Inclusion and Identity

• From Isolation to Inclusion

* The Need to Belong
* Group and Loneliness
* Inclusion and Exclusion
* Inclusion and Human Nature

From Individualism to Collectivism

* The Micro Level: The Social Self
* The Meso Level: The Group Culture
* The Macro Level: Collectivism Across Cultures

• From Personal Identity to Social Identity

* Social Identity Theory
* Motivation and Social Identity
From Isolation to Inclusion

The Need to Belong – the generalized desire to seek out

and join with other people, which when unsatisfied,
causes a state of tension and want.
- a pervasive drive to form and maintain at least a
minimum quantity of lasting, positive and impactful
interpersonal relationship
- it is likened to other basic needs such as hunger.
Together or Alone, which is better?
Solitude and Isolation

• Can be rejuvinating and pleasurable experience

(enjoyment in self-discovery, contemplation, and
increased spirituality)

• Philosophers, writers, and artists reach the apex

of their creativity during times of isolation, when
they were not distracted by other people (Storr,
1988; Suedfeld, 1997)
• Many people, if they have financial resources,
prefer to live alone rather than with other people
(Klinenberg, 2012)

• Protracted period of isolation is disturbing (Zubek,

1973)
(stranded explorers, secluded scientists and
prisoners in solitary confinement reported fear,
insomnia, memory lapses, depression, fatigue, and
general confusion). Prolonged isolations are also
marked by hallucinations and delusions.
Better Together

• For most people, together is better than alone as most

spend the majority of their waking hours in the company
of other people – only unmarried and widowed adults
over the age of 45 reported spending more time alone
than with others.

• The sheer number of groups that exist at any moment in

time is also clear evidence of the strength of the need to
belong (churches, cooperatives, clubs, hobby groups,
civic service associations, etc.)
• Americans are above average in their involvement
in voluntary associations but the Dutch, Canadians,
and Scandinavians are “groupier.

• Even more numerous are many informal kin-based

and social groups such as family, friends, and
acquaintances that 50 to 80% reported doing things
in groups, even when they can perform these
activities alone.
Groups and Social Capital

Social Capital – the degree to which individuals, groups, or

larger aggregates of people are linked in social
relationships that yield positive, productive benefits;
analogous to economic/financial capital but determined
by extensiveness of social connectedness.

A person with considerable social capital is well

connected to other people across a wide variety of
contexts, and these connections provide the means for
him or her to accomplish both personal and collective
outcomes.
Social and Emotional Loneliness

Loneliness – cognitive and affective malaise, including

sadness, dejection, self-deprecation, and boredom,
experienced when one’s personal relationships are
perceived to be too few or too unsatisfying.

Emotional loneliness – occurs when the problem is a lack

of a long-term, meaningful, intimate relationship with
another person. This might be triggered by divorce, a
break-up or separation with a lover, or repeated romantic
failures
Social loneliness – occurs when people feel cut off
from their network of friends, acquaintances, and
group members. (people who moved to a new
city/residence, children who are rejected by their
peers, and new employees of large companies)

* Both types create feelings of sadness, depression,

emptiness, shame and self-pity
Alleviating loneliness

• Fostering both intimate and social relations

• Belonging to a cohesive, satisfying groups
• Extensive interconnections among all the members of their
groups
• Children with friends were less lonely than friendless children
• Belonging to service organizations, religious or church,
business and professional organizations, and social clubs
were healthier and happier
• Those with more connections to others survive environmental
disasters, cope more effectively with traumatic events, and
live longer lives
Ostracism

• Excluding one or more individuals from a group by

reducing or eliminating contact with the person, usually by
ignoring, shunning, or explicitly banishing them.
• Dates back to the Greek who voted to punish a member of
the community with banishment by inscribing his or her
name on potshards called ostraca (Williams, 2007)
• Contemporary forms of ostracism range from formal
rejection like excommunications by the church, a club
banning a patron to a more subtle tactics such as “silent
treatment” or the “cold shoulder”
• Even nonhuman groups practice ostracism including
wolves, bees, and primates.
Reactions to ostracism

• People respond very negatively (frustrated, anxious,

nervous, and lonely; feel betrayed, shocked, and surprised)
• Fight-or-flight Response: a physiological and psychological
response to stressful events characterized by the activation
of the sympathetic nervous system (increased heart rate,
pupil dilation) that readies the individual to counter the
threat (fight) or to escape the threat (flight).
• Tend and Befriend Response: a physiological,
psychological and interpersonal response to stress events
characterized by increasing nurturing, protective, and
supportive behaviors (tending) and initiating and
strengthening relationships with other people (befriending)
• Studies conducted by Gaertner, Leary, and their colleagues
trace some violent attacks of individuals on groups to
ostracism.

* 3 students died and 5 severely injured (Kentucky shooting)

* 13 students and 1 teacher died (Columbine High School)
* Pekka-Eric killed 6 students, the school principal, school
nurse and then himself (Jokela High School, Finland)
* Seung Hui Cho, 23-year old senior at Virginia Tech killed 32 people
and wounderd 17 before committing suicide

Leary (2003) examined 15 cases of post 1995 shootings in

schools in U.S. and found out that these acts of violence
were tied together by a common thread: rejection
• Cyberostracism is excluding one or more individuals
from a technologically mediated group interactions, such
as a computer-based discussion group, by reducing or
eliminating communication with the person.
Inclusion and Human Nature

• The Herd Instinct - the idea that humans are instinctively

drawn to gather with other humans. William McDougall, in
1908, argued that humans are inexorably drawn to the vast
human herd which exerts a baneful attraction on those outside
it
• Sociometer theory is a conceptual analysis of self-evaluation
processes that theorizes self-esteem functions to
psychologically monitor of one’s degree of inclusion and
exclusion in social groups (as proposed by Mark Leary). In
other words, self-esteem is part of a sociometer that monitors
people’s relational value in other people’s eyes. Self-esteem
then is not an index of one’s sense of personal value, but
instead an index of acceptance into groups.
From Individualism to Collectivism
• Individualism is a tradition or worldview based on the
independence and uniqueness of each individual. It
assumes that people are autonomous and must be free
to act and think in ways that they prefer, rather than
submit to the demands of the group as each person is
self-governing and should strive to achieve outcomes
and goals that will personally benefit them.
Collectivism

• A tradition, ideology, or personal orientation that

emphasizes the primacy of the group or community
rather than each individual person.
The Micro Level: The Social Self

• William James offered one of the first psychological analyses

of the self in his Principles of Psychology where he asserted
that the sense of self (or self-concept) is an individual’s
conception of his or her enduring qualities and characteristics.

• Personal Identity - an individual’s perception of those aspects

of his or her self-concept that derive from individualistic,
personal qualities such as traits, beliefs and skills.
• Social Identity – (of collective self) those aspects of his or her
self-concept that derive from relationships with other people,
groups, and society.
Individualists, independents, or idiocentrics
• Independence. “I tend to do my own thing, and others in
my family do the same.”
• Goals: “I take great pride I accomplishing what no one
else can accomplish.”
• Competition. “It is important to me that I perform better
than others on a task.”
• Uniqueness. “I am unique – different from others in many
respects.”
• Privacy: “I like my privacy.”
• Self-knowledge. I know my strengths and weaknesses.”
• Communication style. “I always state my opinions very
clearly.”
Collectivists, interdependents, or allocentrics
• Relating. “To understand who I am, you must see me with members
of my group.”
• Belonging: “To me, pleasure is spending time with others.”
• Duty. “I would help, within my means, if a relative were in financial
difficulty.”
• Harmony. “I make an effort to avoid arguments with my group
members.”
• Advice. Before making a decision, I always consult with others.”
• Context. “How I behave depends on who I am with , where I am, or
both.”
• Hierarchy. “I have respect for the authority figures with whom I
interact.”
• Group. “I would rather do a group paper or lab than do one alone.”
Sex and Generational Differences

• Some studies suggest that women lean more toward

collectivism, at least in Western cultures that place more
value on interdependence.
• In general, individuals who are members of social groups
that are ranked lower in that society tend to be more
collectivistic.
• Baby boomers displayed strong work ethic but had less
time to donate to volunteer activities
• Gen X (1965 to 1980) , Gen Y, or Me Generation are
characterized by stronger needs for autonomy,
individualism, confirmation, and support.
Optimal distinctiveness theory

• Proposed by social psychologist Marilynn Brewer (2012),

it argues that individuals strive to maintain a balance
between three basic needs: the need to be assimilated
by the group, the need to be connected to friends and
loved ones, and the need for autonomy and
differentiation.
The Meso Level: The Group Culture

• Group culture – the distinct ways that members of a

group represent their experiences, including shared
knowledge, beliefs, rituals, customs, rules, language,
norms, and practices.
• A collectivistic orientation stresses hierarchy and reacts
more negatively to nonconformity.
• Collectivism’s emphasis on relationships is manifested in
the emphasis on communal over exchange relationships.
• Exchange relationship is the reciprocal interdependency
that emphasizes the trading of gratifying experiences
and rewarding among members. Individuals expect to
receive rewards in exchange for their investment of time,
energy, and other personal resources.

• Communal relationship is the reciprocal interdependency

that emphasizes meeting the needs and interests of
others rather than maximizing one’s own personal
outcomes. Individuals are more concerned with what
their group receives and prefer to think of their work as a
joint effort and feel disappointed if other members insist
on reciprocating any help given.
Norm of reciprocity – a social standard that enjoins
individuals to pay back in kind what they receive from
others.

Egocentric (or self-serving) emphasizes one’s own needs,

perspective, and importance in contrast to those of other
individuals or the groups (as against sociocentric or
group serving)
• Equity norm – a social standard that encourages
distributing rewards and resources to members in
proportion to their inputs

• Equality norm encourages distributing rewards and

resources equally among all members.
Macro Level: Collectivism across Cultures

United States, other English-speaking, and Western European

(Finland and Germany) countries tend to be more individualistic
than Asian, Eastern European, African, and Middle Eastern
countries. Latin and South American countries (Puerto Rico and
Chile) exhibit greater individualism than others (Mexico and
Costa Rica).

The very idea of the self differ across cultures. To the Japanese,
the concept of self completely independent from the
environment is very foreign (Jibun means “one’s portion of the
shared space”).
From Personal Identity to Social Identity

• Social identity theory, developed by Tajfel and his

colleagues, traces the development of a collective
identity back to two key processes: 1. categorization
and 2. identification.
• 1. Social categorization is the perceptual classification of
people, including the self, into categories (age, race,
nationality, etc.)
• Stereotypes (or prototypes) – are socially shared set of
cognitive generalizations (beliefs and expectations)
about the qualities and characteristics of the typical
member of a particular group or social category.
• 2. Social identification is accepting the group as an
extension of the self and therefore basing one’s self-
definition on the group’s qualities and characteristics.
Motivation and Self-Identity

• Hoggs theory of self-identity assumes individuals are

motivated to maintain self-esteem and to clarify their
understanding of themselves and other people.

• Self-esteem is shaped both by individual’s personal

qualities and by the perceived value of the groups to
which they belong. By basking in reflected glory
(BIRGing), people stress their association with
successful groups, even if they did not contribute to that
success.
• Those who join prestigious groups often have higher
collective self-esteem than those who belong to less
positively valued groups.

• Studies of collective self-esteem indicate people with

high membership esteem; public and private collective
self-esteem scores have higher personal self-esteem.
• Individuals seek to protect and enhance both
private self-esteem and collective self-esteem.

• In general, personal failure is more troubling

than collective failure. Individuals will minimize
their association with groups that are performing
poorly or will resign from the group.