DC CIRCUIT

Direct current (DC)  A way of expressing a number in terms of

 unidirectional flow of electric charge. the power of 10.
 is produced by sources such as
batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, Example: 88,000 m = 8.8 x 104 m
and commutator-type electric
machines of the dynamo type. Engineering Notation
 is commonly found in many low-
voltage applications, especially  It is an exponential format of specifying
where these are powered by numbers in which the powers of 10 are
batteries, which can produce only limited to the multiples of three so that it
DC, or solar power systems, since corresponds to an S.I. prefix.
solar cells can produce only DC.  It is the application of decimal prefixes and
their abbreviations to simplify language
I. Basic Concepts and Fundamental Laws when dealing with very small or very large
A. Electrical Unit units.
BASE UNITS in S. I.
Example: 68,000,000 W = 68 MW
Base Quantity Name
Symbol B. Definition of terms and Linear Electric
Length meter m Circuits
Mass kilogram kg Electric Charge (expressed in Coulomb)
Time second s  The quantity of electric energy stored in
Thermodynamic Temperature kelvin K battery, capacitors, elementary particles or
Electric Current ampere A any insulated materials.
Amount of Substance mole mol  Q (constant quantity)
Luminous Intensity candela cd  q (instantaneous quantity)
Flux weber wb
Energy Joule J instantaneous - a varying quantity at a particular
Resistance Ohm Ω instant.
Inductance Henry H
Capacitance Farad F The basic unit of electricity expressed in
Conductance Siemens S Coulomb.
S.I. Unit Prefixes 1 Coulomb = 6.25 x 1018 electrons, e-
Name Factor Symbol Name Factor 1 electron = 1.602 x 10-19 coulomb
Symbol
yotta x 1024 Y yocto x 10-24 y
zetta x 1021 Z zepto x 10-21 z Electric Current
exa x 1018 E atto x 10-18 a
 A net flow of positive or negative charges
peta x 1015 P femto x 10-15 f
that passes to a given point at a specified
tera x 1012 T pico x 10-12 p
period of time.
giga x 109 G nano x 10-9 n
 A rate of transfer of electricity from one point
mega x 106 M micro x 10-6 µ
to another.
kilo x 103 k milli x 10-3 m
hecto x 102 h centi x 10-2 c  I or i
deka x 101 da deci x 10-1 d I=Q/t (constant quantity)
Scientific Notation I = dq / dt (instantaneous quantity)
 It is the shifting of the decimal point either to
the left or to the right of the given number 1 Ampere = 1 coulomb / sec
until there is only one significant digit to the
left of the decimal point and then multiplying where:
the number with the appropriate power of 10 I = Current (Amperes) A
to retain its original value. Q = Charge (Coulomb) C
t = Time (second) s

UNIVERSITY OF THE EAST – MANILA

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DC CIRCUIT

 Components which are capable of

controlling voltages to produce gain and
switching action in a circuit.

Voltage or Potential Difference a. Voltage Source

 It is the potential energy difference that  Independent voltage source
exists between two points.  Dependent / Controlled sources
 It is the amount of work done per unit b. Current Sources
charge.  Independent Current source
 Dependent / Controlled sources
V=W/Q
where: Independent Sources
V = voltage (volts) V
W = work or energy (Joules) J
Q = Charge (Coulomb) C
+
+ V - _
V I

“ The charge will not move unless you apply

the potential difference ”.
 Capable of delivering voltage or current
regardless of the network connection.

Dependent Sources
+ V - + V -

Voltage Drop Voltage Rise

+
Network -
 Defined as an interconnection of electrical
elements in which there may or may not be
at least one closed path.

Circuit
 Supplies voltage or current controlled by a
 Defined as an interconnection of electrical
variable connected in some other part of the
elements in which there is at least one
network.
closed path in which current may flow.
2. Passive Elements
 Note: A circuit is always a network but a
 Elements which are capable of absorbing
network is not always a circuit.
energy.
 Elements which are capable of storing
Conductor:
energy but does not supply energy.
 a material which offers little resistance
to current flow, e.g. silver, copper, iron,
a. Resistor - absorbs energy
etc…
b. Inductor - stores energy
c. capacitor - stores energy
Insulator:
 a material which offers high resistance Resistor
to current flow, e.g. wood, paper,
 Its function is to limit the amount of current
plastic, etc.
or divide the voltage in a circuit.
 It is also used to convert electrical energy
C. Electrical Components
into another form of energy like heat energy.
1. Active Elements
Unit: Ohm (Ω)
 Elements capable of supplying energy.
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DC CIRCUIT

Schematic symbol:  = resistivity or specific resistance of a

given material at a certain
temperature. (Ω-m)
L = length (m)
A = cross-sectional area (m 2)
Capacitor V = volume (m3)
 Its basic function is to concentrate the
electric field of voltage applied across the Resistivity of Copper at 200C
dielectric. A capacitor is constructed of two
conductor plates separated by an insulator  Standard Annealed Copper
(dielectric).  = 1.7241 x 10-8 Ω - m
Unit: Farad (f) = 1.7241 x 10-6 Ω - cm
Schematic symbol: = 10.37 Ω - cmil / ft

 Hard - Drawn Copper

Inductor  = 1.77 x 10-8 Ω - m
 Its main function is to concentrate the = 1.77 x 10-6 Ω - cm
magnetic field of electric current in a coil. = 10.65 Ω - cmil / ft
 An induced voltage is generated when the
current changes its value or direction. Mil (mil)
Unit: Henry (H)  A unit of length equivalent to one
Schematic symbol: thousandth of an inch.
1 mil = I x 10-3 in
D. Resistance of Electrical Conductors Square mil (mil2)
Resistance  A cross sectional area of a square whose
 The property of a material or circuit side is equivalent to 1 mil.
elements to oppose the flow of electrons. Circular mil (cmil)
 A cross sectional area of a circle whose
Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor: diameter is equivalent to 1 mil.
1. Length
2. Cross-sectional area 1 cmil =  / 4 sq. mil
3. Nature of the material Area in cmil = D2 = D12 x 106
4. Temperature
where:
Conductor D = Diameter in mils
D1 = Diameter in inch
A

Conductance
 The property of the material that allows
L easily the flow of current.

G = 1 / R = ___1___
L/A
RL/A
G=1/xA/L
R=L but V=AL
A G= A/L

L = V / A; A = V / L where:
G = Conductance in mho or Siemens
R=V =  L2 (S)
A2 V  = conductivity constant in S / m

Percent Conductivity
where:
UNIVERSITY OF THE EAST – MANILA
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DC CIRCUIT

% conductivity = .  material x 100% BC AO + OC

 annealed Cu
EF = T2 - T1
% conductivity = .  annealed Cu x 100% R1 /Tx/ + T1
 material EF = R1 t
Effect of Temperature on resistance /Tx/ + T1
let : 1 = 1 .

/T x/ + T1
E
therefore:
B
R2 = R1 + R1 1 t
F

R2 = R1 (1 + 1 t)
R1 R2

A
Tx
O
T1
C D
where:
T2 1 = temperature coefficient of
resistance in / ºC
 ABC   ADE
t = Change in temperature
DE = AD
BC AC Table 1. Resistivity Constant, Inferred zero
resistance temperature and Temperature
DE = AO + OD Coefficient of resistance of some common
BC AO + OC electrical material

R2 = /Tx/ + T2 Material  at 20 ºC Tx  at 20 ºC
R1 /Tx/ + T1 (Ω - m)
Silver 1.64 x 10-8 243 0.0038
therefore, Copper 1.72 x 10-8 234.5 0.00393
Aluminum 2.83 x 10-8 236 0.0039
R2 = R1 [ /Tx/ + T2 ] Tungsten 5.50 x 10-8 202 0.0045
[ /Tx/ + T1 ] Nickel 7.80 x 10-8 147 0.006
Iron 12.0 x 10-8 180 0.0055
Constantan 49.0 x 10-8 0.000008
where:
Nichrome 110 x 10-8 6250 0.00016
R1 = Resistance at temperature T1
Carbon -0.0005
R2 = Resistance at temperature T2
T1 = Initial Temperature
Resistor Color Coding
T2 = Final Temperature
Tx = Inferred zero resistance
temperature
= Inferred absolute zero temperature

Inferred zero resistance temperature (Tx)

 The temperature in which the material
inhibits zero resistance or super Digit Multiplier Tolerance

conductivity.

or R2 = R1 + EF Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 x 100 -
 ABC   BEF
Brown 1 x 101 -
Red 2 x 102 -
EF = BF
Orange 3 x 103 -
BC AC
Yellow 4 x 104 -
Green 5 x 105 -
EF = OD – OC
Blue 6 x 106 -
.

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DC CIRCUIT

Violet 7 x 107 -
Gray 8 x 108 - Node
White 9 x 109 -  a point at which three or more elements
Gold - x 0.1 +/- 5% have common connection.
Silver - x 0.01 +/- 10% Closed Path or Loop
No color - -- +/- 20%  A kind of path wherein the node where you
have started is also the node where you’ll
end.
Branch
E. Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Laws  A single path in a network, composed of one
Ohm’s Law single element and the node at the end of
 States that if the voltage is kept constant, each element.
less resistance results in more current and
more resistance results in less current. Two laws were named from Gustav Robert
 The voltage is directly proportional to the Kirchhoff that are universally accepted:
current.
a. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
basic electric circuit  It states that the summation of all voltages
around a given loop is equivalent to zero.
 The summation of all voltage rise is
equivalent to the summation of all voltage
drop.
V I R

Mathematically defined as,

 Voltages = 0
 V rise =  V drops

V  I b. Kirchhoff’s Current Law

V =RI
where:
V = Voltage (volts, V)
I = Current (ampere, A)
R = Resistance (ohms, )
Current Flow
a. Electron Flow
 Actual flow of current since electrons are the
moving charges therefore it moves from the
negative of the source going to the positive
of the source.
b. Conventional Current Flow
 The assumed direction of the flow of
current, which is opposite from the electron
flow, that is from the positive of the source
to the negative of the source.
 It states that the summation of all current
within a given node is equivalent to zero.
 The summation of all current entering the
node is equivalent to the summation of all
current leaving the node.
Mathematically defined as,
 Current = 0
 I entering =  I leaving
F. Work, Energy and Power
Work
 Accomplishment of motion against an
opposing force.
 The amount of Force multiplied by the
distance traveled.
Note: Work is performed whenever energy is
converted from one form into another.

W=VxQ
W = F x d – expressed in joules (J)

Kirchhoff’s Laws
where:
UNIVERSITY OF THE EAST – MANILA
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DC CIRCUIT

V = Voltage (Volts)
Q = Charge (Coulombs) substitute,
F = Force (Newtons) V = IR
d = Distance (meters)

Joule Therefore,
 SI unit of energy and work.
 Amount of energy required to raise one P = I2R ----- 2
Coulomb of electric charge through a
potential difference of one volt. substitute,
I=V/R
Power
 The rate at which energy is used. Therefore,
 The rate of doing work.
 The amount of work done per unit time. P = V2
R ----- 3
P = W / t = joules / sec =
where:
watts
P = Power (watts)
where: W = Work (Joules)
P = Power (watts) t = Time (seconds)
W = Work (Joules) V = Voltage (volts)
t = Time (seconds) I = Current (ampere)

Electric Power Watt

 SI unit of electric power.
 Amount of power when one joule of
energy/work is consumed/done in one
second.
V R
I
Kilowatt-Hour (kWh)
 Unit of electric energy or electric work.

Energy = power x time

The energy is lost in the form of heat. W=Pxt

Note: Energy from the moving charges of where:

electrons are transferred through inter-atomic P = power (kW)
collision. As the electrons collide with the atoms W = work (kWh)
of the resistor energy is transferred thereby t = Time (Hours)
causing heat.
Horsepower (Hp)
P=W/t  Mechanical output power.

But W = V x Q (refer to voltage) Note: 1Hp = 746W = 0.746 kW

; t = Q / I (refer to current)

P= VxQ
Q/I Efficiency
Therefore electric power;  The ratio of useful output power of a device
with the total input power
P=VI
----- 1
 = W output = P output
W input P input
by applying Ohm’s Law
UNIVERSITY OF THE EAST – MANILA
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DC CIRCUIT

PT = P1 + P2 + P3 – (Power is additive)

II. Analysis of Resistive Circuits Conclusions for Series Circuit

A. Characteristics of Series Circuit 1. There are no components or branches in
 is one in which all components are connection to a particular junction.
connected in tandem. The current at 1. There is only one current passing through
every point of a series circuit stays the the circuit
same. 2. The total voltage is the summation of the
voltages across each element connected.
 In series circuits the current remains the
same but the voltage drops may vary. B. Voltage Divider Principle
 There is only one complete path for which (exclusive for series circuit only)
current could flow. The resistors are
connected end to end.  The Voltage Divider Principle (VDP) is used
 It provides only one path for current to express the voltage across one several series
between two points in a circuit so that the resistors in term of the voltage across the
same current flows through each series combination.
resistor.
Since: IT = I1 = I2 = I3
By applying Ohm’s Law
+ R1
V1
I - VT = V1 = V2 = V3
RT R1 R2 R3
+
V V2 R2 Therefore:
-
V1 = (VT)(R1)
1 RT
+
V3 R3
-
V2 = (VT)(R2)
RT
By applying KVL at loop 1 V3 = (VT)(R3)
RT
VT = V 1 + V 2 + V 3

By Ohm’s Law;  The voltage appearing across one of the

series resistors is the total voltage times the
IT RT = I1 R1 + I2 R2 + I3 R3 ratio of its resistances to the total resistance.

But IT = I1 = I2 = I3 therefore,
Note:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
B. Characteristics of Parallel Circuit
Total Power in a Series Circuit  Parallel circuits are those in which the
components are so arranged that the
PT = V T x I T current divides between them. In parallel
circuits the voltage remains the same
Since: VT = V1 + V2 + V3 therefore, but the current may vary. The circuits in
PT = (V1 + V2 + V3) IT your home are wired in parallel.

but IT = I1 = I2 = I3  When two or more resistors are

connected between the same two
PT = V1I1 + V2I2 + V3I3 points, they are said to be in parallel

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 DC CIRCUIT

with each other. A parallel circuit D. Current Divider Principle

provides more than one path for current. (exclusive for parallel circuit only)
Each current path is called a branch.
 The dual of VDP is the Current Divider
Principle (CDP).
IT I1 I2 I3
Since VT = V1 = V2 = V3
+ + +
VT R1 V1 R2 V2 R3 V3
- - - by applying Ohm’s Law

ITRT = I1R1 = I2R2 = I3R3

I1 = ( IT )( RT )
R1
By KCL
 The current flowing through either of three
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 parallel conductances is the total current time
the ratio of that conductance to the total
By Ohm’s Law conductance.
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 Note:
RT R 1 R2 R3 RT = _________1________
1 + 1 + 1 .

But VT = V1 = V2 = V3 R1 R2 R3
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 .[[

RT R1 R2 R3 Special Case
When only two resistors are connected
RT = _________1________ in parallel it follows the following technique.
1 + 1 + 1 .

R1 R2 R3 RT = ____1_____
1 + 1 .

R1 R2
Total Power in a Parallel Circuit
RT = _____1_____
PT = V T x I T R1 + R2
R1 x R2
since: IT = I1 + I2 + I3

therefore, RT = R1 x R2 product
R1 + R2 sum
PT = VT (I1 + I2 + I3)

but VT = V1 = V2 = V3 For Current Divider Principle

PT = V1I1 + V2I2 + V3I3 I1 = (IT)(RT)
PT = P 1 + P 2 + P 3 R1
Conclusions for Parallel Circuit but: RT = R1 x R2
i. The resistances are connected between the R1 + R2
same two junction points or nodes. therefore:
ii. The voltage across the parallel nodes are the
same. I1 = ( IT ) R1 x R2
iii. The general current is the summation of all R1 + R2
branch currents. R1

UNIVERSITY OF THE EAST – MANILA

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DC CIRCUIT

I1 = (IT) (R2) .
I2 = (IT) (R1) .

(R1 + R2) (R1 + R2)

E. Series-Parallel Circuit
 A series-parallel circuit contains the
combination of both the series and the
parallel circuits.

R1

R total R2 R3

RT = R1 + R2 x R3
R2 + R3

Note:
For an open-circuited branch,
R = infinitely large
Ioc = zero
Voc = any value

For a short-circuited branch,

R = zero
Vsc = zero
Isc = any value

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