Carlo Scarpa Crisis of Objects in Modern

- CARLO SCARPA-
CRISIS OF OBJECTS IN MODERN MOVEMENT
Afshin Khalife
Master of Architecture
Manchester School of Architecture 2017

- CARLO SCARPA-
CRISIS OF OBJECTS IN MODERN MOVEMENT
Afshin Khalife
ID: 13160089
Master of Architecture
Manchester School of Architecture 2017
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................................. 1
List of Images ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
List of Illustrations ............................................................................................................................................... 7
Abstract .............................................................................................................................................................. 9
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................................ 10
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 11
Methodologies ................................................................................................................................................ 13
Chapter 1; Literature Review........................................................................................................................ 14
Literature Review ........................................................................................................................................ 15
Part 1: Modernism & Scarpa ......................................................................................................................... 16
Part 2: Scarpa’S Problem of Pure Modernism ........................................................................................... 20
Part 3: Role of Details; Emergence of Elements and Objects ................................................................ 23
Part 4: Scarpa and Critical RegionaLism ................................................................................................... 28
Chapter 2; Disassembly ................................................................................................................................. 33
Scarpa’s Holistic Approach ...................................................................................................................... 34
Inspiration and Invention ............................................................................................................................... 35
1. Ziggurat Form: .................................................................................................................................. 35
2. Vesica Piscis or Yin-Yang Symbol: ................................................................................................ 37
Draftsman and Craftsman ............................................................................................................................ 41
Materials, Elements and Human Senses ..................................................................................................... 45
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Bridge at Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy ............................................................... 46
Water as a material in Brion Cemetery, Olivetti Showroom & Querini Stampalia Foundation
................................................................................................................................................................ 50
Chapter 3; Assembly ...................................................................................................................................... 59
Assembly of Nature, History and Elements In Scarpa’s Methodology and Projects...................... 60
Scarpa; Modernism, Regionalism, Crafsmanship, Nature & Architecture .......................................... 61
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................... 72
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 76
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LIST OF IMAGES
Image 1: Hotel Tassel, Brussels ...................................................................................................................... 16
Image 2: Couvent Sainte-Marie de la Tourette, France ......................................................................... 18
Image 3: Entrance Gate, Brion Cemetery, San Vito d'Altivole, Treviso, Italy ...................................... 19
Image 4: The Parthenon, Athens, Greece (400 B.C) ............................................................................... 20
Image 5: Falling Water Building, Pensylvania, USA ................................................................................. 21
Image 6: Front Elevation, Banca Popolare di Verona, Verona, Italy ................................................... 21
Image 7: The Casino Municipal building in Lido Di Venizia, Venice, Italy ........................................... 22
Image 8: Aerial view of The Casino Municipal building in Lido Di Venizia, Venice, Italy ................. 22
Image 9: Mondrian Steps, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy ............................................ 25
Image 10: Concrete Craftsmen, Chapel Notre Dame du Hau, Ronchamp, France ....................... 26
Image 11: Chapel Notre Dame du Hau, Ronchamp, France ............................................................... 26
Image 12: Entrance Canapé & Rainwater Outlet design, Unité d'habitation, Marseille, France .. 27
Image 13: Rainwater Outlet, Crude and Simple Detailing, Unité d'habitation, Marseille, France . 27
Image 14: Rainwater Outlet and Ziggurat Moulding of the Parapet Wall, Brion Cemetery, Treviso,
Italy .................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Image 15: Details of Rainwater Outlet, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy ................................................. 27
Image 16: Satellite View of Venice ............................................................................................................. 28
Image 17: John Ruskin Drawing of Venice in 1841................................................................................... 29
Image 18: Glassworks Designed by Carlo Scarpa ................................................................................... 30
Image 19: Carlo Scarpa in japan ................................................................................................................ 30
Image 20: Tectonic Assembly of Materials, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy .......................................... 31
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Image 21: Ziggurat Chogha Zanbil, 2000 B.C, Khuzestan, Iran .............................................................. 35
Image 22: Ziggurat Chogha Zanbil, 2000 B.C, Khuzestan, Iran .............................................................. 36
Image 23: Illustration of Ziggurat Chogha Zanbil ..................................................................................... 36
Image 24: Ziggurat Form of Venetian House, Venice, Italy ................................................................... 36
Image 25: Steps to Canal; Ziggurat Form, Venice, Italy ......................................................................... 36
Image 26: Ziggurat Form is Submerged in water, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy ............................... 37
Image 27: Vesica Piscis in Shape of Oculus, Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy .................................. 38
Image 28: Vesica Piscis, Representation of Marriage (rings of husband and wife) and Life, Brion
Cemetery, Treviso, Italy ................................................................................................................................. 39
Image 29: Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy .................................................................................................... 39
Image 30: Vesica Piscis, Representation of Death and Separation, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy
............................................................................................................................................................................ 39
Image 31: Vesica Piscis and Yin-Yang Symbol Graphical Presentation .............................................. 40
Image 32: Venice, Italy.................................................................................................................................. 41
Image 33: Carlo Scarpa in M.V.M Glasswork Factory ............................................................................. 41
Image 34: Drawing of Entrance Gate by Carlo Scarpa in Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy ................ 42
Image 35: Study for Detailing of the Cndelabrum. Pencil and Crayons on Bristol board, Drawing by
Carlo Scarpa ................................................................................................................................................... 42
Image 36: Carlo Scapa Source: Los, Carlo Scarpa, 1993 ....................................................................... 43
Image 37: Detail of Metal Bracket, Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy ...................................... 44
Image 38: Sculpture Mounted on a Metal Bracket, Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy .......... 44
Image 39: Ground Floor, Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy .......................................................... 45
Image 40: The Bridge at Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy ................................................ 46
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Image 41: View from The Bridge to New Entrance Door, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice,
Italy .................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Image 42: The Bridge in the Context, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy ......................... 47
Image 43: Connection of the Bridge to the Piazza, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy 48
Image 44: Connection of the Bridge to the Building, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy
............................................................................................................................................................................ 48
Image 45: Handrails of the Bridge, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy ............................. 49
Image 46: : Post and Handrails of the Bridge, , Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy ........ 49
Image 47: Venice, Italy.................................................................................................................................. 50
Image 48: Invasion of Water into the Building, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy ......... 51
Image 49: Water Basin and Water Channel in The Back Garden, Querini Stampalia Foundation,
Venice, Italy ..................................................................................................................................................... 52
Image 50: The Shallow Pond, Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy ............................................................ 53
Image 51: Tectonic Assembly of Obejects and Materials, Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy.......... 54
Image 52: Flooring Pattern, Tectonic Assembly of Display Shelves, Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy
............................................................................................................................................................................ 54
Image 53: Arrangement and Assembly of the Marble Steps, Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy .... 54
Image 54: View from Mezzanine to Ground Floor, Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy ....................... 55
Image 55: Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy .............................................................................................. 55
Image 56: Ziggurat Form and Water, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy .................................................... 56
Image 57: View of Narrow Canal and The Meditation Pool, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy........... 57
Image 58: View od Meditation Pool, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy .................................................... 57
Image 59: The Basin and Flow of Water, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy ................... 58
Image 60: Ziggurat Moulding, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy ................................................................. 61
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Image 61: Ziggurat Moulding Formed the Parapet Wall, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy .................. 62
Image 62: Ziggurat Moulding Forms the Parapet Wall, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy ..................... 62
Image 63: Ziggurat engraving into the corner of the altar, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy. ............. 62
Image 64: Brass Door Hinge with Engraved ziggurat form, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy. .............. 62
Image 65: Skylight with ziggurat moulding, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy .......................................... 63
Image 66: Geometrical Analysis of Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy ........................................................ 63
Image 67: Cuboid window, Natural Light, Sculptures, Gipsoteca Canoviana Museum’s extension,
Possagno, Italy ................................................................................................................................................ 64
Image 68: Tectonic Objects, Materials, Light and Shadow and Human Senses Castelvecchio
Museum, Verona, Italy ................................................................................................................................... 65
Image 69: Front Elevation, Banca Popolare di Verona, Verona, Italy ................................................. 65
Image 70: Façade of Banca Popolare di Verona, Verona, Italy .......................................................... 66
Image 71: Ground Floor Plan of Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy, by Carlo Scarpa ............. 67
Image 72: South Elevation of Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy, by Carlo Scarpa .................. 67
Image 73: South Elevation, Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy ..................................................... 68
Image 74: View from Ground Level to Congrande Statue and the Bridge, Castelvecchio Museum,
Verona, Italy .................................................................................................................................................... 68
Image 75: View from South East Tower to Congrande Statue, Castelvecchio Museum, Verona,
Italy .................................................................................................................................................................... 69
Image 76: Pattern of Sacellum’s External Walls, Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy ................. 69
Image 77: Homage to the Square by Josef Albers (1951)...................................................................... 69
Image 78: Sacellum Extension, Castelvecchio Museum, Verona ........................................................ 69
Image 79: Metalwork on Concrete Wall, Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy ............................. 70
Image 80: View From Second Floor to the Ground Floor, Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy . 71
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Illustration 1: Olivetti Showroo, Venice | Arrangement of steps express he movement and fluidity
| Sketch by the author .................................................................................................................................. 32
Illustration 2: Disassembly of Steps, Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy ................................................... 33
Illustration 3: Oculus, Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy ............................................................................ 38
Illustration 4: Tectonic Assembly of Post to the Roof Structure, Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy .. 38
Illustration 5: Cutting Detail of Metal Brackets .......................................................................................... 44
Illustration 6: Sectional View of the Bridge, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy ............... 48
Illustration 7: Detail of Handrails, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy .................................. 49
Illustration 8: Profile of Handrails, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy ................................. 49
Illustration 9: Detail of Connection Point- Handrails and Post, Querini Stampalia Foundation,
Venice, Italy ..................................................................................................................................................... 49
Illustration 10: Ground Floor Plan, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy ................................ 51
Illustration 11: Stone Basin, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy ............................................ 52
Illustration 12: Composition of tectonic Objects, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy ..... 52
Illustration 13: Tectonic Design of Scupper and Gully, Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy ................. 53
Illustration 14: Ground Floor Plan, Olivetti Showroom Venice, Italy ...................................................... 55
Illustration 15: Ground Floor Plan, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy ........................................................... 56
Illustration 16: Japanese Style Arrangement of Steps, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy ....................... 57
Illustration 17: Congrande Statue in Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy ...................................... 59
Illustration 18: Interior of Chapel in Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy ......................................................... 63
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Illustration 19: Reflected Ceiling Perspective, Gipsoteca Canoviana Museum’s extension,
Possagno, Italy ................................................................................................................................................ 64
Illustration 20: Detail of Circular Opening on the Façade, Banca Popolare di Verona, Verona, Italy
............................................................................................................................................................................ 66
Illustration 21: Composition of Windows & Ziggurat Form, Banca Popolare di Verona, Verona, Italy
............................................................................................................................................................................ 66
Illustration 22: Front Elevation of Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy ............................................. 70
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ABSTRACT
Carlo Scarpa (1906-1978) is an Italian architect whose methodology and approach to
architecture was not appreciated until after his death , although, recently, his method and works
are admired as Modernist-Regionalist architecture. This dissertation discusses, explores and
illustrates the significance of Scarpa’s methodology and holistic approach as an authentic
Modernist-Regionalist architect.
In particular, this research considers Scarpa’s holistic approach where elaborate objects come
together to create an integral, harmonious form. However, none of these elaborate objects has
dominance; this is opposite to the philosophy of Modern Movement. Scarpa resolved the issue of
heaviness of modern architecture simply by employing the fluid characteristic of water and using
local craftsmen and materials. Hence, Scarpa’s inclusive method brought various factors of
Modern Movement, traditional architecture and critical regionalism together.
Moreover, the process of design in Scarpa’s project is critically evaluated to demonstrate his route
from inspiration to invention and then from drafting to crafting. Finally, the way in which he brought
all the objects and elements of his design together to make a spatial arrangement of space, is
discussed. Therefore, Scarpa’s methodology addressed the crisis of objects in Modern Movement.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
There are number of people without whom I would not have finished this dissertation.
I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor, Ms Sally Stone, for her consistent
support, encouragement and her valuable guidance and advice throughout the whole process
of this dissertation.
A very special thank you is extended to my friend, Mr Dean Matysiak for assisting me with the
editing and proofreading of this dissertation.
I would also wish to thank Mr Mani Lall who is always willing to help and give his best advice and
support, and Mr Vahid Baradar who helped me during my visit in Italy.
Last, but definitely not least, my wife and my best friend Leila Zaker for her patience, unwavering
support and for providing me with much needed encouragement.
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INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this dissertation is to explore and study Carlo Scarpa’s architecture. Carlo Scarpa
(1906-1978) is an Italian architect whose methodology and approach to architecture was not
appreciated until after his death (1980s), although, recently, his method and works are admired
as authentic Modernist-Regionalist architecture.
Some architectural theorists and critics described Carlo Scarpa’s Photo by the Author
design, as ‘craft-intensive’ and ‘small scale’; they did not recognise
Scarpa as an authentic architect who belongs to Modern Movement
era, although, he adopted Frank Lloyd Wright’s approach in
designing new forms through spatial arrangement and Josef
Hoffmann’s and Charles Rennie Mackintosh’s tectonic and
elaborate detailing.
Scarpa once described himself as “A man of Byzantium who came to Venice by way of Greece”.
Scarpa consciously put craftsmanship at the heart of his methodology to serve as a bridge from
the past to his time and the future. Scarpa evolved the elements of classical architecture to
produce a spatial, modern arrangement; his ethos is manifested through his loyalty to history,
understanding the value of craftsmanship and composition of nature, Modernism and
Regionalism in his projects.
In Chapter 1, Literature Review, I analytically and critically examine
some of the important literature written about Scarpa to explore
Scarpa’s methodology from the point of view of architectural
theorists, critics and historians. Discussion in this chapter focuses on
Scarpa’s position in Modern Movement and his attitude towards

Photo by the Author
crudeness and heaviness of form in Modern Architecture. The
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discussion continues by exploring Scarpa’s holistic approach and his involvement with
craftsmanship. The final part of Chapter 1 explores the regional identity of Scarpa as a Venetian
architect.
Chapter 2 of this research project focuses on exploring and analysing Carlo Scarpa’s holistic
approach. In this chapter, I have tried to disassemble Scarpa’s design Photo by the Author
process, from inspiration to invention, from draftsmanship to
craftsmanship and finally how Scarpa employed materials to
produce and assemble architectural elements with regard to the
nature’s elements. Through this process, Scarpa established his
ingenuity in architecture that the quality of space stimulates the
human senses.
The final chapter, Chapter 3, is a conclusion of the previous chapters. This chapter comprises a
number of illustrations and images to show the assembly of all theories and design elements in
Scarpa’s projects.
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METHODOLOGIES
The methodologies, which are employed throughout this dissertation, are based on extensive
reading (mainly books) and research of the existing literature about Carlo Scarpa, and personal
observation of some of Scarpa’s projects in the North-East of Italy (Treviso Region, Venice,
Verona).
The main methodology of this research is a critical discourse analysis as critical discourse analysis
unveils the hidden or less evident features of the subject. Hence, specific reading of critical and
analytical views on the subject was carried out.
Some of Carlo Scarpa’s projects, as case studies, have been selected for exploration and analysis.
These are examples of tectonic assembly, use of materials and intervention to existing buildings
that can boost the quality of a critical analysis and argument within the research.
All of the sites and buildings that are the basis of the case studies were visited in December 2016,
and are thus subject to primary analysis and examination. In addition, all of the sites and buildings
were photographed and some were sketched by the author, for later analysis in this dissertation.
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CHAPTER 1; LITERATURE REVIEW
“If the architecture is any good,

a person who looks and listens will feel its good effects without noticing.”
Carlo Scarpa
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LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review will analytically and critically examine the significant literature of Carlo
Scarpa’s methodology as a Modernist-Regionalist architect, his interpretation of details through
craftsmanship, elements and objects in architecture as well as the influence of nature- in
particular water- on his works.
Before the 1980s, when Richard Murphy started extensive research into Carlo Scarpa’s projects
and understanding of his methodology, his work was not appraised well enough; the main reason
was the flourishing era of Modern Movement (Frampton, 1995). Richard Murphy, however,
appreciated that Scarpa’s style as an artist and architect is authentic and beyond his time.
Even though Marco Frascari, Manfredo Tafuri, Sergio Los, Kenneth Frampton and many other
theorists and historians have written about Scarpa (apart from Richard Murphy), his approach and
unique style have not been explored thoroughly due to the fact that they have not tried to
understand the authenticity of Scarpa’s work but to justify their own approach to architecture
(Rab-Kirchner, 1998). It is worth mentioning that Bianca Albertini and Sandro Bagnoli, 1988, have
examined Scarpa’s approach to detail which has been really helpful in understanding Scarpa’s
mind set.
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PART 1: MODERNISM & SCARPA
Scarpa described himself as
“A man of Byzantium who came to Venice by way of Greece”
William Curtis in his book, Modern Architecture Since 1900 (1996), has completed a thorough
research and analysis about Modern Movement from the late 1800s, and has established a
benchmark for each decade up to the end of the twentieth century. However, he has only
allocated one page to illustrate and analyse one of Scarpa’s projects: Querini Stampalia
Foundation (1961-3) in Venice, Italy. Kenneth Frampton did not even mention Scarpa’s name in
his early book, Modern Architecture: A Critical History (1980), as Scarpa’s projects and works were
seen as ‘craft-intensive, low-tech, small-scale, and anachronistic’ amongst historians and theorists.
(Rab-Kirchner, 1998) Hence, Scarpa was not appreciated as an architect but more as a
conservationist architect, interior designer or even devalued to an artist (Cadwell, 2007).
In the book, Curtis (1996) believes that ‘Art Nouveau’ was
the first stage of Modern Architecture in Europe, which
began in 1893 and almost vanished in 1905.
Chronologically, ‘Ornamental Design’ of Louis Sullivan,
William Burges and Antoni Gaudi was the next stage of
modernism when ornaments had major roles in design.
A very fine example of Art Nouveau is Hotel Tassel in Brussels
(Image 1), Belgium (1892-93) designed by Victor Horta
where the expression of steel columns and tendril- like
decorations (for handrails) have created a new space; in Image 1: Hotel Tassel, Brussels
this project, the combination of new architectural Source:www.arcitecture.com/image-

library/RIBApix
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composition and contemporary materials are complemented by re-interpretation of classical
ornaments. Horta’s approach in creating spatial space and crafting new materials was a break-
through from neo-classicism (Curtis, 1996). Thus, if we consider the ‘Art Nouveau’ style as a
departure point for the modernist approach, it is clear that continuity of tradition in architecture
by employing craftsmanship in creating space is fulfilled.
The Modern Movement architects, especially after the 1930s, had ‘spatial ideas’ towards
‘contemporary life style” in the 20th century’ where they relied on the industrial abilities and not on
craftsmanship (Curtis, 1996) (Frampton, 1980). Curtis (1996), remarks that the three major architects
in modern architecture, Le Corbusier, Frank Lloyd Frank Lloyd Wright and Mies van der Rohe
believed that the past and tradition have provided them with the knowledge and deep
understanding of architecture as Le Corbusier quoted ‘his only real master’ and Mies van der Rohe
‘treated the past as source of principles and inspirations to be distilled in a modern language’;
nevertheless, they ‘made a major re-evaluation to tradition.’ (Curtis, 1996).
Hence, the journey of Modernism from Art Nouveau to Art & Craft and Avant-garde and finally to
pure Modernism, when the works of Modern Movement architects became part of the
townscape, has brought a new language into architecture and construction. They are
recognisable from their external appearance (form) as well as their anatomy and internal
compositions (Curtis, 1996) (Ching, Jarzombek, & Prakash, 2011).
However, the major difference between Scarpa and other modernist architects of his time, and
earlier modernist architects like Le Corbusier, springs from Scarpa’s approach to design. His holistic
approach that involves very close attention to developing details and harmonising them in such
a way that they can create ‘Plan, Surface and the Mass’ (Murphy, 1993), in some respects is
opposite to what Le Corbusier achieved in his design (Image 2) and clearly expressed in his book,
Toward New Architecture(1927). In addition, it is worth mentioning that Scarpa’s point of arrival to
Modern architecture is from Art Nouveau rather than Neo-Classicism (Los, 1993).
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Le Corbusier, as Modern Movement frontier, in Towards New Architecture, 1927, p.7, states: ”The
history of Architecture unfolds itself slowly across the centuries as a modification of structure and
ornament, but the last fifty years steel and concrete have brought new conquest, which are the
index of a greater capacity for construction, and of an architecture in which the old codes have
been overturned.” And he almost threw away the significance of the past and history : “If we
challenge the past, we shall learn that ‘styles’ no longer exist for us, that a style belonging to our
own period has come about; and there has been a Revolution.”
Le Corbusier’s statement implies a radical view towards tradition and ancient architecture when
he uses the term ‘Revolution’; in contrast, Scarpa has always maintained an equilibrium point
between the old and new style. Los (1993),
believes that Scarpa’s methodology is based on
Frank Lloyd Wright’s modern approach to the
spatial arrangement of space while admiring
and then adopting Josef Hoffmann’s and
Charles Rennie Mackintosh’s attention to
tectonics, craftsmanship and material. Image 2: Couvent Sainte-Marie de la Tourette, France

Architect: Le Corbusier – The geometrical and purity of from
implies the heaviness of the mass.
Photo: Oliver Martin-Gambie, 2004
Modern architects in the twentieth century are
Source: www.fondationlecorbusier.fr
known because they have created new forms,
new masses and surfaces by generating designs from plans, as Le Corbusier believes that ‘the
plan is the generator’ (Corbusier, 1927). Whereas, according to Frascari (1984) “(Scarpa’s) details
are the generator of the character of a building” which has strongly materialised in Scarpa’s
projects (Frascari, 1984); in addition, Cadwell in Strange Details, 2007, p.16, states that: “Scarpa
did not insist upon the plan as the generator of the project,” and continues: “Scarpa deployed
the plan as a kind of straight man, mute except for a few sly asides.”
Frascari’s statement elucidates Scarpa’s methodology that nothing has dominancy over the
whole image whereas in pure Modernism, usually the overall mass and spatial arrangements are
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dominant (Curtis, 1996). In other words, Le Corbusier, Frank Lloyd Frank Lloyd Wright and many
other modernist architects adopted ‘Monophony’ in architecture as in music whereas Scarpa
took the conscious decision to follow ‘Polyphony’, which will be discussed later (Rab-Kirchner,
1998).
Even though Scarpa’s holistic approach is opposite to the philosophy of Modern Movement
architecture, he adopted the principles of Modernist Architecture to design and develop his
projects. Therefore, Scarpa’s success in producing new forms of ‘mass,’ ‘surface’ and ‘plan’ by
assembling tectonic elements places him amongst the Modern Architects (Image 3).
Image 3: Entrance Gate, Brion Cemetery, San

Vito d'Altivole, Treviso, Italy
Example of Scarpa resolving the heaviness of the
mass by ziggurat form
Photo by the author, December 2016
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PART 2: SCARPA’S PROBLEM OF PURE MODERNISM
“For Scarpa, ornament- the scourge of doctrinaire modernism- is the key.”
Cadwell, 2007, p.16
Scarpa accepted the concept of Modern Movement as well as stating that this is the time to stop
copying the past: “Buildings that imitate (the past) look like humbugs and that’s just what they
are.” (Murphy, 1993, p.5). Scarpa’s holistic approach as well as upgrading traditional
craftsmanship with new industrial machinery and techniques for producing his final products has
made him stand out from other modernist architects (Olsberg, et al., 1999).
Scarpa did believe in the power of craftsmanship, and accepted the modernism from its early
stages (Albertini & Bagnoli, 1988) , he and Le
Corbusier both independently believed that
there is nothing more that can be added to or
removed from the Parthenon (Image 4), the
master piece of classical architecture, as the
building has been refined in its ultimate peak
point (Corbusier, Towards A New Architecture, Image 4: The Parthenon, Athens, Greece (400 B.C)
Source: www.ancient-greece.org/architecture
1927) (Olsberg, et al., 1999).
However, Scarpa did not ignore the importance of Art Nouveau or Art and Craft movements,
where the quality of elements and objects are as important as the space they create; while Le
Corbusier and other major architects of Modern Movement focused on cutting-edge
technologies and accepted that: “Machinery, a new factor in human affairs, has aroused a new
spirit. …” (Le Corbusier, Towards New Architecture, 1923, p.90) They played with forms, refined
them but ignored the spirit of elements; nonetheless, they created spiritual spaces (Curtis, 1996).
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“Scarpa never lost his debt to Le Corbusier” (Olsberg, 1999, p.12), and what Scarpa gained from
Le Corbusier’s ideology enabled him to pursue new methods in employing ‘techniques, materials
and structural discipline’ (Olsberg, et al., 1999). In parallel, Frank Lloyd Wright evolved Modernism
in such a way that spatial and meaningful space are formed; his works are not about ‘Mass,
Surface and Plan’ but about creating space where the users feel the silence and quality of the
surrounding (Curtis, 1996). Frank Lloyd Wright’s architecture influenced and inspired Carlo Scarpa
(Albertini & Bagnoli, 1988) as he considered him and other Modern Movement frontier architects
as role models (Olsberg, et al., 1999).
Bearing in mind that Frank Lloyd Wright used the modernist approach to solidify the fluidity of
nature, hence the mass of his building is an ultimate result. On the other hand, Scarpa developed
an opposite style by breaking down a big mass into smaller components to achieve a fluidity in
design (Cadwell, 2007). In other words, Frank Lloyd Wright turned the ‘fluid into solid’ and Scarpa
turned the ‘solid into the fluid’; Falling Water in Pennsylvania, USA, (1936) by Frank Lloyd Wright
(Image 5) and Banca Popolare di Verona (1973-1981) in Verona, Italy, by Carlo Scarpa (Image 6)
are the examples for this appeal.
Image 5: Falling Water Building, Pensylvania, USA Image 6: Front Elevation, Banca Popolare di Verona,
Verona, Italy
The solidity and thickness of slabs indicates the stillness of the Façade constructed in two layers to emphasise on solid
whole mass, A solid form. and void, datum lines of copingstones (Botticino Marble)
Source: franklloydwright.org indicates movement; different sizes of circles create sense
of liveliness.
This solidity of form has resulted in heaviness of mass of buildings in Modern Movement
architecture. Scarpa’s intention to diminish the heaviness of mass was resolved through his
architectural attitude and methodology. Slicing a big form into smaller parts, then splicing
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elaborate elements to create an overall form can be seen in various Scarpa’s projects - fluidity
character of water- (Goy, 1999).
Richard J. Goy, at the very end of his book, (Venice: The City and Its Architecture, 1999, pp.300-
301) illustrates Scarpa’s project in Venice (Querini Stampalia Foundation, 1963) and describes it
as: “… sensitive interventions of the native Carlo Scarpa are the most sympathetic to the materials
and the ancient traditions of fine craftsmanship of the city…” , and just before that Goy gives an
example of a ‘White Modern’ architecture building, The Casino Municipal building (Image7 & 8)
in Lido Di Venizia (Venice,1930s), which he believes is a ‘fascist interpretation of international
modern style’.
Image 7: The Casino Municipal building in Lido Di Image 8: Aerial view of The Casino Municipal building in Lido Di
Venizia, Venice, Italy Venizia, Venice, Italy
White Modernism Style Source: Google Earth
Source: www.theveniceinsider.com
The building is comprised of three pure cubical forms and there is no sign of traditional Venetian
architecture nor any classical details on the façade; an unalloyed example of Modern Movement
architecture that heavy mass defines the characteristics of the building.
In addition, Carlo Scarpa and Louis Khan admired each other’s methodology of work. Los, 1993,
p.14, describes Khan’s architecture as ‘architecture of remembrance’ that the ‘joint was at the
origin of ornament’ and states that this directly relates to Scarpa’s position towards details and
joints. Therefore, Scarpa did not ignore the fundamental philosophy of Modern Movement but
‘dissociated the whole into its components’ (Los, 1993, p.16). In fact, he was faithful to Modern
Movement throughout his life. Scarpa replaced all the ancient and classical architecture
‘prepositions’ with new and contemporary interpretation and design (Los, 1993).
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PART 3: ROLE OF DETAILS; EMERGENCE OF ELEMENTS AND OBJECTS
“Profiles, edges, mouldings etc. show how the elements of a building attack and repel each
other, while their disappearance leaves all relation between these elements in limbo.”
Los, 1993, p.16
As discussed in the previous parts regarding Scarpa and Modern Movement and today’s
architecture, it is clear that Modernism accepted the industrialisation and dependence on
machinery as a path to focusing on the mass, surface and contemporary plans and eliminating
an architect’s task of choosing appropriate craftsmen for specific details (Frascari, 1984).
In addition, virtual processes have replaced the processes of real details; in other words, the
design of details have been, and still are, carried out in the last stages of the work whereas for
Scarpa details are the generator of the whole project (Albertini & Bagnoli, 1988) (Cadwell, 2007).
Scarpa embraced the fundamental ideology of Modern Movement; however, he distanced
himself from functionalism as a driver of his design approach. Instead, he stimulated the five
human senses by employing different materials and intricacy in tactile and visual details (Olsberg,
et al., 1999).
Scarpa, did not focus on ornamentation in such an extreme manner Photo by the Author
as Antoni Gaudi but he combined all of the new aspects of
Modernism, digested, refined, re-evaluated and reproduced them to
express his own ingenuity in Architecture (Cadwell, 2007). Yet, Scarpa
was one of the architects who accepted the role of decoration in
architecture; he believed that decoration has the ability to express
the beauty of life and certainly, he was against the definition of spaces represented by
unadorned ‘streometry’ and crude formalisation of Modern Movement (Albertini & Bagnoli, 1988).
P a g e 23 | 78
On the one hand, Tafuri (1989) and Frampton (1995) have both used the term ‘ornament’ to
describe the elaborate detailing in Scarpa’s projects. On the other hand, Richard Murphy (1990)
, Sergio Los (1993) and George Ranalli (1999) agreed that Scarpa actively involved his craftsmen
in a ‘creative dialogue’ to produce high-quality and intricate elements which are ultimately
composed to produce the final symphonic design.
Marco Frascari, in his The-Tell-The-Tale Details (1984) essay claims that the ‘analogy between detail
and poem’ is the best way to look at Scarpa’s work. His skills and knowledge to curate elements
and objects into a meaningful order in order to create a bigger image is genuine. In this way, he
uses simple prose, which, in architecture might be considered the equivalent of details and turns
this simple prose into a poem, which might be considered as the elaborate tectonic assembly of
a building.
According to Louis Khan, Frascari (1984) demonstrated Scarpa’s Photo by the Author
process and quality of delivering a design based on developing
details: “In the elements, the joint inspires ornaments, its celebration.
The details is Adoration of Nature.”(McCarter, 2013, p.272); however,
Kenneth Frampton interprets Scarpa’s works as ‘Adoration of Joints’
which is directly linked to Frampton’s obsession with Semper’s four
elements of architecture (Frampton, 1995).
Frampton expresses his point of view about Scarpa’s treatment of details: “Throughout his work,
the joint is treated as a kind of tectonic condensation” and continues, “Scarpa was committed
to the idea of analogy at every level of his work”. (Frampton, Studies in Tectonic Culture: The
Poetics of Construction in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Architecture, 1995, p.299 and p.314).
Nevertheless, Frascari (1984), Murphy (1993), Ranalli (1999) and Cadwell (2007) all agree that
Scarpa has made a conscious decision in his methodology to get his message across through
articulate details.
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Frampton statement is purely based on his own architectural interests, and also on criteria and
characteristics of Modern Movement (as it was discussed before) as he has used certain terms
(e.g. tectonic condensation), but others try to understand Scarpa’s subtle methodology from his
point of view (Rab-Kirchner, 1998).
Frascari (1984) considers the theory of detailing in architecture by accepting Leon Batista Alberti’s
views on architectural theory as “the art of the selection of appropriate details whose result is
beauty,…”. Alberti believes that ‘concinnity’ is the definition and a process of achieving beauty
which, in its core, responds to three primary requirements: ‘Number, Finishing and Collocation’.
Alberti’s theory is based on a very simple and effective procedure, which results in ‘a meaningful
goal of architecture’ (Frascari, 1984); on the other hand, Husani Pallasmaa states that: “The artistic
dimension of a work of art does not lie in the actual physical thing; it exists only in the consciousness
of the person experiencing it.” (Skala: Nordic Journal of Architecture and Art 4, June 1986, p.23)
When in 1964, Le Corbusier visited the Querini Stampalia
Foundation (Image 9) in Venice, he was impressed by the
existing space as he quoted: “His hosts informed him.”
Ostensibly, Le Corbusier did not appreciate Scarpa’s approach
and probably assumed that he is more an interior designer than
an architect (Cadwell, 2007) . Frampton (1995) points out that
Scarpa’s architecture does not progress from the ‘whole’ to the
‘part’, but from ‘part’ to ‘part’ by a homological method.
Olsberg in his introduction to Carlo Scarpa Architecture:
Intervening with History (1999), opposes Frampton, describing Image 9: Mondrian Steps, Querini
Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy
Scarpa and his approach as ‘return of delight’ to architecture
by stimulating human natural senses of touch and vision through ‘layers and perforation’, light and
shadow’ and ‘fascination of circular forms’ as well as vernacular proportion of Venice. Moreover,
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Frascari, 1984, p.8 clarifies that: “The joints between different materials and shapes (parts) and
spaces are pretexts for generating texts.”
As previously mentioned, Le Corbusier was passionate about employing new technologies and
his idea about the influence of machinery in 20 th century was a break through, though some of
the buildings he designed were built by a group of concrete craftsmen (e.g. Chapel Notre Dame
du Hau, Ronchamp(1950-1955), France) but with a different types of craftsmanship (Image 10 &
11) (Samuel, 2007).
Image 10: Concrete Craftsmen, Chapel Notre Dame du

Hau, Ronchamp, France
Photograph: Le Corbusier
Source: Le Corbusier, The chapel of Notre Dame, 1957 Image 11: Chapel Notre Dame du Hau, Ronchamp, France
Source: www.fondationlecorbusier.fr
Although Le Corbusier always designed the details of his buildings in a contemporary manner with
reinterpretation of classical details, his attention to detail was much less than Carlo Scarpa’s. For
instance, in designing rainwater outlets (chutes being the modern name and gargoyles the
classical name) in Unité d'habitation (1947-52) in Marseille, France, (Image 12 & 13) he applied
the same principles in order to achieve the same function of the rainwater outlets but, unlike
Scarpa’s elaborate designs - design of rainwater outlets in Brion Cemetery (1969-78) in San Vito
d'Altivole, Treviso, Italy.
The final form of Le Corbusier’s designs – of chutes - was crude and simple. There are no signs of
craftsmanship in the object; however, he always had his concrete craftsmen who understood Le
Corbusier’s design approach (Samuel, 2007).
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Image 12: Entrance Canapé & Rainwater Outlet design, Image 13: Rainwater Outlet, Crude and Simple Detailing,
Unité d'habitation, Marseille, France Unité d'habitation, Marseille, France
Photo by the author, August 2016 Photo by the author, August 2016
On the other hand, Scarpa designed the rainwater outlets (chutes) of the chapel in Brion
Cemetery (1969-78) in San Vito d'Altivole, Treviso, Italy, (Image 14 & 15) with a modern translation
of the classical design. Ostensibly, Scarpa put time and effort to design the chutes with regard to
the whole mass of the building and as a result the process of elaborate design, quality of
craftsmanship and precision in construction are visible.
Image 14: Rainwater Outlet and Image 15: Details of Rainwater Outlet,
Ziggurat Moulding of the Parapet Wall, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy
Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy Photo by the author, December 2016
Ziggurat Form, as a Moulding, Connects
the Parapet Walls to Rainwater Outlet
(Chute).
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PART 4: SCARPA AND CRITICAL REGIONALISM
“The logistics of the island city has prevented its industrialisation. And the absence of
industrialisation has prolonged craftsmanship.”
Murphy, 1993, P.7
It is important to understand the impact of critical regionalism on Scarpa’s Methodology, Goy
(1999) criticises the architectural of Venice as not being designed by local (Venetian) architects
,though he calls Scarpa a ‘native architect’. Hence, the following discussion will illustrate two
aspects of critical regionalism in Scarpa’s methodology and works. First, Scarpa and Venice and
secondly, Scarpa’s attention to ‘regional culture’ (of Venice) in terms of involvement with native
artisans and crafts people and use of local materials etc.
Scarpa was born, lived, studied and worked in
Venice; he was inspired by the city constant
adaptation with nature, in particular, the power
of water. It is a place that is described by
Murphy, 1993, p.5, as “the city that lives
constantly in its nerves”.
Venice (Image 16) was built on ‘water’ and not
‘earth’. Venice was nothing more than a
lagoon, a series of scattered islands and
sandbars surrounded by water; temporary

Image 16: Satellite View of Venice
accommodation for people who, around the 5th Source: www.nasa.gov
century B.C, fled from the invaders (Goth and
Visigoth) from the North of Italy to a safe place. Venice was then gradually formed as a series of
small villages (for tribes or big families) which were connected by canals. Expansion of the city
P a g e 28 | 78
throughout time has connected these little villages together and formed the city of Venice today
(Goy, 1999).
Frampton (1983) argues that one of the significant foundations of ‘regionalist culture’ is the
independence of a region or city in terms of its culture, economy and politics and it is true that
Venice is an independent region culturally, politically and economically. Furthermore, Murphy
(1993) believes that the independent spirit of the city has remained intact throughout its history
due to the logistical barriers of being a city surrounded by water. As a result, there has been an
absence of industrialisation and high demand for crafts people.
Ruskin (2003) believes that the form of ‘Water’ is
‘Waves’, and water is the primary and dominant
feature in Venice, as a means of transporting
goods and materials from other cities to Venice.
The existence of water (in canals) and the
phenomenon of low tide and high tide (aqua alta)
in Venice cause chaos and disruption for its
inhabitants (Goy, 1999). Thus, Venice has a similar
character to water, endless movement and fluidity
(Image 17).
Image 17: John Ruskin Drawing of Venice in 1841

Source: Ruskin, The Stones of Venice, 2003
Venice questions the very ‘being’ of humans on earth as philosopher Martin Heidegger (1978,
p.246)), in Building, Dwelling, Thinking essay, argues that ‘earth is the serving bearer’ and ‘spreads
out in rock and water’. However, buildings in Venice have been built on water and connected to
the seabed by piles and therefore Semper’s fourth element of architecture, the ‘earthwork’, has
no presence in the construction of the city (Frampton, 1980). For these reasons, living ‘under the
sky’ in Venice does not mean that humans live ‘on the earth’.
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Scarpa’s attitude towards ‘being’ and architecture have a direct link to the place he spent most
of his life. Scarpa explored the city as a child, studied at Venice School of Architecture, then
worked as an architectural assistant, glass craftsman and designer (Image 18) on the Venetian
island of Murano (1926-1947); hence, Scarpa had first-hand experience and comprehensive
knowledge of the place and region where he designed and constructed most of his projects
(McCarter, 2013).
According to Tzonis and Lefaivre (2001) , p.129,
state that: “ What distinguishes the ‘regionalist’
from the simply ‘regional’ is that it incorporates
regional elements into design as a means not
only of adapting to local condition but also of

Image 18: Glassworks Designed by Carlo Scarpa
criticising an architectural order that claims Source: Barovier, Carlo Scarpa: Glass of an Architect, 1998
universal application.” Therefore, Scapa as an authentic modernist architect managed to re-
order ‘regional elements’ through his methodology, and promoted his style as collective and
universal.
Scarpa visited the Far East (Japan and China) as
he was inquisitive about discovering new forms,
new symbols and architecture, which he
adapted in order to produce a modern form
and design based on his experiences of these
Oriental cultures. One of the examples is Yin-
Yang symbol (a symbol of contradiction and

Image 19: Carlo Scarpa in japan
complementation in Chinese culture); Scarpa Source: wsimag.com/art
found a similar symbol in western culture (Vasica Piscis) and translated it into his projects (Cadwell,
2007). This will be discussed further in Chapter 2.
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Frampton (1983) argues that, Alvaro Siza (a Portuguese architect) is one of the modernist
architects whose design and projects is an exemplar of critical regionalism in architecture. In
p.154, Frampton (1983) defines Alvaro Siza as a Regionalist architect: “(Alvaro Siza) extraordinary
sensitivity towards local materials, craft work, and above all, to the subtleties of local light- his
sense for a particular kind of filtration and penetration.” This statement is certainly applicable to
Scarpa’s approach to Regionalism.
In addition, according to Tzonis and Lefaive (1990), John Ruskin (1819-1900) as Romantic
Regionalist architect, states that Regionalism in its core should be able to motivate a sense of
national achievement through the strong qualities of “sympathy,” “memory,” “affinity,” and
“familiarity” of the past in the present .
Thus, Scarpa as a Venetian-Regionalist architect with a comprehensive understanding and
knowledge of the region, where he spent most of his life, managed to adapt and apply
Regionalism principles and vernacular architecture of the region to his design methodology.
Moreover, almost all of the theorists and critics admit that Scarpa had an extensive knowledge
about local materials of his region (Image 20); from Istrian stone and stucco to Murano glass in
forms of coloured tiles in his projects (Frascari, 1984) (Frampton, 1995) (Cadwell, 2007).
Image 20: Tectonic Assembly of Materials,

Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy
Scarpa was aware of the limitation of industrial production in his region (in particular Venice); he
was trained as a craftsman and gained valuable experience working closely with artisans and
crafts people in glasswork factories.
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Above all, Scarpa sustained a close relationship with different teams of Venetian craftsmen,
including Zanon for iron and metalwork, Anfodillo for woodwork and De Luigi for plasterwork. This
relationship was more a mutual collaboration than a simple fabrication of construction details
(Ranalli, 1999)
In fact, Scarpa established an equilibrium point to bring Modernism and Regionalism together by
the innovative use of contemporary craftsmanship and creative translation of Venetian
architecture into his design and projects (McCarter, 2013).
This can be seen in Scarpa’s use of ‘water’ as a material; he employed fluidity of ‘water’ as a
technical solution to break down the heaviness of mass in Modern Movement . Almost certainly in
all of Scarpa’s projects, a sense of fluidity and movement of elements is visible, the true character
of Scarpa’s methodology in architecture.
Illustration 1: Olivetti Showroo, Venice | Arrangement of steps express he movement and fluidity | Sketch by the
author
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CHAPTER 2; DISASSEMBLY
Illustration 2: Disassembly of Steps, Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy

Sketch by the author
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SCARPA’S HOLISTIC APPROACH
This chapter is concerned with Scarpa’s holistic and three-dimensional approach of developing
the details of some of his projects, which I have personally visited. The objective of these visits was
to see them up closely and to feel the quality of craftsmanship, as well as to understand the
projects as a whole. Consequently, these personal visits enabled me to perceive the details and
the liaison of various elements in the projects.
As discussed in the previous chapter, Scarpa put Modernism and Regionalist architecture under
the same roof by appreciating the Modernism of Frank Lloyd Wright and tectonic detailing of
Josef Hoffmann and Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Vernacular of Venice with potential of water as
a fluid material and finally Scarpa’s respect and knowledge about Regionalism in using materials
and working with local craftsmen. This has made him who he is in the field of architecture.
Scarpa employed different forms, symbols and icons from the past, from various cultures with a
long history. As discussed in Chapter 1, Scarpa never lost his regional identity, although he was
exposed to diverse cultures from all around the world. Consequently, the way Scarpa translated
the new and alien signs, icons, elements and forms into modern architectural language is based
on his authentic approach and on ‘water’ as a theme to his design.
In addition, I decided to follow Carlo Scarpa’s holistic approach, I also adopted Albertini and
Bagnoli’s thematic method in the book Scarpa Architecture in Details (1988) to illustrate Scarpa’s
design and construction methodology. I implemented a step-by step approach. First, I noted how
Scarpa interpreted a symbol into an architectural form and second, how he developed the form
through sketching, drafting and crafting. Finally, I noted how Scarpa produced tectonic elements
with the form from which he eventually erected the whole elaborate mass.
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INSPIRATION AND INVENTION
It is an important subject to discuss what inspired Scarpa’s design approach and how he
translated them into meaningful details. Venice and running water in the city made Scarpa who
he is as an authentic Modernist architect with great respect to history of architecture. However,
Scarpa visited the Far East and was mesmerised by the quality of small spaces and such small
spaces blend with, and are complemented by the nature in Japan.
He also evolved the Chinese Yin-Yang symbol (Vasica Piscis in Latin) from a pure symbol into an
architectural entity. Nevertheless, Scarpa was inspired by refined elements, signs, designs etc. and
construed them with his inventiveness. More importantly, these inspirations led Scarpa to be
inventive in developing fertile details by reusing and evolving them throughout his life (Frampton,
1995) (Frascari, 1984).
Two of the major features that enthused Scarpa and were evolved, decoded and used in his
projects will be illustrated and discussed below:
1. ZIGGURAT FORM:
Ziggurat as an ancient monumental structure emerged as a
form in some of Scarpa’s projects;, the use of ziggurat form
is mentioned and interpreted to a certain degree in almost
all of the books and essays which have been written about
Scarpa.
Fleming, Honour, & Pevsner, 1999, p.635, describe a Image 21: Ziggurat Chogha Zanbil, 2000 B.C,
Khuzestan, Iran
Photo by the author, March 2008
‘Ziggurat’ as: “A rectangular temple-tower in the form of
truncated pyramid built in diminishing stages, each stage being reached by ramps, erected by
the Sumerians ….” (Image 21, 22, & 23). Hence, the Ziggurat was a place of worship and simplicity
P a g e 35 | 78
and beauty of the form could be
translated as a place where the ‘earth’
reaches the ‘sky’ (Heideger, 1978).
The ziggurat form is a highly prevalent
architectural form; its diminishing
arrangement makes an aesthetic Image 22: Ziggurat Chogha Zanbil, 2000 B.C, Khuzestan, Iran
Photo by the author, March 2008
appearance as well as providing structural
integrity of a pyramid form. The ziggurat
form, was almost certainly constructed by
early crafts people (say architects) who
refined a cuboid form, and carved it so
that a solid, pure and heavy form was Image 23: Illustration of Ziggurat Chogha Zanbil
Source: mesopotamia.mrdonn.org/ziggurats
transformed into a more attractive mass.
Despite the fact that this form is named ‘ziggurat’ and it belongs to the ancient Sumerian
civilisation around Mesopotamia and Persian Gulf (2000 B.C), the ziggurat form has been used in
the design of buildings in
Venice. While I was walking
and strolling in the narrow
back streets of Venice, I
noticed that most of the
chimneys of the buildings are
attached to the external wall
with a ziggurat form (Image
24).
Image 24: Ziggurat Form of Venetian Image 25: Steps to Canal; Ziggurat
House, Venice, Italy Form, Venice, Italy
Photo by the author, December 2016 Photo by the author, December 2016
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In addition, a boat or a gondola in Venice can only be reached by one or more steps (Image 25).
Thus, the number of steps that is visible or submerged by water depends on the sea tidal
phenomenon. This interpretation is clearly represented in Brion Cemetery (1969-78) in San Vito
d'Altivole, Treviso, Italy. Ziggurat form has been
used as tectonic detail with a meaningful
manner in the cemetery, which creates a clear
liaison between life and death (Image 26).
Cadwell (2007) believes that the whole notion of
ziggurat form in the cemetery is an interpretation
of Heidegger’s philosophy of human ‘being’ on

Image 26: Ziggurat Form is Submerged in water, Brion
the ‘earth’ and ‘under the sky’ (as discussed in Cemetery, Treviso, Italy
Chapter 1, Part 4).
The ziggurat form inspired Scarpa, and thus, he employed it as an element to convey his ideas in
three main aspects. First, as a refined form from the past, the second, a Venetian element which
has various features in the city and the third, and the most important one, a layered form which
breaks down the crudeness of heavy mass in ‘Modern Architecture’.
2. VESICA PISCIS OR YIN-YANG SYMBOL:
Scarpa used ancient and classical symbols and
forms, in particular well-refined ones, in order to
translate them into modern architectural
elements. He evolved them as they had
already reached their optimum perfection. As

Yin-Yang Symbol Vesica Piscis Symbol
a result, he took the whole concept to a higher
level (Frascari, 1984).
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In various projects, Frampton, Los, Murphy Cadwell and many other theorists, historians and critics
have noticed Scarpa’s use of Vesica Piscis - two circles that are combined in a simple way but
have created a sophisticated form. For Scarpa ‘Vesica Piscis’ was an element with potential in his
methodology; in one way, it is the philosophical and cultural definition of the symbol and in
another, the geometrical beauty and plasticity of the form.
Scarpa was in China when he first noticed the Yin-Yang symbol on a pack of cigarette box. He
then realised the symbol has similar roots and meaning in European culture (as he discovered
Vesica Piscis and Mandorla); consequently, proportion and beauty of the symbol inspired him to
convert it into an architectural entity (Frampton, 1995).
For instance, Scarpa rotated the intersection of the circles (almond shape) 90 degrees in Olivetti
Showroom (1957-58), Venice (Image 27), then divided into two halves which is a representation
of eyes or as Frampton calls it an ‘oculus’. Each part resembles a Japanese mesh pattern and
slides open rather than by hinges (Los, 1993).
Image 27: Vesica Piscis in Shape of Oculus, Olivetti

Showroom, Venice, Italy
Illustration 3: Oculus, Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy

Illustration 4: Tectonic Assembly of Post to the

Roof Structure, Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy
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In Brion Cemetery, the Vesica Piscis is a symbol of marriage as well as of life, death, divinity and
mortality (Image 28, 29 & 30). It is two interconnected circles that represent the rings of a husband
and wife (Mr and Mrs Brion) and their bodies are buried alongside each other in the cemetery
(Cadwell, 2007).
Image 28: Vesica Piscis, Representation of Marriage (rings

of husband and wife) and Life, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy
Image 29: Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy

Image 30: Vesica Piscis, Representation of Death

and Separation, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy
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Therefore, Scarpa was first inspired by the elegance and the power of the symbol, which he then
evolved in his own inventive way. As illustrated in the two earlier examples, the Vesica Piscis
expresses a sense of light and shadow, solid and void, perfection and imperfection, sign of life
and death which all refer to the origin of the Vesica Piscis (Image 31). In Chinese (Yin-Yang
Symbol), this represents the belief that everything in the universe consists of two forces which are
opposing but complementary (Cadwell, 2007).
Image 31: Vesica Piscis and Yin-Yang Symbol Graphical Presentation

Source: www.crystalinks.com
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DRAFTSMAN AND CRAFTSMAN
“I want to see things, I don’t trust anything else, I want to see and that’s why I draw. I can see an
image only if I draw it”.
Carlo Scarpa
Scarpa, as a Venetian, experienced the city as a place where
craftsmanship expresses itself on the façade of buildings;
Murphy (1993) believes that the tension between various layers
of stucco rendering on the façade of buildings in Venice, which
are damaged by weathering and water (image 32), is a
representation of a visual conversation between ‘man’s hands
and nature’s response’.
Image 32: Venice, Italy

Scarpa’s background as a craftsman and glass designer in his twenties at M.V.M. Cappellin
Glasswork (1926-1932) as well as working closely with high-class glassblowers at Vennini Glasswork
(1932-1947) on Venetian island of Murano (Barovier, 1998) encouraged him to make a conscious
decision in his architectural methodology (McCarter, 2013).
According to Los (1993) -Sergio Los is an architect who has
experience working with Carlo Scarpa- drawing for Scarpa
was a process to explain and expand an idea, a ‘creative
reflection’ of an open discussion from which a right or wrong
design could be realised. Thus, Scarpa’s method of drawing is
widely different from the utilitarian drawing methods of

Image 33: Carlo Scarpa in M.V.M
construction. Glasswork Factory
Source: M.V.M Historic Images
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Integrating the plan, section and elevation in one drawing (orthographic projection) is a classical
architectural method to convey what an architect wants from the craftsman. Olsberg, et al.
(1999) states that Scarpa’s use of orthographic projection drawings, which were created with high
accuracy and rendered with shading, shadow and human figures (Image 34), have made the
drawings legible and have provided a sensual quality of space (Los, 1993).
Image 34: Drawing of Entrance Gate by

Carlo Scarpa in Brion Cemetery, Treviso,
Italy
Source: Brusatin, et al., The Other City:
Carlo Scarpa, 1989
Moreover, Scarpa very often
included a perspective view of
his design to make a clear picture of his concept (Frampton, 1995). It is interesting to note that
Scarpa always used 11cm as a modular number in his design; it is good practice to use a module
which makes the proportion of the final form aesthetically pleasing (Albertini & Bagnoli, 1988) .
Scarpa believed that an intricate design needs to be explained on a sheet of paper as mentioned
in his earlier quotation. The drawings demonstrate that the detail can be made in the real world,
and some of them have dimension lines for crafts people
that make it easier for them to understand. In fact, Scarpa’s
method of investigating the assembly of ‘materials, joinery
and even surface treatment’ inspired him to produce the
drawings (Image 35) in 1:1 scale (Los, 1993).
Image 35: Study for Detailing of the Candelabrum. Pencil and

Crayons on Bristol board, Drawing by Carlo Scarpa
Source:Albertini &Bagnoli, Scarpa Architecture in Details, 1988
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Undoubtedly, in this way, he was reassured that the precision of elaborate detail is achieved and
at the same time, he could see the layers of the design in full scale to be modified and corrected
later if needed (Los, 1993).
Los (1993) describes Scarpa’s drafting and drawing method as a ‘delineatory method’ that
includes three stages. In the first stage, Scarpa sketched, drafted and traced multiple designs with
pencil and in the second stage, he drew the final concept with dilute black and red India ink on
cards. In the last stage, he traced over the approved
drawing which usually happened in the very last seconds
before the deadline.

Image 36: Carlo Scapa Source:
Los, Carlo Scarpa, 1993
In fact, Scarpa was able to communicate with his teams of craftsmen efficiently and directly
through his ‘delineatory method’. George Ranalli (1999) remarks that Scarpa’s extensive liaison
and co-operation with ‘traditional artisanship’ as well as his orthographic projection drawings
enabled him to ‘push the boundaries’ of the ‘maker’s craft’. As a result, Scarpa managed to root
architecture into ‘artisanal traditions’; in other words, he established a contemporary language
for traditional craftsmanship.
For example, in Castelvecchio Museum (19657-64) in Verona, Italy, Scarpa made a creative
resolution to a problem by consulting his craftsman (Francesco E Paolo Zanon for steelwork)
(Murphy, 1993). The Castelvecchio Museum project is one of the most commended of Scarpa’s
projects. Roman initially built the castle as a fortress and during the Napoleonic Wars 1796-1797,
French troops demolished some parts of the building. Castelvecchio has been repaired and
restored at different times, especially in the 20th century, and the last restoration and re-design
was carried out by Carlo Scarpa from 1957 to 1974 (Murphy, 1990).
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In Castelvecchio Museum -as well as Querini Stampalia Foundation-, on metal brackets (Image
38) which sculptures are mounted, a small three-quarter circle appears at the crossing point of
horizontal and vertical cutting lines to stop the saw going further; ultimately a clean and right
angle cut with no overrun was achieved (Image 37). This example is evident that Scarpa had
close communication with his team of craftsmen as Murphy quotes: “Scarpa’s famous motif of a
three-quarter brass ring expressing the original process of cutting the sheet.” (Murphy, 1993, p.14)
Image 37: Detail of Metal

Bracket, Castelvecchio
Museum, Verona, Italy
Photo by the author,
December 2016
Illustration 5: Cutting
Detail of Metal Brackets Image 38: Sculpture Mounted on a Metal Bracket,
Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy
Sketch by the author Photo by the author, December 2016
Ranalli also explains the procedure: “when the saw ran into the metal there would be no place
to stop and achieve a clean cut; drilling a hole first would give the saw blade a stopping point,
permitting a neat crosscut from two directions.” (Olsberg, et al., 1999, p.41).
Consequently, Scarpa became familiar with new techniques and how to overcome a problem
with the available machinery and craftsmanship of his time (Olsberg, et al., 1999); indeed with
today’s advanced technology of laser cutting this is not an issue. In addition, the output from
similar challenges made Scarpa more determined to entrench craftsmanship into his design to
make tectonic details (Frampton, 1995)
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MATERIALS, ELEMENTS AND HUMAN SENSES
“Expressing the insertion of a new and independent
Architectural vocabulary into existing fabric.”
Murphy, 1993, p.11
Scarpa used various materials in his projects, from water and Istrian stones to brass and concrete.
Materials are part of Scarpa’s design process to create elements, joints and indeed the whole
model in such a way that human senses are stimulated (Image 39): from the tactile design of the
bridge at Querini Stampalia Foundation in Venice to the sound of dripping water in Brion
Cemetery. Scarpa did not assemble the materials to clad a form or an element; rather he
combined different materials to create an element (McCarter, 2013).
Image 39: Ground Floor, Castelvecchio Museum,

Verona, Italy
Natural Light and Materials
In the following discussion, I will illustrate and analyse two of Scarpa’s designs whose materials play
a significant role in expressing intricate elements of the projects as well as how the materials
stimulate human senses.
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BRIDGE AT QUERINI STAMPALIA FOUNDATION, VENICE, ITALY
“The bridge is swings over the stream ‘with ease and power’. It does not just connect banks that
are already there. The banks emerges as banks only as the bridge crosses the stream.” (Martin
Heidegger, 1978, Routledge reprint 2011, p.248)
Historically speaking, in Venice, bridges used to connect small villages and tribes in the city (as
discussed in Chapter 1, Part 4) and the most celebrated one is Rialto Bridge. Every single canal
has at least one bridge that spans from one side to the other, a connection point which acts like
a joint.
Image 40: The Bridge at Querini

Stampalia Foundation, Venice,
Italy
Photo by the author,
December 2016
Scarpa deigned a new bridge (Image 40) at Querini Stampalia Foundation (1961-63); the bridge
has a distinctive identity. Querini Stampalia Foundation is located in Campo Santa Maria Formosa
in Venice; about a 30-minute walk from Venice train station in the west to the eastern side of the
city. Querini Stampalia’s family used to live in the building and in 1869 the building changed its
function to a cultural institution. The building experienced extreme high tides (aqua alta) in the
past and the ground floor was restored several times (Murphy, 1993).
The bridge at Querini Stampalia Foundation is more than merely a threshold that visitors must cross
to enter the building (though the entrance door was closed by Carlo Scarpa a few months after
P a g e 46 | 78
it was opened); its sleekness and the tectonic assembly of
elements render it a fine example of Scarpa’s admiration for
nature, materials and craftsmanship. In addition, it is important
to mention that the bridge does not connect the piazza to an
existing door (Image 41) or entrance to the building; it replaced
an existing Venetian window with a new modernist glazed
entrance door (Murphy, 1993).
Image 41: View from The Bridge to New Entrance Door,

Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy
The main role of the bridge at Querini Stampalia Foundation is to serve the building, the
landscape, water in the canal and people; hence, the bridge gathers all of them in one place.
Martin Heidegger in his essay Building, Dwelling, Thinking, describes the identity of a bridge: “It
brings stream and bank and land into each other’s neighbourhood. The bridge gathers the earth
as landscape around the stream.” (Martin Heidegger, Basic Writings 1978, Routledge reprint 2011,
p.248)
Scarpa was able to make the bridge the focal point( Image 42), as a point where all things
become neighbours. The Querini Stampalia Foundation building marked a new beginning and
celebrated its renovation with the construction of the bridge. The bridge on its own, without
considering the materiality and
tactility, has changed the dynamic
of the place (Cadwell, 2007).
Image 42: The Bridge in the Context, Querini

P a g e 47 | 78
The second aspect of the bridge at Querini Stampalia Foundation is the elaboration and
combination of materials in the design. The structural assembly of the bridge comprises two
arched steel sheets with steel spaced connectors; masonry on both sides of the canal provide a
support for the steel arch (Image 43 & 44) (Murphy, 1993). This bridge with its sleek and tectonic
light frame is a clear contrast to the adjacent classical Venetian bridge; there is a constant
dialogue between new and old, tectonic of a light-frame and streotomic of red bricks and stone
(Frampton, 1995).
Illustration 6: Sectional View of the Bridge, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy
Sketch by the author – Traced from Murphy, Querini Stampalia Foundation; Carlo Scarpa , 1993
Image 43: Connection of the Bridge to the Piazza, Image 44: Connection of the Bridge to the Building,
Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy
Photo by the author, December 2016 Photo by the author, December 2016
P a g e 48 | 78
The bridge’s posts, made out of steel, connect the structure to steel handrails (Image45 & 46); the
coldness of the steel is opposed and at the same time complemented by the warmness of the
wooden (teak) handrails which are carefully supported by curved brackets.
Illustration 7: Detail of Handrails, Querini

Image 45: Handrails of the Bridge, Querini Stampalia

Foundation, Venice, Italy
Image 46: : Post and Handrails of the Illustration 9: Detail of Connection

Illustration 8: Profile of Handrails,
Bridge, , Querini Stampalia Foundation, Point- Handrails and Post, Querini
Querini Stampalia Foundation,
Venice, Italy Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy
Venice, Italy
Photo by the author, December 2016 Sketch by the author

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WATER AS A MATERIAL IN BRION CEMETERY, OLIVETTI SHOWROOM & QUERINI STAMPALIA
FOUNDATION
“Scarpa was an aquatic sensibility, saturated by Venice.”
(Cadwell, 2007, p.12)
Water is an essential element to human life, without water no life can exist; yet humans create a
water- resistance envelope around their dwelling so that they can to live in comfort and at a safe
distance from the water. Thus, the nature of water, like all other elements in the universe, contains
two opposed but complementary forces; as Heidegger (1978) translated into mortality and
divinity.
From a layman’s point of view, water can be constructive and at the same time destructive;
however, Scarpa knew that water has more to offer. Water in Scarpa’s projects become a
seductive element and a material that has the potential to create surface and stimulate the
human senses more than solid materials. Solid materials can connect through sight, touch and
smell whereas water has the advantage of being able to trigger all human senses (Pallasmaa,
2005).
Evidently, Scarpa had a different attitude
towards water; he was born in a city where
water has replaced the earth. Venetians have
accepted that water is the dominant power in
the city and have learnt how to live with it - refer
to Chapter 1, Part 4 - (Goy, 1999). Thus, Scarpa
employed water as a material in some of his Image 47: Venice, Italy
projects, and what Scarpa achieved with water Photo by the author, December 2016
P a g e 50 | 78
is beyond a logical approach; rather it happened through his first-hand experience of living on
an island (Los, 1993).
I am still able to hear the sensual and relaxing sound of water dripping in (1969-78) and Olivetti
Showroom (1957-58), which will embolden me to visit these places again in the future.
Olivetti Showroom (1957-58) is located in Piazza San Marco (St. Marco Square) in Venice, where
water is visible everywhere. The showroom is an exhibition room for Olivetti’s publication. However,
Brion Cemetery (1969-78) has a different story because it was built in San Vito d'Altivole, Treviso, a
small town whose earth is divided into a patchwork of farms and where no streams are visible. (I
have already written a brief description of Querini Stampalia Foundation in the previous pages;
the Bridge at Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy)
Image 48: Invasion of Water into the Building, Querini

Scarpa allowed water to come into the building

Illustration 10: Ground Floor Plan, Querini Stampalia
of Querini Stampalia Foundation (Image 48) from Foundation, Venice, Italy
the north side (from Formosa Canal) then he Sketch by the author, Traced from Murphy, Querini
Stampalia Foundation; Carlo Scarpa , 1993 |
Not To Scale
allowed visitors to the building to experience the
quality of space in the gallery for a while (Cadwell, 2007). And when the visitors reach the back
P a g e 51 | 78
garden of the building, the ingenious use of water reminds them of being in Venice. Again, the
sound of dripping, flowing water echoes in the garden. The water is channelled from one basin to
another to stimulate the human senses (Image 49). Visitors first hear the sound of water, then they
see it, then they smell it and are tempted to
touch it, and finally they can drink it (I am not
sure if it is clean water!).
Image 49: Water Basin and Water Channel in The

Back Garden, Querini Stampalia Foundation,
Venice, Italy
Illustration 11: Stone Basin, Querini Stampalia Foundation,

Venice, Italy
Illustration 12: Composition of tectonic Objects,

Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy
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In Olivetti Showroom, Scarpa placed a shallow pond just on the left-hand side of the entrance
platform. The pond, made out of black stone, is full of water which resembles a reflective surface,
like a mirror (Image 50). Thus, Scarpa employed water as a material rather than a feature.
Image 50: The Shallow Pond, Olivetti Showroom,

Venice, Italy
Yet again, the experience of listening to water dripping from a scupper into a gully happens
involuntarily. It is a pleasant experience to leave noisy San Marco Piazza and step inside the
showroom and feel the silence and tranquillity of the space where water stimulates the human
senses of hearing and sight (Los, 1993).
Illustration 13: Tectonic Design of Scupper and Gully,

Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy
P a g e 53 | 78
Moreover, Scarpa placed great emphasis on showing that the power and presence of water in
this project is visible throughout space (Image 51). From the flooring pattern of the ground floor to
the arrangement of polished marble steps (Image 53) and suspension of cabinets and display
shelves (Image 52) (Albertini & Bagnoli, 1988). For instance, small tiles cover the ground floor; they
are small, randomly cut and have shades of cream-white, grey, cyan and pink. The pattern of the
floor represents ‘waves’, the very ‘form’ of water as Ruskin (2003) describes it.
Image 51: Tectonic Assembly of Obejects and Materials,

Image 52: Flooring Pattern, Tectonic Assembly of Display

Shelves, Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy
Image 53: Arrangement and Assembly of the Marble Steps,

P a g e 54 | 78
Illustration 14: Ground Floor Plan, Olivetti Showroom Venice, Italy
Sketch by the author, Traced from Centro Internazionale Di Studi Di Architettura Andrea Palladio, 2007 | Not To Scale
Image 54: View from Mezzanine to Ground Floor,

Image 55: Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy

P a g e 55 | 78
Finally, ‘water’ has a significant role in Brion Cemetery (1969-78) which in some respects is different
from any other of Scarpa’s projects. Cadwell (2007) links the presence of water, ziggurat form and
Vesica Piscis to Heidegger’s philosophy of
‘being’. Scarpa tells the story of life and death
from the entrance point of the cemetery; there
is constant tension between the shallow pond
and the ziggurat form which has created a
boundary all around it (Image 56). The ziggurat
form is submerged inside the pond and creates

Image 56: Ziggurat Form and Water, Brion Cemetery,
a boundary wall around it, like a retaining wall. Treviso, Italy
Frampton (1995) believes that the submergence
of ziggurat form in water, in Scarpa’s philosophy, is a representation of death as part of a human’s
circle of life.
Illustration 15: Ground Floor Plan, Brion Cemetery,

Treviso, Italy
Sketch by the author, traced from Olsberg, et al., Carlo

Scarpa Architect; Intervining with History,1999
Not To Scale
P a g e 56 | 78
Scarpa guided the visitor into the garden
through the chapel, the building that separates
the entrance from the garden and ‘meditation
pool’. In the garden, ’water’ comes into play
again; its materiality is expressed in the most
articulated and sophisticated way; deep water
that holds the pavilion acts as solid material

Image 57: View of Narrow Canal and The Meditation Pool,
(Image 57) (Albertini & Bagnoli, 1988). The
meditation pool is connected to the site’s
landscape by a narrow canal (Image 58). The water in the canal that flows into the pool,
represents the fluid materiality of water. The illusion of water in Brion Cemetery reaches its highest
point where the source of water is unknown; Scarpa certainly took the deliberate decision to hide
the source of water as San Vito d'Altivole has no visible water sources.
Image 58: View od Meditation Pool, Brion Cemetery,

Treviso, Italy
Water as A Solid Material Carrying the Weight of
Pavilion’s Post
Illustration 16: Japanese Style Arrangement of Steps,

P a g e 57 | 78
For the above reasons, Scarpa consciously used water, and many other natural and man-made
materials, to express his authentic architecture; he created a sense of silence in his projects to
stimulate human senses. This is an evident of Scarpa’s admiration of Frank Lloyd Wright’s
architecture. Scarpa never ceased to produce elaborate and tectonic details throughout his life
because he was aware of potential of tectonic ornamentation.
Image 59: The Basin and Flow of Water, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy
Composition of Natural and Man-Made Materials, Sense of Tranquillity
P a g e 58 | 78
CHAPTER 3; ASSEMBLY
Illustration 17: Congrande Statue in Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy

P a g e 59 | 78
ASSEMBLY OF NATURE, HISTORY AND ELEMENTS IN SCARPA’S
METHODOLOGY AND PROJECTS
In this chapter, some of Scarpa’s projects will be discussed and illustrated to conclude this
dissertation as regards the tectonic production of objects, assembly of elaborate elements and
their relationship with nature and history.
Nature and history are deeply rooted in Scarpa’s architecture; he was intrigued by nature and as
discussed previously, the philosophy of ‘being’ on the earth and under the sky. His interpretation
of nature in architecture has a lateral meaning rather than a literal one (bio-architecture).
Since Scarpa was inspired by history and nature, the mythical symbol of Vesica Piscis appears in
his projects to represent the nature of the universe. He also used natural materials (Istrian stones,
wood) and invited water to enter the building (Querini Stampalia Foundation).
Scarpa embraced nature and its natural elements to complement the space that he designed;
for instance in Gipsoteca Canoviana Museum’s Extension (1955-57) in Possagno, Treviso, Italy,
natural light illuminates the sculptures and there is no sign of artificial light (Carmel-Arthur & Buzas,
2002).
Therefore, Scarpa’s holistic approach to assembling nature, history (Regionalism), and
craftsmanship created a new language in Modern Architecture where spatial arrangements of
spaces are complemented by the quality of elaborate detail (Tafuri, 1989).
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SCARPA; MODERNISM, REGIONALISM, CRAFSMANSHIP, NATURE &
ARCHITECTURE
“The elements of nature - water, wind, light, and sky – bring architecture derived from
ideological thought down to ground level of reality and awaken man-made life within.”
Ando, 1991, p.10
Throughout this dissertation, Scarpa’s design methodology has been demonstrated in an attempt
to prove that his approach is genuine; though Scarpa’s works were not appreciated enough
during his lifetime.
Scarpa always detached himself from the crudeness and heaviness of mass of Modern Movement
architecture but he followed the principles of Modern
Movement. On the other hand, Scarpa placed craftsmanship at
the heart of his design methodology which proves his loyalty to
the tradition of architecture; however, Scarpa was against the
idea of imitating the past (e.g. symmetrical design of Classical
Architecture).
For these reasons, Scarpa employed elements of nature,
historical symbols and forms, intricacy of objects in Classical
Architecture, principles of Modern Movement, working drawings
and craftsmanship, and followed the codes of Regionalism for Image 60: Ziggurat Moulding, Brion
Cemetery, Treviso, Italy
producing his genuine and elaborate architecture.
The ziggurat form in Scarpa’s project is evident of his attention to history and detail. In Brion
Cemetery (1969-78) in San Vito d'Altivole, Treviso, Italy, the ziggurat form manifests itself as a
prominent theme (Image 60): the parapet walls of the chapel (building) and the rainwater outlets
P a g e 61 | 78
(chutes) are designed with the ziggurat form (Image 61). The ziggurat form has also formed a
boundary around the pond to encircle the water (Image 62).
Image 61: Ziggurat Moulding Formed the Parapet Wall,

Image 62: Ziggurat Moulding Forms the Parapet Wall,

Inside the chapel, the windows frames and the skylight are shaped with the ziggurat form (image
62) and the corners of the altar (in the chapel) are chamfered with the insertion of brass cuboids.
These brass cuboids are engraved with the ziggurat form (image 63); the same engraving is
applied on the door hinges (image 64).
Image 63: Ziggurat engraving into the corner of the altar,

Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy.
Image 64: Brass Door Hinge with Engraved ziggurat form,

Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy.
Repetition of the ziggurat form in different scales, materials and functions is evident throughout
Scarpa’s methodology. As previously discussed, in Chapter 2, the ziggurat form shows the history
of human civilisation and life and death. Undoubtedly, the quality of construction of the ziggurat
P a g e 62 | 78
forms, in Brion Cemetery, could not have been achieved without Scarpa’s knowledge and liaison
with competent and skilful craftsmen; in this particular case, Francesco Zanon led a team of
craftsmen whose speciality was metalwork, to produce the brass hinges for the doors and brass
cuboids for the altar’s corners (Albertini & Bagnoli, 1988).
Moreover, natural light comes inside the chapel through a skylight (Image 65). The skylight is a
pyramid form and is located above the altar. What makes the pyramid form an elaborate
element is the wooden cladding, which again resembles the ziggurat form. The creative use of
the pyramid acts as a concave lens, which condenses the light so that it reaches the bottom and
illuminates the altar; it rather performs the function of a spotlight over the focal point of the chapel.
Image 65: Skylight with ziggurat moulding,

Image 66: Geometrical

Analysis of Brion Cemetery,
Treviso, Italy
Source: Frampton, Studies
in Tectonic Culture: The
Poeticsof Construction in
Nineteenth and Twentieth
Century Architecture, 1995
Illustration 18: Interior of Chapel in Brion
Cemetery, Treviso, Italy
P a g e 63 | 78
The role of natural light, as an element of nature, is expressed in other Scarpa projects. For
instance, in Gipsoteca Canoviana Museum’s extension (1955-57) in Possagno, Treviso, Italy,
cuboid windows are also present in the top corners of the walls so that natural light is invited from
all directions to create a sense of seductive space (Image 67). Tension between light and shadow
makes the visitors aware of the mass and volume of the sculptures more than the use of an intense
spotlight over them (Carmel-Arthur & Buzas, 2002).
Image 67: Cuboid window, Natural Light, Sculptures, Gipsoteca

Canoviana Museum’s extension, Possagno, Italy
Source: Carmel-Arthur & Buzas, Carlo Scarpa; Museo Canoviana, 2002
Illustration 19: Reflected Ceiling Perspective, Gipsoteca Canoviana Museum’s

extension, Possagno, Italy
Sketch by the author, traced from Carmel-Arthur & Buzas, Carlo Scarpa; Museo
Canoviana, 2002
P a g e 64 | 78
For Scarpa, the composition of elaborate elements to create mass was the most important part
of the design. Like other Modern Movement architects, he achieved a spatial arrangement within
the whole mass, while avoiding the symmetrical arrangement of Classical Architecture and
simplicity of forms (lack of tectonic elements) in Modern Architecture (Frampton, 1995).
By carefully selecting the elements and materials for objects, and then assembling them with
harmony has created a sense of fluidity in the whole design. The joints between the different parts
of an architectural object are visible; hence, the texture and depth of materials are illumined by
light and shadow (Image 68). The façade of Banca Popolare di Verona (1973-1981) in Verona,
Italy, is an example of Scarpa’s drama with
materials and forms: solid and void and
roughness and smoothness.
Image 68: Tectonic Objects, Materials,

Light and Shadow and Human Senses
The Banca Popolare di Verona (1973-1981) project is a renovation of the interior of the existing
building and an extension to the existing bank premises. The work was finished in 1981, three years
after Scarpa death in 1978. The façade comprises external and internal layers and the gap
between them is noticeable. The tectonic
assembly of Botticino marble with ziggurat
moulding has created a sense of movement on
the external façade (Image 69); this moulding is
more visible when light reveals its smoothness
and ziggurat forms. In this way, the depth and
texture of the material can be realised.

Image 69: Front Elevation, Banca Popolare di Verona,
Verona, Italy
P a g e 65 | 78
Another aspect of the façade is the series of circular openings; the diameters of the circles are
different which, according to Los (1993), resembles liveliness (Image 70). A very fine, narrow
channel is extended (Illustration 20) from the bottom of each circle. The channels act as a
rainwater outlet and is a good example of Scarpa’s design process to create tectonic details.
Without a doubt, craftsmanship played a significant role in turning such intricate design into reality.
Image 70: Façade of Banca Popolare di Verona,

Verona, Italy
Circular openings have different diameters,
Botticino marble with ziggurat moulding express
the movement through change of datum line
Illustration 20: Detail of Circular Opening on

the Façade, Banca Popolare di Verona,
Verona, Italy
Illustration 21: Composition of Windows & Ziggurat Form,

Banca Popolare di Verona, Verona, Italy
In this manner, Scarpa expressed his loyalty to both
Classical and Modern architecture; a new and
modern mass whose objects comprise tectonic and elaborate details (Albertini & Bagnoli, 1988).
P a g e 66 | 78
Scarpa’s ‘working drawing’ was a route that enabled him to communicate with his teams of
craftsmen directly. In Chapter 2, Scarpa’s process of draftsmanship is described. Hence, the
drawings (Image 71 & 72) were part of the process of craftsmanship to produce a component or
detail with high accuracy (Los, 1993).
Image 71: Ground Floor Plan of Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy, by Carlo Scarpa
Source: Murphy, Carlo Scarpa and Castelvecchio, 1990
Image 72: South Elevation of Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy, by Carlo Scarpa
Source: Murphy, Carlo Scarpa and Castelvecchio, 1990
P a g e 67 | 78
Castelvecchio Museum (1957-1974) in Verona, Italy, is the most-admired project of Scarpa’s
architecture (Image 73). In Castelvecchio Museum, Scarpa methodology was to uncover the
history of the building itself to become part of the museum, rather than a functional space for
displaying art (Murphy, 1990). Rab-Kirchner, 1998, p.447, describes: “On a purely stylistic level, he
(Scarpa) composed the original appearance of the castle and its new image. And, at a critical
level, he experimented with the new urbanism that was grounded in the notion of contextualism
in architecture.”
Image 73: South Elevation,

Photo by the author
Murphy (1990) describes the project as a ‘selective excavation and creative demolition’ ; Scarpa
unveiled the history of the building through excavations, exposing different layers of building fabric
by cosmetic surgery, and by re-positioning and re-assembling historic elements. Then, he designed
and put in place a modern feature, a bridge across the moat, to link two individual historic
buildings of the museum (image 74).
Image 74: View from Ground Level to

Congrande Statue and the Bridge,
P a g e 68 | 78
After North Barak and the staircase, which were built during
Napoleon’s occupation, were demolished, excavation that
followed then revealed the moat around the fort. Additionally,
Scarpa made a decision to relocate the Congrande statue
(Congrande della Scala was the last Lord of Verona 1308-1329
A.D) and designed a new platform outside to exhibit the statue
as a symbol of Verona (Image 75).
Image 75: View from South East Tower

to Congrande Statue, Castelvecchio
The process mentioned above was in keeping with Scarpa’s holistic approach to create a
coherent design where small details are the fragments of the building context. Also, Scarpa’s
translation of modern art is shown in the pattern of the exterior walls of the sacellum (Image 76,77
& 78) it is the same design as the galley room in Querini flooring); the pattern is inspired by German
artist, Josef Albers (1888-1976).
Image 76: Pattern of Sacellum’s Image 77: Homage to the Square by

External Walls, Castelvecchio Josef Albers (1951)
Source: www.theartstory.org/artist-
Drawing by Carlo Scarpa Source: albers-josef-artworks
Murphy, Carlo Scarpa and
Castelvecchio, 1990
Image 78: Sacellum Extension,

Castelvecchio Museum, Verona
P a g e 69 | 78
Moreover, the presence of craftsmanship is clearly visible in the
project, see Chapter 2; Draftsman and Craftsman. In
Castelvecchio, Scarpa’s re-ordering process was accompanied
by the creative intervention of craftsmanship in objects. ‘L’
shape metalwork that defines the edge of concrete walls is
evidence of elaborate and tectonic detail (Image 79); this detail
indicates the process of creative design which was executed by
highly skilled craftsmen.

Image 79: Metalwork on Concrete Wall,
The Castelvecchio Museum project was Scarpa’s longest project (1957-1974 in two phases) where
the existing buildings and new architectural elements and objects complement each other. The
new objects express themselves as Modern to oppose the historic fabrics of the buildings; hence,
the myth of Vesica Piscis is embedded in the project to define the identity of Scarpa’s
methodology.
Illustration 22: Front Elevation of Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy
Adaptation of Existing Situation, Symmetry of Existing Building with the New Objects (in Yellow Colour) with
Asymmetrical Arrangement, and Revealing the Stone Wall Beneath the Stucco Render ( Brownish Colour)
P a g e 70 | 78
Finally, Scarpa’s architecture is the composition of all aspects of architecture from its beginning;
he focused on producing the finest piece of architecture and, probably, did not like to be classed
as part of an ‘ism’ in architecture. Therefore, Scarpa and his works do not belong to any ‘ism’;
rather Scarpa belongs to the basic definition of architecture, i.e. the act of designating and
making, and nothing more.
Image 80: View From Second Floor to the Ground Floor, Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy
P a g e 71 | 78
CONCLUSION
This purpose of this dissertation was to explore and study Carlo Scarpa’s architecture given that
his authentic approach to design as a Modernist-Regionalist architect has not been analysed
thoroughly by historians, theorists and critics. Therefore, Scarpa’s architecture has been
considered ‘craft-intensive and small scale’; however, this research has argued that Scapa is a
Modernist Architect who developed the language of Modern Movement with regard to critical
regionalism, to the process of drafting and craftsmanship and, more importantly, to the inclusion
of nature’s elements, such as water and light.
Scarpa’s critical approach to resolving the heaviness of forms in
Modern Movement was based on his first-hand experience as a
designer and craftsman where he worked closely with artisans
(glassblowers) in glasswork factories on the Venetian island of Photo by the Author
Murano. This experience made Scarpa aware of the importance of collaborating with local
craftsmen, using local materials and expressing his design through the nature of the place, Venice,
where he was raised.
Le Corbusier, as an eminent Modern Movement theorist and architect, manifested his
methodology for producing a modern and new form of architecture through the process of ‘Plan,
Surface and Mass’; hence, ‘Plan’, as generators of ‘Surface and Mass’, had the dominant role in
Le Corbusier’s design approach.
On the other hand, Carlo Scarpa’s conscious decision to adopt
spatial arrangements of space from Frank Lloyd Wright’s works was
complemented with tectonic detailing of Josef Hoffmann and
Charles Rennie Mackintosh. In this manner, Scarpa firstly justified his Photo by the Author
P a g e 72 | 78
approach by selecting precedents and subsequently, Scarpa defined his own language in
architecture.
In fact, Scarpa’s decision to integrate tectonic architecture into
Modern Movement resulted in the development of a new and
authentic language in architecture; the language that produces
space and mass is a result of the tectonic assembly of objects. In
other words, Scarpa’s approach challenges Modern Movement Photo by the Author
methodology; nonetheless, Scarpa’s holistic approach enabled him to create the same spatial
arrangement that at the same time resolved the crisis of objects in Modern Movement.
Scarpa maintained a long relationship and collaboration with local teams of craftsmen; in
addition, the use of vernacular materials from the region can be seen in his projects. This approach
is defined as ‘critical regionalism’ by Frampton (1983), Tzonis, and Lefaivre (1990 & 2001). Therefore,
Scarpa is a Modernist and Regionalist Architect whose methodology covers a wide range of
architectural and social theories. However, Scarpa’s approach is not based on theory; rather it is
based on the act of production, following a process of draftsmanship and craftsmanship.
Scarpa’s practical, holistic and vernacular approach was inspired by Venice’s status as an island
city. Due to the logistical limitations of Venice and the absence of Photo by the Author
machinery, the city, as we know it today, had to be built by local
builders and craftsmen.
In this environment, Scarpa believed in the important roles of
craftsmanship in architecture, in addition, he acknowledged that a
substantial effort is needed to upgrade these traditional and classical approaches of
craftsmanship. Scarpa’s process of drawing was an important step to achieving this goal; his
accurate and sensual drawings (orthographic projection) were the keystone to communicating
with crafts people effectively.
P a g e 73 | 78
Moreover, Scarpa’s holistic approach was critically and holistically
appraised. Firstly, Scarpa was inspired by the fluidity of water as an
element; he then designed and assembled the objects for his
projects to express a fluid form. Hence, the fluid character of water,
as a theme, is applied to Scarpa’s design.

Photo by the Author
Secondly, Scarpa was loyal to the identity of his region, though he admired the oriental cultures
of China and Japan; Scarpa found the root of Chinese Yin-Yang symbol in western culture as
Vesica Piscis. Scarpa evolved the symbol and transformed it into an architectural entity.
Ultimately, Scarpa was able to make his own genuine architecture by blending various factors of
architecture with the elements of nature. This results in a constant dialogue between joints,
elements and objects that forms a fluid space. Ostensibly, fluidity of space is a direct result of
Scarpa’s ‘adoration of nature’ through the assembly of joints.
Thirdly, Carlo Scarpa designed and constructed various projects but some of them are
commended more than his other projects. For instance, in Querini
Stampalia Foundation in Venice and Castelvecchio Museum in
Verona, Scarpa’s intervention to the existing buildings and fabrics is
much-admired due to his ability to integrate new and modern
elements and objects into existing space. Consequently, the gravity

Photo by the Author
of the new space enables human senses to really appreciate and
feel the space.
There is an ongoing dialogue between Scarpa’s interventions of tectonic objects and the classical
quality of space; they contradict and complement each other like Yin-Yang and Vesica Piscis
symbol while the elements of nature define the spatial arrangements of the space.
Finally, although Scarpa was criticised for not designing grand buildings and projects to express
his ability as a Modern Movement architect, his adoration of nature, his adaptation of an existing
situation (history), his holistic approach to designing tectonic elements, his loyalty to his regional
P a g e 74 | 78
identity, his continuity in the process of design, his collaboration with local craftsmen that, in the
end create a tranquil space where human senses are touched, have made him an authentic
Modernist-Regionalist architect whose ultimate goal was to tackle the ‘crisis of objects in Modern
Movement’.
Carlo Scarpa
1906-1978
P a g e 75 | 78
REFERENCES
Albertini, B., & Bagnoli, S. (1988). Scarpa Architecture in Details. (D. Mills, Trans.) London:
Architecture Design and Technology Press Limited.
Ando, T. (1991, Automn). Toward New Horizons in Architecture. MoMA(No. 9), pp.9-11. Retrieved
March 25, 2017, from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.mmu.ac.uk/stable/4381165
Barovier, M. (1998). Carlo Scarpa; Glass of Venice. (N. H. Brendan, & M. Sala, Trans.) Milan: Skira.
Brusatin, M., Duboy, P., Noever, P., Scarpa, N., Scarpa, T., Toyoda, H., & Wieninger, J. (1989). The
Other City: Carlo Scarpa (German and English ed.). (P. Noever, Ed.) Berlin: Wilhelm Ernst &
Sohn.
Cadwell, M. (2007). Strange Details. London: MIT Press.
Carmel-Arthur, J., & Buzas, S. (2002). Carlo Scarpa: Museo Canoviano, Possagno. (A. Menges, Ed.)
London, Stutgart: Opus 22.
Centro Internazionale Di Studi Di Architettura Andrea Palladio. (2007). Carlo Scarpa: Architecture
and Design. (G. Beltramini, I. Zannier, Eds., & D. Graham, Trans.) New York: Rizzoli
International Publications Inc.
Ching, F. D., Jarzombek, M., & Prakash, V. (2011). A Global History of Architecture (Second ed.).
New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Corbusier, L. (1927). Towards A New Architecture. (J. Rodker, Trans.) Kent: Butterworth Architecture.
Corbusier, L. (1957). The Chapel at Ronchamp. London: Architectural Press.
Curtis, W. J. (1996). Modern Architecture Since 1900 (3rd ed.). London: Phaidon Press Limited.
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Fleming, J., Honour, H., & Pevsner, N. (1999). Penguin Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape
Architecture. London: Penguin Books Limited.
Frampton, K. (1980). Modern Architecture: A Critical History. London: Thames and Hudson Limited.
Frampton, K. (1995). Studies in Tectonic Culture: The Poeticsof Construction in Nineteenth and
Twentieth Century Architecture. (J. Cava, Ed.) Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
Frascari, M. (1984). The Tell-The Tale-Detail. In P. Behrens, & A. Fisher (Ed.), VIA 7; The Building of
Architecture (pp. 23-37). Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
Giedion, S. (1977). Space, Time and Architecture; The Growth of a New Tradition (Fifth ed.).
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Goy, R. J. (1999). Venice: The City and Its Architecture (2nd ed.). London: Phaidon Press.
Hartoonian, G. (2012). Architecture and Spectacle: A Critique. Oxon: Ashgate Publishing.
Heideger, M. (1978). Basic Writings. (K. a. Routledge, Trans.) Oxon: Routledge.
Los, S. (1993). Carlo Scarpa. Cologne: Benedikt Taschen.
McCarter, R. (2013). Carlo Scarpa. London: Phaidon Press Limited.
Murphy, R. (1990). Carlo Scarpa and Castelvecchio. Northants: Butterworth-Heinemann Limited.
Murphy, R. (1993). Querini Stampalia Foundation; Carlo Scarpa . London: Phaidon Press Limited.
Olsberg, N., Ranalli, G., Bedard, J.-F., Polano, S., Di Lieto, A., & Friedman, M. (1999). Carlo Scarpa
Architect; Inervening with History. New York: Canadian Centre of Architecture and The
Monacelli Press Inc.
Pallasmaa, J. (2005). The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses. Chichester: Wiley
Academy.
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Rab-Kirchner, S. (1998). Carlo Scarpa's Re-design of Castelvecchio in Verona, Italy. 86th ACSA
Annual Meeting Proceedings, Constructing Identity (pp. 443-451). New York: Association
of Collegiate Schools of Architecture.
Ranalli, G. (1999). History, Craft, Invention. In N. Olsberg, G. Ranalli, J.-F. Bedard, S. Polano, A. Di
Lieto, & M. Friedman, Carlo Scarpa Architect; Inervening with History (pp. 39-43). New York:
Canadian Centre of Architecture and The Monacelli Press Inc.
Ruskin, J. (2003). The Stones of Venice (Second ed.). (J. G. Links, Ed.) Cambridge: Da Capo Press.
Samuel, F. (2007). Le Corbusier in Detail. Oxford: Elsevier Limited.
Tafuri, M. (1989). History of Italian Architecture, 1944-1985. (J. Levine, Trans.) London,
Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Tzonis, A., & Lefaivre, L. (1990, May). Why Critical Regionalism Today? Architecture and Urbanism,
22-33.
Tzonis, A., & Lefaivre, L. (2001). Critical Regionalism. In A. Tzonis, L. Lefaivre, & B. Stango, Tropical
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Carlo Scarpa Crisis of Objects in Modern

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- CARLO SCARPA-

CRISIS OF OBJECTS IN MODERN MOVEMENT

Manchester School of Architecture 2017

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................................. 1

List of Images ..................................................................................................................................................... 3

List of Illustrations ............................................................................................................................................... 7

Chapter 1; Literature Review........................................................................................................................ 14

Literature Review ........................................................................................................................................ 15

Part 1: Modernism & Scarpa ......................................................................................................................... 16

Part 2: Scarpa’S Problem of Pure Modernism ........................................................................................... 20

Part 3: Role of Details; Emergence of Elements and Objects ................................................................ 23

Part 4: Scarpa and Critical RegionaLism ................................................................................................... 28

Chapter 2; Disassembly ................................................................................................................................. 33

Scarpa’s Holistic Approach ...................................................................................................................... 34

Inspiration and Invention ............................................................................................................................... 35

1. Ziggurat Form: .................................................................................................................................. 35

2. Vesica Piscis or Yin-Yang Symbol: ................................................................................................ 37

Draftsman and Craftsman ............................................................................................................................ 41

Materials, Elements and Human Senses ..................................................................................................... 45

Chapter 3; Assembly ...................................................................................................................................... 59

Assembly of Nature, History and Elements In Scarpa’s Methodology and Projects...................... 60

Scarpa; Modernism, Regionalism, Crafsmanship, Nature & Architecture .......................................... 61

Image 1: Hotel Tassel, Brussels ...................................................................................................................... 16

Image 2: Couvent Sainte-Marie de la Tourette, France ......................................................................... 18

Image 4: The Parthenon, Athens, Greece (400 B.C) ............................................................................... 20

Image 5: Falling Water Building, Pensylvania, USA ................................................................................. 21

Image 6: Front Elevation, Banca Popolare di Verona, Verona, Italy ................................................... 21

Image 9: Mondrian Steps, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy ............................................ 25

Image 11: Chapel Notre Dame du Hau, Ronchamp, France ............................................................... 26

Image 16: Satellite View of Venice ............................................................................................................. 28

Image 17: John Ruskin Drawing of Venice in 1841................................................................................... 29

Image 18: Glassworks Designed by Carlo Scarpa ................................................................................... 30

Image 19: Carlo Scarpa in japan ................................................................................................................ 30

Image 23: Illustration of Ziggurat Chogha Zanbil ..................................................................................... 36

Image 24: Ziggurat Form of Venetian House, Venice, Italy ................................................................... 36

Image 25: Steps to Canal; Ziggurat Form, Venice, Italy ......................................................................... 36

Cemetery, Treviso, Italy ................................................................................................................................. 39

Image 29: Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy .................................................................................................... 39

Image 32: Venice, Italy.................................................................................................................................. 41

Image 33: Carlo Scarpa in M.V.M Glasswork Factory ............................................................................. 41

Carlo Scarpa ................................................................................................................................................... 42

Image 39: Ground Floor, Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy .......................................................... 45

Image 47: Venice, Italy.................................................................................................................................. 50

Venice, Italy ..................................................................................................................................................... 52

Image 55: Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy .............................................................................................. 55

Image 60: Ziggurat Moulding, Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy ................................................................. 61

Image 66: Geometrical Analysis of Brion Cemetery, Treviso, Italy ........................................................ 63

Possagno, Italy ................................................................................................................................................ 64

Museum, Verona, Italy ................................................................................................................................... 65

Image 70: Façade of Banca Popolare di Verona, Verona, Italy .......................................................... 66

Image 73: South Elevation, Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy ..................................................... 68

Verona, Italy .................................................................................................................................................... 68

Image 77: Homage to the Square by Josef Albers (1951)...................................................................... 69

Image 78: Sacellum Extension, Castelvecchio Museum, Verona ........................................................ 69

| Sketch by the author .................................................................................................................................. 32

Illustration 2: Disassembly of Steps, Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy ................................................... 33

Illustration 3: Oculus, Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Italy ............................................................................ 38

Illustration 5: Cutting Detail of Metal Brackets .......................................................................................... 44

Illustration 7: Detail of Handrails, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy .................................. 49

Illustration 8: Profile of Handrails, Querini Stampalia Foundation, Venice, Italy ................................. 49

Venice, Italy ..................................................................................................................................................... 49

Illustration 17: Congrande Statue in Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, Italy ...................................... 59