there was a rapid movement of meteoric recharge throughout the eastern part of the reservoir from 1981 to 1986. Advancement into the western part
of the field has been significantly slower, due to presence of semi-permeable structures such as the Kagumihan and Tiwi faults.
 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86
Fig. 7. East–West cross-section of the field showing reservoir liquid level (dashed line), based on downhole pressure and temperature surveys in 1999. A major
difference of liquid level elevation occurs between wells K-15 and N-53, indicating that the Tiwi fault forms a permeability barrier between these two wells.

69
70 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86

Fig. 8. Contour map of free-air gravity data change through time (see Protacio et al., 2001 for details).
Between 1979 and 1990 (a), a drop in gravity of 200–300 microgal occurred in Naglagbong and Matalibong,
due to shallow production in both areas. When production in Naglagbong was terminated, gravity
‘‘rebounded’’ to near its initial values, as seen in the 1979–2000 gravity change (b). In year 2000, the
maximum gravity change is 650 microgal, centered in the Matalibong area.
 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86 71

sectors due to formation of shallow steam caps in these areas (Fig. 8). However,
comparison of precision gravity surveys done in 1979 and 2000 shows that the
gravity low that had formed in the Naglagbong area decreased in size and eventually
disappeared. These trends reflect both effects of the cessation of production in
Naglagbong, and the continued ingress of meteoric water into the former Naglag-
bong steam cap. In contrast, the gravity low that had formed in the Matalibong area
has continued to expand.
The role of the Kagumihan and Tiwi faults as semi-permeable barriers is very
important for the production area in western Tiwi, because they allow a longer
residence time for the cooler Naglagbong meteoric water to equilibrate with reser-
voir rock temperatures. Examples from three deep wells in South Kapipihan (K-20,
K-21 and K-22) indicate that the meteoric water heats to approximately 1200 kJ/kg
or 270  C by the time it reaches South Kapipihan, as suggested by both Na–K–Ca–
Mg and quartz geothermometers (Fig. 9). Furthermore, measured temperatures at
K-20 confirm these geothermometer temperatures. Fluid produced by well K-20
initially exhibited increasing chloride and decreasing temperature (Fig. 10), due to
boiling and brine injection return from N-11. The boiling was also indicated by
the reduction of Ca/Cl ratio, which was probably caused by deposition of calcite in
the reservoir. The high Ca/Cl ratio in 1984–1987 was caused by brine injection
return, where the cooler injectate from N-11 dissolved calcite and anhydrite from the
country rocks and increased the calcium concentration. Meteoric recharge became

Fig. 9. Chloride-enthalpy plot for three deep wells in South Kapipihan sector: K-20, K-21 and K-22, with
enthalpy based on the Na–K–Ca–Mg geothermometer. The plot shows that mixing occurred between
South Kapipihan fluid and Naglagbong meteoric recharge with an enthalpy of 1200 kJ/kg. This enthalpy
corresponds to a temperature of 270  C. Reservoir fluid in K-20 experienced boiling and was affected by
injectate return before mixing with Naglagbong meteoric recharge (Fig. 10).
72 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86

Fig. 10. Reservoir-Cl and temperature in well K-20 with time. During early production, boiling caused an
increase in chloride. Between 1983 and 1987, infield injection at N-11 caused injection breakthrough and
increased chloride concentration. From 1987 until present, Naglagbong meteoric recharge has been
influencing K-20 and causing the chloride to decline. Chloride variation during this period is attributed to
changes in injection rate at N-25 and N-33 edgefield injectors. Boiling and injection breakthrough
decreased reservoir temperature of K-20 by 40  C. However, the reservoir temperature has been increasing
since the Naglagbong meteoric recharge arrived and began to dominate over edgefield injection.

important in this area by 1987. Measured temperatures have increased sig-

nificantly since 1994, indicating that the meteoric water from Naglagbong area is
significantly heated in transit to South Kapipihan area. After 12 years of influx
from the meteoric recharge, the measured reservoir temperature increased from
245 to 275  C in 1999. Mixing of the reservoir fluids with meteoric influx produces a
more dilute fluid with as little as 2700 mg/kg chloride. Simple mass balance calcu-
lations based on Cl indicate that 20–40% of production from this area originates as
Naglagbong meteoric recharge. Calculations based on tritium yield similar results.

2.2. Upflow or basal recharge

Integration of information on measured temperatures, brine and gas chemistry,

and decline rates indicates that there are two regions of active upflow in Tiwi in the
South Kapipihan and Bariis areas. The South Kapipihan upflow had initial tem-
peratures between 275 and 300  C and reservoir chloride between 4000 and 4500
 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86
Fig. 11. Characteristics of upflow fluid in the Tiwi reservoir. (a) Na–K–Mg ternary plot (adapted from Giggenbach, 1988) of the upflow fluids from Bariis
and South Kapipihan sectors. Plot shows that the two fluids fall near the full equilibrium line indicating mature geothermal fluid, with higher temperature in
the Bariis sector. (b) CO2–CH4–H2S ternary plot of Bariis and South Kapipihan upflows showing that the gases from Bariis contain more H2S than the gases
from South Kapipihan. Location of the wells presented in these plots can be seen in Fig. 3.

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74 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86

mg/kg, whereas the Bariis upflow had temperatures between 300 and 315  C and
reservoir chloride between 4500 and 5000 mg/kg. Chemical trends of the upflows are
compared in Fig. 11. In the N–K–Mg ternary plot from Giggenbach (1988), both
upflows are fully equilibrated geothermal fluids with the Bariis upflow plotting at a
higher temperature (Fig. 11a). The brine from the Bariis upflow contains higher SO4
than the South Kapipihan upflow, and the gas from the Bariis upflow contains more
H2S (Fig. 11b). These differences in chemistry are probably related to slightly higher
magmatic input into the upflow at Bariis.
After 7 years of production the chemistry in the South Kapipihan area has chan-
ged primarily due to the influence of Naglagbong meteoric recharge, which has
diluted the reservoir fluids. However, the temperatures in the upflow area have
remain high compared to the other wells in the vicinity. Compared with other Tiwi
wells, those in South Kapipihan produce among the highest total-mass, in part due

Fig. 12. Comparison of acid-sulfate and upflow fluid compositions in the Tiwi reservoir. (a) Chloride-
enthalpy plot showing that the acid fluid in Tiwi is more dilute and at a lower temperature than upflow
fluids. (b) Cl–SO4–HCO3 ternary plot showing that the Tiwi acid fluids are enriched in sulfate compared
with the upflow compositions. Some samples from well K-22 show the influence of the acid fluid. (c) Cl–
Mg plot showing that the magnesium concentration in the Tiwi acid fluid is much higher compared to that
of the upflows. (d) CO2–H2–H2S ternary showing Tiwi acid fluid is enriched in H2. Location of the acid
fluid wells can be seen in Fig. 13.
 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86
Fig. 13. Map of acid fluid distribution in 1982 (shaded area) and 2000 (dashed line). As the Naglagbong meteoric recharge invaded the Naglagbong area, the
acid zone was neutralized, as seen in the acid distribution for the year 2000. Only wells that show acid fluid characteristics are shown in the map. N-11, N-22

75
and N-32 are three acid wells that were used as the infield injectors from 1983 to 1986. Index map shows the location of Mt. Malinao and the possible location
of the acid aquifer.
76 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86

Fig. 14. Average chloride concentration (bold line) from M-2, M-14, M-17, M-20 and M-26 wells. Large
increases to 1993 in chloride concentration indicate extensive reservoir boiling that is not balanced by
recharge. Dashed line is the average baseline chloride concentration in the Matalibong and Bariis sectors.
Locations of these wells can be seen in Fig. 15.

to the low decline rate of pressure in this area. The higher production rates are
possibly also due to the fact that these wells, aside from being in the upflow region,
are producing from both the deep (> 900 meter below sea level) and shallow sections
of the reservoir.

2.3. Acid fluid influence

Acid-sulfate fluids that were cooler and more dilute than the upflow fluids were
identified early in the production history of the field in the Bariis and South Kapi-
pihan areas (Fig. 12a). The pH of the acid fluid ranges from 2.8 to 3.6, whereas
sulfate concentrations range between 300 and 700 mg/kg and magnesium con-
centrations between 3 and 11 mg/kg. The high sulfate is clearly indicated in the Cl–
SO4–HCO3 plot (Fig. 12b); high magnesium can be seen in the Cl–Mg plot
(Fig. 12c). The acid fluid also contains a relatively high concentration of H2, as seen
in the CO2–H2–H2S plot (Fig. 12d), although this may result in part from acid
reacting with well casings.
The distribution of this acid fluid has changed through time. A comparison of the
distribution of fluid with pH < 5 in the year 2000 versus the initial state in 1982 is
provided in Fig. 13. In the Bariis area, the acid-sulfate distribution seems to be
controlled by the Kagumihan fault, which is interpreted as the conduit for acid fluid
migration into the south Matalibong area. In the early production history, acid
 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86 77

Fig. 15. Map of western Tiwi showing distribution of wells with high reservoir-Cl due to extensive boiling
and superheat contours ( C). The most extensive region of dryout occurs in the Matalibong sector, but
smaller areas of dryout occur in the shallowest parts of Bariis and South Kapipihan (see Fig. 2).

fluids were also observed in the Naglagbong area. This acid fluid formed a tongue
that reached near the northern and eastern reservoir boundaries of the field. The
migration of the acid fluid into that area seems to be controlled by the Tiwi and
Takla faults. The acid fluids in the Naglagbong sector are likely to have been
neutralized by the influx of meteoric water.
The acid-sulfate fluid in the Tiwi reservoir is restricted to thin layers at depths
between 500 and 750 m msl, as indicated by the occurrence of advanced argillic
alteration. Since the acid fluid in the southwest Tiwi covers a relatively large area
and supplies a constant chemistry, it is believed to originate from an acid aquifer.
The acid aquifer is likely located on the flank of Mount Malinao to the south of
Tiwi reservoir (Fig. 13). S-1, an exploratory well on the eastern side of Mount
Malinao, also produced acid fluid similar to that found in southwest Tiwi. Mon-
itoring of this well indicates that it is in pressure communication with the Tiwi
reservoir, suggesting that the acid aquifer in southwest Tiwi may extend to the S-1
location.
The lower temperature, relatively depleted stable isotope composition, and dilute
nature suggests that acid fluids were possibly formed through mixing of deeply cir-
culated meteoric water with sulfur-rich gases from a magmatic heat source. The acid
aquifer fluids are thought to have descended to their current levels along faults. The
existence of acid-sulfate fluid formed through oxidation of H2S below 1 km was also
 78
F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86
Fig. 16. Map of the Tiwi field showing the locations of injection sectors and injection wells.
 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86
Fig. 17. Map of western Tiwi reservoir showing contours of tritium concentrations in tritium units (TU), based on data from 1999 and 2000. Only wells that
have tritium data are shown; named wells are discussed in the text. Dashed lines show the areas that are affected by North Matalibong and North Bariis

79
meteoric recharges.
80 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86

Fig. 18. Reservoir-Cl and excess steam from some wells that are affected by North Bariis and North
Matalibong meteoric recharges. Declines in chloride and excess steam in these wells indicate mass support
from these meteoric recharges.

observed in Karaha-Telaga Bodas, Indonesia (Moore et al., 2002), and other

Philippine geothermal systems (Reyes, 1990, 1991).
The acid fluid causes high corrosion rates in the wellbore casings, wellheads and
pipelines. Mitigation of acidic corrosion has been successful in a few cases. In the
early 1980s, well K-4 in South Kapipihan was recompleted to isolate the corrosive
production zones. The acidic entries were identified from advanced argillic alteration
at 1550 and 1615 m measured depth. The well was recompleted in 1984 by removing
the production liner and isolating the corrosive zones. Since that time, K-4 has
produced benign brine. Downhole corrosion mitigation was recently attempted in
another corrosive well, B-8 in Bariis. Commercial production of this well was
achieved by injecting dilute NaOH solution at a depth of about 1000 m through
high-alloy capillary tubing (Gardner et al., 2001). The caustic injection increased the
pH of the brine at the wellhead from 3 to 5 and decreased the corrosion rate by more
than 50%.
Field observations and chemical modeling indicate that the acid sulfate wells can
be prone to anhydrite scaling. For example, anhydrite scale was found on the liner
retrieved from K-4. The anhydrite scale formed a thin layer with a uniform coating
 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86 81

of 0.8–3.2 mm thickness over a distance of 95 m. The formation of the anhydrite in

the wellbore is believed to be caused by mixing of acid-sulfate fluid with neutral-
chloride fluid that is rich in calcium. Anydrite deposition requires at least two pro-
duction entries to the well, in which the shallower entry produces acid-sulfate fluid
and the deeper entry produces neutral pH fluid. Mixing of these fluids can occur
while the well is flowing or shut-in if internal flow develops. Two wells in the Bariis
sector developed scale while they were shut-in. Flow tests revealed that these wells
had lost productivity and obstructions were confirmed with scale probes. Although
no scale sample was collected from these wells, CHILLER and SOLVEQ modeling
(Reed, 1982; Spycher and Reed, 1988) using fluid chemistry yields results consistent
with anhydrite precipitation.

2.4. Boiling and dry-out

The combination of mass extraction and lack of shallow recharge in the western
Tiwi reservoir has significantly reduced liquid saturation in the shallow Matalibong
area. Dry-out was first indicated by geochemical evidence of extensive boiling, then
by the production of superheated steam from wells tapping the shallow reservoir.
The importance of boiling was noted as early as 1985, being manifested by increas-
ing chloride and enthalpy in some wells. In the early 1990s, boiling apparently
became more extensive as the chloride concentrations in some wells increased up to
14,000 mg/kg, triple the average of 4800 mg/kg for wells from Matalibong and
Bariis sectors (Fig. 14). The main area of concentration due to boiling in western
Tiwi is located north of the Kagumihan fault. To the south of the Kagumihan fault,
the effect of boiling is less pronounced due to the influence of Naglagbong meteoric
recharge. But, by 1994, the wells that were affected by extensive boiling began
showing a declining trend in reservoir chloride, caused by meteoric recharge from
the north and northwest as reservoir pressure and water level declined. This inter-
pretation is supported by high tritium values in this area relative to the normal
reservoir values, as will be discussed in Section 2.5.
Superheated steam has been produced from three different sectors in West Tiwi:
Matalibong, South Kapipihan and Bariis (Fig. 15). Based on geologic and reservoir
indicators of the reservoir top (Fig. 2), these areas of reservoir dry-out correspond to
cupolas on the top of the shallow reservoir. The greatest superheating is in the
Matalibong area where the largest mass extraction is occurring at present and there
is only minimal recharge into this shallow reservoir. Production of superheated
steam in this area has been observed since 1991. Smaller regions of superheated
steam occur in the South Kapipihan and Bariis areas. Meteoric recharge from
Naglagbong appears to limit the development of superheat at South Kapipihan to
the west of the Tiwi fault, whereas superheat at Bariis has not been well developed
because of low extraction rates and recharge from Bariis upflow.
In addition to increasing enthalpies, wells affected by extensive reservoir dry-out
produce steam enriched in boron and chloride, and show greater declines in both
reservoir pressure and steam production. In the year 2000, volatile chloride attained
concentrations of up to 4 mg/kg, and superheat reached values of up to 40  C in
82 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86

Matalibong. Corrosion observed in some wellbore casings and pipelines has been
attributed to attack by hydrochloric acid formed by the condensation of Cl-enriched
steam. Superheated steam has also caused scaling problems when it mixes with two-
phase fluids in wellbores and pipelines. Scale formed by this process contains silica
and evaporites such as salt. These scales have been observed where wells are tied-in
to the steam lines, and in the casings or liners of some superheated steam wells.
To mitigate these problems, PGI has implemented a corrosion monitoring and
control program and upgraded the surface facilities at Matalibong (Villaseñor et al.,
1999). Surface facility upgrades include a cascading-brine scrubbing system, new
vessels and a hot brine injection system (Kitz and Toreja, 2002). In addition, a pilot
infield injection test was conducted from March to July 2001 to provide local pres-
sure support to the shallow reservoir and mine heat from the dry-out area. The test
was aimed at reducing the superheat and volatile chloride concentration in wells
producing from the shallow reservoir.

2.5. Injectate returns

Infield injection was begun in 1983 as a means of transitioning to full injection of

waste brine and condensate. Corrosive and non-commercial wells in the Naglagbong
area, such as N-11, N-22 and N-32, were initially utilized (Figs. 13 and 16), but
injection into this area was phased out by 1986 due to negative impacts on nearby
production wells. Injection breakthrough was reflected by decreasing steam rates,
declining reservoir temperatures and geochemical signatures, such as increase in
chloride and Ca/Cl ratio, and a decrease in non-condensible gases. Examples of this
behavior are shown by N-4 and N-15, which are located north of N-22. The infield
injection caused a 40% decrease in the steam rate in N-4, and N-15 ceased flowing
due to a 22  C decrease in the downhole measured temperature (Santos and Car-
andang-Racela, 1993). However, the steam rate and temperature recovered once the
infield injection stopped. The effect of injection in N-11 was also observed in the
South Kapipihan wells, such as K-20 (Fig. 10). The injection breakthrough along
with boiling caused a 35  C temperature decline in K-20.
Injection was progressively moved to the margins of the reservoir starting in 1984.
N-23, N-25, N-33 and N-26 were initially used as the edgefield hot brine injectors.
At first, the edgefield injection was found to positively impact some of the produc-
tion wells. For example, the decline rate of K-11 was reduced from 20% per year to
9% per year, and increasing chloride concentrations indicated that the well was
producing injectate. However, injection into N-25 and N-33 adversely affected K-20.
These two injectors are relatively well connected to K-20 as shown by the chloride,
Ca/Cl ratio and injection rate data (Fig. 10). The injection rate has therefore been
limited to prevent long-term thermal breakthrough. N-26 and N-23 caused chemical
and thermal breakthrough to nearby Naglagbong producers, and injection into
these wells was terminated in 1987 and 1988, respectively.
Edgefield injection did not allow for the disposal of all separated brine. PGI
therefore drilled four outfield injection wells southeast of the Tiwi production area
in 1986 (Fig. 16). Injection into these wells began in 1987. In 1989 and 1992, PGI
 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86 83

drilled another two outfield injectors (N-70 and N-71) in the NE and converted one
existing well (N-8) in this area to injection. In 1991, an outfield injector (M-21) in the
northern part of the Tiwi reservoir was drilled to dispose of brine from Matalibong
and Bariis wells. M-1, an edgefield injector, is used as the backup injector for M-21.
By 1993, PGI achieved 100% injection in outfield and edgefield locations with
minimal detrimental effects on the production wells.
Injection capacity of some wells has declined through time, mainly due to the
deposition of silica scale in the wellbore and in the formation. PGI has performed
scale drill-outs and acid stimulations in these wells to regain injection capacity.
Despite these workovers, injection capacity has declined through time. During the
same period, brine rates from some deep production wells, such as M-19 and M-20,
have increased. PGI is utilizing selected idle wells in the Naglagbong area to offset
the deficiency. The criteria used for selecting the injection wells are the following:
adequate injection capacity, deep permeable zones that are located relatively far
from producing wells, proximity to an injection pipeline, and good wellbore and
wellhead condition. In order to minimize silica scaling, the Matalibong injection
system was converted from cold to hot brine in early 2002.

2.6. Other meteoric recharge

Tritium data collected from dry steam and two-phase wells in the Matalibong
sector indicate that about 2–10% of production from this sector is derived from
young meteoric water, but the source of this fluid is only in part derived from sour-
ces in Naglagbong. Patterns of tritium concentration indicate that other sources to
the north and northwest of Matalibong also transmit young meteoric water into the
system. The injection of water that has resided in open sumps prior to injection is
one source of the tritiated water. The tritium patterns also indicate two sources of
natural meteoric recharge, one in North Matalibong (NMat MR) and the other in
North Bariis (NBar MR) (Fig. 17).
The NMat MR was detected in one of the northernmost production wells, M-14,
from high tritium values ( > 0.2 TU) together with a chloride dilution trend (Fig. 14).
Historical data show that increases in tritium occurred as early as 1991. Dilution
was not observed until 1997, but may have been masked by increasing Cl in reser-
voir brine. Production data further support the influx of meteoric recharge. The
production enthalpy of M-14 declined along with an increase in liquid production.
Downhole temperature surveys also showed a decrease in temperature by about
11  C.
The NBar MR was also identified through relatively high tritium values (> 0.1
TU) in 1999 in wells M-2 and M-20. Chloride trends from well M-15 indicate that
this recharge fluid invaded the reservoir as early as 1990 (Fig. 18a). The declining
trend in the reservoir chloride was also observed a number of years later at M-2, M-
19, M-20 and M-26, which have relatively deeper production entries compared to
M-15. The invasion of the NBar MR is also supported by the excess steam data,
which show decreasing trend through time (Fig. 18b). It is possible that M-15 was
the first to be affected by this fluid since it has shallow entries and the MR fluids
84 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86

traveled along a north-trending structure. As extraction continued, the other wells

with deeper entries were also affected.

3. Conclusions

Exploitation at the Tiwi geothermal field has been beset by a number of opera-
tional challenges that have affected the performance of the field. However, diligent
monitoring programs by PGI were able to identify the cause of the problems and
allow for rapid solutions in order to maintain generation. These problems include
massive meteoric influx from Naglagbong sector, acid fluid influx, injection break-
through, dryout, scaling and corrosion. The meteoric water influx problems in
Naglagbong sector led to drilling production wells in west Tiwi to offset the gen-
eration loss from dying wells in that sector. The problem with acid fluids has been
dealt with successfully by casing-off acid zones or through downhole corrosion
mitigation. Injection breakthrough was minimized by moving injection or limiting
injection rate. Silica scaling in the injection wells has been managed by workover
drilling and acidizing. Injection lines to the M-1 and M-21 were converted from cold
to hot system to minimize silica scaling in the injection lines, wellbore and form-
ation. Production facilities were upgraded to address changing reservoir conditions
in Matalibong by including ‘‘brine-scrubbing’’ of steam, and by improving brine
separation efficiency (Kitz and Toreja, 2002). Infield injection testing was under-
taken to mitigate problems associated with dryout.
In addition to proactive field management, the natural response of the reservoir
helped offset some of these problems. Examples include:

 Current Naglagbong meteoric recharge provides reheated mass support to the

western Tiwi production wells. In the deep South Kapipihan area, the Naglag-
bong meteoric recharge reaches the production wells with a temperature of
270  C and the decline rates of wells from this area are nearly zero.
 The Naglagbong meteoric recharge neutralizes acid sulfate fluids in the
Naglagbong and South Kapipihan area.
 Sustained basal recharge in Bariis and South Kapipihan continues to provide
mass support to the Tiwi reservoir.
 North Matalibong and North Bariis meteoric recharge provides mass support
to the Matalibong area. This recharge mitigates excess chloride production in
Matalibong, although the shallowest reservoir in Matalibong continues to
dry-out.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Unocal and the National Power Corporation for
permission to publish this paper. Dave Rohrs, Wilson Clemente, Gil Batayola,
 F. Sugiaman et al. / Geothermics 33 (2004) 57–86 85

Yvette Ontoy (all of Unocal) and Thomas Powell (Thermochem, Inc.) provided
critical reviews and constructive suggestions. The authors are also particularly
grateful to the reviewers, Peter Barnett and Carol Bruton, for constructive sugges-
tions and improvements to the manuscript.

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