From Isolation to Inclusion

1. The need to belong

1. Humans consistently seek
inclusion over exclusion,
membership over isolation, and
acceptance over rejection.
2. Social Psychologists Roy
Baumiester and Mark Leary-
Humans have a need to belong
1. The generalized desire to
seek out and join with other
people, which, when
unsatisfied, causes a state of
tension and want.
2. A pervasive drive to form
and maintain at least a
minimum quantity of lasting,
positive, and impactful
interpersonal relationships.
SOLITUDE AND SOCIAL ISOLATION
 • Spending time alone, away from
others, can be pleasant, even
rejuvenating.
• But most people, find protracted
periods of social isolation disturbing.
o prolonged Social isolation has

been identified as a risk factor for

onset of a number of
psychological disorders, including
depression, paranoia, and the
disordered thought characteristic
of Schizophrenia.
Social and Emotional Loneliness
• The relationship that groups create
and sustain can become so intimate
and involving that they serve as a
buffer against feelings of isolation and
loneliness.
o Loneliness- cognitive and

affective malaise, which can

include sadness, dejection, self-
 depreciation, and boredom,
experienced when one’s personal
relationships are perceived to be
too few or too unsatisfying.
o Aversive psychological reaction
to a perceived lack of personal or
social relations.
 Emotional Loneliness- it

occurs when the problem is

a lack of a long-term,
meaningful, intimate
relationship with another
person
 Social Loneliness- occurs

when people feel cut off

from their network of
friends acquaintances, and
group members.
2. Inclusion and Exclusion
- New member/ newcomers of the group
are to prove themselves by withstanding a
period of deliberate exclusion.
- Ostracism- Excluding one or more
individuals froma group by reducing or
eliminating contact with the person, usually
by ignoring, shunning or explicitly banishing
them
- People’s need to belong is slaked when a
group accepts them, but they are the most
satisfied when a group actively seeks them
out.
- In some cases, members are not
deliberately excluded, yet they feel as
though they are out of the loop;
- They do not know things that
others in the group do, and that the
information they are missing is relevant to
the group’s social or task activities.
1. Experience more negative moods
 2. Feel less competent
3. Do not feel as close interpersonally to
the other group members.
Reactions to Exclusion
1. People respond negatively with
feelings of frustration, anxious,
nervous and lonely.
2. Many feel they have been betrayed

Temporal need- threat model of ostracism-

Fight or Flight Response
• Motivated by a desire to gain a sense
of control in a deleterious situation.
• Those who display fight response may
confront group members directly
• Flight response- attempt to withdraw
physically or psychologically from the
situation.
Tend- and Befriend Response
 • Keeping once opinion to himself, trying
hard to conform to the group’s risk
management and teamwork norms.
• A physiological and interpersonal
response to stressful events
characterized by increased nurturing,
protective and supportive behaviors,
tending, and initiating and
strengthening relationships with other
people.
• Seeking social reconnection
Exclusion and Aggression
• The need to belong is a powerful force
in human behavior, so much so that
individuals can respond violently when
that need is thwarted.
3. Inclusion and Human Nature
The need to belong to groups is part of
human nature.
1. The Herd Instinct- Humans are
instinctively drawn to gather with
other humans is not a new one.
1. Acc to William Mcdougall-
Humans are inexorably drawn to
the vas herd which exerts a
baneful attraction on those
outside it.
2. Based on the theory of natural
selection- Humans capacity to
introspect, to read the emotion in
other’s faces, to understand the
meaning of others’ vocal
utterances, and even to consider
what future event may become
more likely if a specific action is
undertaken now may all reflect
adaptations that were shaped by
natural selection.
3. Evolutionary theory suggests that
humans who joined in groups
 were most likely to survive and
reproduce.
2. Sociometer Theory- A cognitive
adaptation that monitors your degree
of acceptance by others.
1. Proposed by Mark Leary
2. Feelings of self-worth function as
just such a monitor.
3. Self-esteem is a psychological
guage that monitors the degree
to which people perceive that
they are relationally valued by
other people.
4. A conceptual analysis of self-
evaluation processes that
theorizes self- esteem functions
to psychologically monitor of
one’s degree of inclusion and
exclusion in social groups.
3. The Biology of Ostracism and
Inclusion
 1. The biological basis of exclusion-
cardiovascular and hormonal and
immune systems likely responded
to deal with the stress of
exclusion
2. The biological basis of inclusion-
lowered heart rate and blood
pressure, an increase in levels of
the neuropeptide and hormone
oxytocin, associated with positive
forms of social behavior, including
trust and social support.
From Individualism to Collectivism
1. Humans consistently prefer to be on
the inside of groups rather than
outside.
Creating Cooperation
• Individualism- A tradition, ideology, or
personal outlook that emphasizes the
primacy of the individual and his or her
 rights, independence and relationships
with other individuals.
o Based on the independence and

uniqueness of each individual.

Assumes that people are
autonomous; they must free to
act and think in ways that they
prefer rather than submit to the
demands of the group.
• Collectivism- A tradition, ideology, or
personal orientation that emphasizes
the primacy of the group or
community rather than each individual
person.
o Recognizes that human groups

are not mere aggregations of

independent individuals, but
complex sets of interdependent
members who must constantly
adjust to the actions and
reactions of others around them.
• Four core elements of theory of
individualism- collectivism by: Triandis
o The significance of social

relations
 Exchange relationship-

individuals monitor their

inputs into the group, strive
to maximize the rewards
they personally receive
through membership and
are dissatisfied if their group
becomes too costly for
them.
 Communal Relationships-

people are more concerned

with what their group
receives than with their own
personal outcomes.
o Acceptance of social obligation

 Group culture- The distinct

ways that members of a

group represent yheir
 experiences, including
consensually, accepted
knowledge, beliefs, rituals,
customs, rules, language,
norms and practices.
o Shared goals- Social goals-
 Equity norm- recommends

that group members should

receive outcomes in
proportion to their inputs.
 Equality norm- recommends

that all group members,

irrespective of their inputs,
should be given an equal
share of the payoff.
o Changes in group member’s self-
conceptions.
The Social Self
• Individual may describe himself
through individualistic qualities and
characteristics but they aslo include
 qualities that spring from their
relationships with other people and
group.
• Social roles and relationships.
• The self is based on personal qualities
and interpersonal qualities.
o Personal identity- An individual’s

perception of those aspects of his

or her self- concept that derive
from individualistic, personal
qualities such as traits, beliefs and
skills.
o Social Identity- An individual’s

perception of those aspects of his

or her self- concept with other
people, groups, and society.
Individualists and collectivists
• Selves tend to be dualistic both a
personal and social side, but some
people stress their personal,
 individualistic qualities, and others
their social, collectivistic qualities.
o Individualists- Independent or

Ideocentrics
 Individuals predisposed to

put their own personal

interests and goals.
o Collectivists- Interdependents or

Allocentrics
 Individuals predisposed to

put the group’s interests and

goals above their personal
interests and motivations.
Cultural Differences- The very idea of self
may differ across cultures.
Some observation:
1. About 60% of the people in
collectivistic culture are
interdependent. Just as about 60% of
the people in individualistic culture are
independent.
 2. Interdependent individuals in
individualistic countries tend to join
more groups, but that independent
individuals in collectivistic cultures feel
oppressed by their culture and seek to
leave it.
3. Some collectivistic cultures, are much
more hierarchically structured than
others.
4. Other collectivistic cultures however,
stress commonality, and so their
society’s status and authority
structures are relatively flat.
5. Other collectivistic societies tolerate
considerable conflict within their
groups.
Maintaining Optimal Distinctiveness
• Optimal Distinctiveness theory- argues
that most people have at least three
fundamental needs;
 o The need to be assimilated by the
group
o The need to be connected to

friends and loved ones

o The need for autonomy and

differentiation
• Individuals are most satisfied if they
achieve optimal distinctiveness.
• A conceptual analysis that assumes
individuals strive to maintain a balance
between 3 basic needs;
From Personal Identity to Social Identity
1. Social Identity Theory: In order to
understand the causes of conflict
between people who belonged to
different groups.
• A theoretical analysis of group
processes and intergroup relations that
assumes groups influence their
members’ self-concepts and self-
esteem, particularly when individuals
 categorize themselves as group
members and identity with the group.
• Minimal intergroup situation- A
research procedure used in studies of
intergroup conflict that involves
creating temporary groups of
anonymous, unrelated people.
Two Cognitive Processes
1. Social Categorization- The process that
generate a person’s social identity
begin with social categorization.
o The perceptual classification of

people, including the self, into

categories.
 Automatic classification

upon encounter of people

based on age, race,
nationality, and other
categories.
 Once classified, individuals’

perception of people are

 influenced by any beliefs
they may have about the
qualities of people in such
groups.
o Stereotypes- A socially shared set
of cognitive generalizations about
the qualities and characteristics
of the typical member of a
particular group or social
category.
o Self-stereotyping – Accepting
socially shared generalizations
about the prototypical
characteristics attributed to
members of one’s group as
accurate descriptions of oneself.
2. Identification- members identify
themselves in the same way and have the
same definition of who they are, what
attributes they have, and how they relate to
and differ from specific outgroups or from
people who are simply not ingroup
members.
•

o Group membership is a matter of

collective self- construal.- we, us,
and them.
Social Identification- Accepting the group as
an extension of the self and therefore
basing one’s self- definition on the group’s
qualities and characteristics.
• Members of the group feel connected
and interdependent with other
members, are glad they belong to the
group, feel good about the group, and
experience strong attachment to the
group.
Self and Identity
• A person’s identification with a group
can become so pronounced that across
situations they think of themselves as
 a group members first and individuals
second.
• Relative size of one’s group compared
to other groups.
1. Motivation AND Social Identity
• Implication of social identity theory-
the role of social identity process in
helping individuals protect and
maintain their sense of self- worth.
o Evaluating the self- there are 2

basic motives which influence the

way social categorization and
identification process combine to
shape one’s sense of self.
 Individuals are motivated to

think well of themselves,

and they maintain their self-
worth by thinking well of
their groups.
 Self- understanding is a core

motive for most people and

 that groups offer people
means of understanding
themselves.
o Collective Self- Esteem-
Individuals’ overall assessment of
that portion of their self- concept
that is based on their
relationships with others and
membership in social groups
o Protecting the collective Self-
they consider their group to be
superior to alternative groups.
 Ingroup- outgroup bias- the

tendency to view the

ingroup, its members, and its
products more positively
than other groups, their
members, and their
products. Ingroup favoritism
is more common than the
outgroup rejection.
  It contributes to the
self- esteem and
emotional well- being
of group members.
 Social creativity- Restricting
comparisons between the
ingroup and other groups to
task and outcomes when the
ingroup is more successful
than other groups and
avoiding areas in which
other groups surpass the
ingroup.
Stereotype Verification and Threat
• In social Identity theory, stereotypes
serve to create identity but they can
also constrain identity.
• When people are proud members of
their group, they readily admit that
they are stereotypical and will also
take steps to confirm these
 stereotypes when they interact with
people who are not part of their group.
• They prefer to interact with people
who confirm their stereotype about
their group, rather than people who
hold beliefs that contradict these
assumptions.
• Negative ingroup stereotyping has
been shown to protect individual’s
feelings of self-worth.
• Stereotypes distort the accuracy of
people’s perception of the members of
other groups and contribute to
intergroup conflict.
• Stereotypes can trigger: STEREOTYPE
THREAT- when individual know that
others they are interacting with may
be relying on the ground stereotypes
to judge them.
o The anxiety- provoking belief that

other’s perceptions and

evaluations will be influenced by
 their negative stereotypes about
one’s group that can, in some
cases, interfere with one’s ability
to perform up to one’s
capabilities.
Protecting the personal Self
• People are more disturbed by threats
to their personal self- esteem than to
their collective self- esteem.
• They are more likely to deny the
accuracy of negative individualized
information relative to negative group
information.
• They more readily claim positive
feedback when it focuses on them
rather than on their group.
• Personal failure is more troubling than
collective failure, in most cases.
• Individual Mobility- Reducing one’
connection to a group in order to
minimize the threat to individual self-
esteem.